INTRODUCTION

Published by :
Mrs. Geeta Somani
Agrotech Publishing Academy

TO SOIL SCIENCE 11A-Vinayak Complex-B

Durga Nursery Road, Udaipur
Mob. : 9414169635, 9413763031
Email : agrotechbooks@rediffmail.com
Website : www.agrotechbooks.com

DISCLAIMER

Information contained in this book has been published by

Agrotech Publishing Academy and has been obtained by its
authors believed to be reliable and are correct to the best of
their knowledge. However, the publisher and its authors shall
in no event be liable for any errors, omissions or damage arising
out of use of this information and specially disclaim any implied
warranties or merchantability or fitness for any particular use.
Disputes if any, are subjected to Udaipur jurisdiction only.

Mahendra Sharma
Reprinted 2018

First Edition 2014

All Rights Reserved

ISBN : (13) 978-81-8321-

ISBN : (10) 81-8321-

Agrotech Publishing Academy
UDAIPUR
Typeset by :
Image Print Media, Udaipur
imageprintmedia@rediffmail.com
Contect No. : 9413467622, 2413922
Printed in India
INTRODUCTION
TO SOIL SCIENCE
Mahendra Sharma
Agrotech Publishing Academy
UDAIPUR
Published by :
Mrs. Geeta Somani
Agrotech Publishing Academy
11A-Vinayak Complex-B
Durga Nursery Road, Udaipur
Mob. : 9414169635, 9413763031
Email : agrotechbooks@rediffmail.com
Website : www.agrotechbooks.com
DISCLAIMER
Information contained in this book has been published by
Agrotech Publishing Academy and has been obtained by its
authors believed to be reliable and are correct to the best of
their knowledge. However, the publisher and its authors shall
in no event be liable for any errors, omissions or damage arising
out of use of this information and specially disclaim any implied
warranties or merchantability or fitness for any particular use.
Disputes if any, are subjected to Udaipur jurisdiction only.
Reprinted 2018
First Edition 2014
All Rights Reserved
ISBN : (13) 978-81-8321-
ISBN : (10) 81-8321-
Typeset by :
Image Print Media, Udaipur
imageprintmedia@rediffmail.com
Contect No. : 9413467622, 2413922
Printed in India
 PREFACE
This book is the outgrowth of approximately 24 years of my
teaching experience on soil fertility, soil chemistry and plant
nutrition and guiding post graduate and doctoral research in
soil science.
The text book "introduction to Soil Sciences", comprises of
12 chapter's. This book has been written following the syllabus
is the under graduate studies of soil science of different
Agricultural Universities of India. This book will also be useful
to soil scientists, plant nutrientionists and others who are
concerned with the soils, plants, and fertilizer, etc.
I am feeling a great happy in presenting this book for the
Agriculture students. Keeping in view the difficulties of
students, simple words have been used so that the students
might understand the matter easily. This book cover almost
entire syllabus of B.Sc Ag.
It is hoped that this text book will meet the growing need of
soil science students and also may be useful for teachers of soil
science. I sincerely thanks M/s Argotech Publishing Academy,
Udaipur for publishing the book in a shortest possible time.
Suggestion for improvement of the present book from worthy
teachers and scientists for making improvement and
enlargement in the text book will be highly honoured.
Udaipur, 2013 Mahendra Sharma
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am deeply indebted to all my colleagues of the department
of Agricultural chemistry and soil science, Rajasthan collage of
agricultural, MPUAT, Udaipur (Rajasthan) who inspired me to
crystallize my experience in the forum of the present text book.
I am especially grateful to Dr L.L. Somani Retd. Professor
of soil science, DRI, MPUAT, Udaipur who is the source of
inspiration which enable me to write this book.
My deep sense of gratitude and sincere indebtedness to Dr.
S.R. Maloo, Professor of plant breeding and genetics, Dean,
Rajasthan college of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur who inspire
me to write this text book for undergraduate students.
I acknowledged the sources of diagrams and tables which
have been reproduced from other text books and tables which
have been reproduced from other text books and related
research publication.
I am also indebted to ma parents and sisters, who inspired
me constantly during the preparation of this manuscript.
Finally, heartfelt thanks goes to my wife Madhu and my
daughters Ruchika and Shivangi for their active co-operation
and understanding which enabled me to devote so many long
hours to what, at times, seemed and endless task.
I just do not find the words to express my heartly feeling to
my Guru "Shri Shri 1008 Shri Narayan Dasji Maharaj" Triveni
Dham, jaipur whose blessings led me to accomplish the work. I
bow my head and seek more blessings.
Mahendra Sharma
 PREFACE
This book is the outgrowth of approximately 24 years of my
teaching experience on soil fertility, soil chemistry and plant
nutrition and guiding post graduate and doctoral research in
soil science.
The text book "introduction to Soil Sciences", comprises of
12 chapter's. This book has been written following the syllabus
is the under graduate studies of soil science of different
Agricultural Universities of India. This book will also be useful
to soil scientists, plant nutrientionists and others who are
concerned with the soils, plants, and fertilizer, etc.
I am feeling a great happy in presenting this book for the
Agriculture students. Keeping in view the difficulties of
students, simple words have been used so that the students
might understand the matter easily. This book cover almost
entire syllabus of B.Sc Ag.
It is hoped that this text book will meet the growing need of
soil science students and also may be useful for teachers of soil
science. I sincerely thanks M/s Argotech Publishing Academy,
Udaipur for publishing the book in a shortest possible time.
Suggestion for improvement of the present book from worthy
teachers and scientists for making improvement and
enlargement in the text book will be highly honoured.
Udaipur, 2013 Mahendra Sharma
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am deeply indebted to all my colleagues of the department
of Agricultural chemistry and soil science, Rajasthan collage of
agricultural, MPUAT, Udaipur (Rajasthan) who inspired me to
crystallize my experience in the forum of the present text book.
I am especially grateful to Dr L.L. Somani Retd. Professor
of soil science, DRI, MPUAT, Udaipur who is the source of
inspiration which enable me to write this book.
My deep sense of gratitude and sincere indebtedness to Dr.
S.R. Maloo, Professor of plant breeding and genetics, Dean,
Rajasthan college of Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur who inspire
me to write this text book for undergraduate students.
I acknowledged the sources of diagrams and tables which
have been reproduced from other text books and tables which
have been reproduced from other text books and related
research publication.
I am also indebted to ma parents and sisters, who inspired
me constantly during the preparation of this manuscript.
Finally, heartfelt thanks goes to my wife Madhu and my
daughters Ruchika and Shivangi for their active co-operation
and understanding which enabled me to devote so many long
hours to what, at times, seemed and endless task.
I just do not find the words to express my heartly feeling to
my Guru "Shri Shri 1008 Shri Narayan Dasji Maharaj" Triveni
Dham, jaipur whose blessings led me to accomplish the work. I
bow my head and seek more blessings.
Mahendra Sharma
 ABOUT THE BOOK
The book entitled Introduction to Soil Science has been
written exclusively for undergraduate students of Agriculture,
B.Sc. (Ag) Part 1st primarily based on the ICAR syllabus. The
book has been written in a simple language and lucid manner.
The book deals with the soil genesis, development, nature and
properties of the soils. The contents of the book include twelve
chapters. All chapters should be viewed as a concise collection
of various topics from different books, bulletins, journals and
related research papers etc.
I shall consider my efforts successful and worthy if this book
serves the purpose for which it is written. Figures and tables
have also been provided wherever necessary. It is hoped that
this textbook will help to improve the knowledge of UG students
regarding soil science. All suggestions and criticisms for further
improvement of this book will be thankfully acknowledged.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Mahendra Sharma (b, 1958) Professor, Department of
Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Rajasthan College of
Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur. He obtained his B.Sc (Ag) in
1980 from Rajasthan University, Jaipur. M.Sc (Ag) in Soil
Science from Sukhadiya University, in 1984; Ph.D in Soil
Science, 2004 from Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner.
He started his career as Assistant professor, 1989. Presently
Dr Sharma is working as Professor (teaching) in the department
of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Rajasthan College
of Agricultural, Udaipur.
His field of specialization is Soil Fertility. He has guided 13
Master and 1 Ph. D. students. During these years he has
published twelve research papers in national and international
journals of repute besides attending many national seminars
and symposiums. He has written six practical manual for UG
courses for the benefit of students. He has also prepared one
folder on vermicompost besides two book chapter. He has
delivered number of radio talks, lectures in farmers training
programme. Dr. Sharma has also written 15 popular articles in
different magazine
Email: mhndra_sharma@yahoo.co.in
 ABOUT THE BOOK
The book entitled Introduction to Soil Science has been
written exclusively for undergraduate students of Agriculture,
B.Sc. (Ag) Part 1st primarily based on the ICAR syllabus. The
book has been written in a simple language and lucid manner.
The book deals with the soil genesis, development, nature and
properties of the soils. The contents of the book include twelve
chapters. All chapters should be viewed as a concise collection
of various topics from different books, bulletins, journals and
related research papers etc.
I shall consider my efforts successful and worthy if this book
serves the purpose for which it is written. Figures and tables
have also been provided wherever necessary. It is hoped that
this textbook will help to improve the knowledge of UG students
regarding soil science. All suggestions and criticisms for further
improvement of this book will be thankfully acknowledged.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Mahendra Sharma (b, 1958) Professor, Department of
Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Rajasthan College of
Agriculture, MPUAT, Udaipur. He obtained his B.Sc (Ag) in
1980 from Rajasthan University, Jaipur. M.Sc (Ag) in Soil
Science from Sukhadiya University, in 1984; Ph.D in Soil
Science, 2004 from Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner.
He started his career as Assistant professor, 1989. Presently
Dr Sharma is working as Professor (teaching) in the department
of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, Rajasthan College
of Agricultural, Udaipur.
His field of specialization is Soil Fertility. He has guided 13
Master and 1 Ph. D. students. During these years he has
published twelve research papers in national and international
journals of repute besides attending many national seminars
and symposiums. He has written six practical manual for UG
courses for the benefit of students. He has also prepared one
folder on vermicompost besides two book chapter. He has
delivered number of radio talks, lectures in farmers training
programme. Dr. Sharma has also written 15 popular articles in
different magazine
Email: mhndra_sharma@yahoo.co.in
 LITERATURE SITED CONTENTS

1. Biswas, T.D. and Mukerjee, S.K, 2006. Texbook of Soil Preface 3

Science. Mc Graw Hill Publishing Co., New Delhi.
Foreword 4
2. Biswas, T.D. and Mukherjee, S.K, 1990. Textbook of Soil
Science , Tata Mc Graw Hill Publishing Company Limited About the Book 5
New Delhi About the Editors 6
3. Brady, N.C. and Well, R.R., 2002. The Nature and Literature Site 7
Properties of Soils. Pearson Education (Singapore), Indian 1. SOIL 11-
Branch Patparganj, Delhi-110092 India.
(A) Pedagogical and edaphological concepts
4. Das, P.C. 2002. Soils In India. Kalyani Publisher, New
(B) Soil its origin and formation, definition
Delhi.
Composition of soil, soil forming factor's Soil
5. Das,D.K., 2002 Introductory Soil Science, Kalyani farming process, Earth crust, composition of Earth
Publishers, New Delhi. crust, surface and sub-surface soil
6. Gupta, P.K. 2000. Handbook of Soil, Fertilizer and 2. ROCK'S AND MINERAL'S
Manure. Agro Botanica, Bikaner (A) Define rock's, classification of rock's and its
7. Mehra, R.K., 2004. Textbook of Soil Science. ICAR, New examples, difference in rock and minerals,
Delhi. (B) Definition of minerals, physical properties of
8. Rai, M.M., 2002. Principle of Soil Science, Mac Millan India minerals, classification of minerals, Important
Ltd., New Delhi. Primary and secondary minerals.
3. WEATHERING
9. Singh, S.S. 2002. Soil Fertilizer and Nutrient
Management. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. (A) Define weathering, kind of weathering process.
10. Somani, L.L., and Kanthaliya, P.C., 2004. Soils and (B) Weathering sequence of minerals.
Fertilizers- At a glance, Agrotech Publishing Academy, 4. SOIL FORMING PROCESSES
Udaipur.
(A) Fundamentals of soil forming process, specific Soil
11. Somani, L.L. (2013) Sodic Soils : Their Reclamation and forming process
Management. Agrotech Publishing Academy, Udaipur. (B) Development of soil profile, special features
12. Somani, L.L. and Totawat, K.L. (2013). Management of 5. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOI
Salt Affected Soils & Waters. Agrotech Publishing
(A) Soil texture, textural classes, particle size
Academy, Udaipur.
distribution/determination ,stock's low, methods
of textural determination, Importance of soil
texture.
 LITERATURE SITED CONTENTS

1. Biswas, T.D. and Mukerjee, S.K, 2006. Texbook of Soil Preface 3

Science. Mc Graw Hill Publishing Co., New Delhi.
Foreword 4
2. Biswas, T.D. and Mukherjee, S.K, 1990. Textbook of Soil
Science , Tata Mc Graw Hill Publishing Company Limited About the Book 5
New Delhi About the Editors 6
3. Brady, N.C. and Well, R.R., 2002. The Nature and Literature Site 7
Properties of Soils. Pearson Education (Singapore), Indian 1. SOIL 11-
Branch Patparganj, Delhi-110092 India.
(A) Pedagogical and edaphological concepts
4. Das, P.C. 2002. Soils In India. Kalyani Publisher, New
(B) Soil its origin and formation, definition
Delhi.
Composition of soil, soil forming factor's Soil
5. Das,D.K., 2002 Introductory Soil Science, Kalyani farming process, Earth crust, composition of Earth
Publishers, New Delhi. crust, surface and sub-surface soil
6. Gupta, P.K. 2000. Handbook of Soil, Fertilizer and 2. ROCK'S AND MINERAL'S
Manure. Agro Botanica, Bikaner (A) Define rock's, classification of rock's and its
7. Mehra, R.K., 2004. Textbook of Soil Science. ICAR, New examples, difference in rock and minerals,
Delhi. (B) Definition of minerals, physical properties of
8. Rai, M.M., 2002. Principle of Soil Science, Mac Millan India minerals, classification of minerals, Important
Ltd., New Delhi. Primary and secondary minerals.
3. WEATHERING
9. Singh, S.S. 2002. Soil Fertilizer and Nutrient
Management. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. (A) Define weathering, kind of weathering process.
10. Somani, L.L., and Kanthaliya, P.C., 2004. Soils and (B) Weathering sequence of minerals.
Fertilizers- At a glance, Agrotech Publishing Academy, 4. SOIL FORMING PROCESSES
Udaipur.
(A) Fundamentals of soil forming process, specific Soil
11. Somani, L.L. (2013) Sodic Soils : Their Reclamation and forming process
Management. Agrotech Publishing Academy, Udaipur. (B) Development of soil profile, special features
12. Somani, L.L. and Totawat, K.L. (2013). Management of 5. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOI
Salt Affected Soils & Waters. Agrotech Publishing
(A) Soil texture, textural classes, particle size
Academy, Udaipur.
distribution/determination ,stock's low, methods
of textural determination, Importance of soil
texture.
 (B) Soil structure:- Definition of soil structure,
Mechanism of Aggregate formation, classification
of soil structure, factor's affecting soil structure,
Role of soil Structure is relation to plant growth.
(C) Density of soil :- Particle density, Factor's affecting
particle density, Bulk density, factor's affecting
bulk density.
(D) Soil aggregates and its significance, aggregates
Stability, its importance, Improve the aggregates
Stability
(E) Soil porosity:- soil pore space, type of soil pore
Space, factor affecting pore space, importance of
Pore space
(F) Soil colour:- Define soil colour, classification of soil
colour, courses of soil colour, determination of soil
colour, importance of soil colour
(G) Soil consistency, farms' of soil consistency
(H) Soil Resistinity.
(I) Soil crusting, crust formation mechanism,
evaluating soil strength, factor affecting, relation
to soil function, measuring soil crusting.
6. SOIL WATER
(A) Infiltration, percolation, hydraulic conductivity,
water holding capacity, factor affecting soil water,
soil water potential, measuring soil moisture,
classification of soil water, factor effecting
gravitational water, capillary water, hygroscopic
water, Biological classification of soil Water.
(B) Soil moisture constant, entry of water into soil,
factor affecting infiltration. Soil water movement,
factor affecting movement of water.
7. SOIL TEMPERATURE
Define Soil temperature, source of soil heat, loss of
soil heat factor's affecting soil temperature and its
control, effect of water on thermal properties of soil,
influence of soil temperature on plant growth, soil
temperature regimes, soil temperature and its
importance.
8. SOIL AIR
Define soil air, rate of oxygen exchange (ODR),
oxidation reduction potential (redox potential)
composition of soil air factor affecting composition of
soil air ,exchange of gases between soil and atmosphere,
importance of soil air aeration can improve the physical
properties of soil, influence of soil aeration is plant
growth.
9. SOIL COLLOIDS
Define soil colloid, source of changes on colloids, type
of soil Colloids
10. SOIL REACTION
Define soil reaction, type of soil reaction, soil pH,
methods of expressing acidity or alkalinity, kinds of
soil acidity, Buffer capacity factor's controlling soil
reaction, influences of soil reaction on availability of
nutrient, importance of soil pH Buffering capacity of
soils, factor affecting buffering capacity of soil,
importance of buffering is agriculture, significance of
soil buffering capacity.
11. PROBLEM SOIL
Introduction, Acid sulphates soil, Degraded sodic soil,
unit of salinity and alkalinity, classification of
problematic soils and its characteristics, comparison
of different type of salt affected soils, causes of
formation of saline and alkali soils, nutrient availability
is saline and alkali soils, Acid soil its formation nutrient
availability, calcareous soil, management of calcareous
soil, Reclamation of salt- affected soils, management
of acid soils, lime requirement of acid soil.
12. IRREGATION WATER
Introduction, Quality of Irrigation water, water Quality
criteria, management of saline water, use of saline
water for agriculture
 (B) Soil structure:- Definition of soil structure,
Mechanism of Aggregate formation, classification
of soil structure, factor's affecting soil structure,
Role of soil Structure is relation to plant growth.
(C) Density of soil :- Particle density, Factor's affecting
particle density, Bulk density, factor's affecting
bulk density.
(D) Soil aggregates and its significance, aggregates
Stability, its importance, Improve the aggregates
Stability
(E) Soil porosity:- soil pore space, type of soil pore
Space, factor affecting pore space, importance of
Pore space
(F) Soil colour:- Define soil colour, classification of soil
colour, courses of soil colour, determination of soil
colour, importance of soil colour
(G) Soil consistency, farms' of soil consistency
(H) Soil Resistinity.
(I) Soil crusting, crust formation mechanism,
evaluating soil strength, factor affecting, relation
to soil function, measuring soil crusting.
6. SOIL WATER
(A) Infiltration, percolation, hydraulic conductivity,
water holding capacity, factor affecting soil water,
soil water potential, measuring soil moisture,
classification of soil water, factor effecting
gravitational water, capillary water, hygroscopic
water, Biological classification of soil Water.
(B) Soil moisture constant, entry of water into soil,
factor affecting infiltration. Soil water movement,
factor affecting movement of water.
7. SOIL TEMPERATURE
Define Soil temperature, source of soil heat, loss of
soil heat factor's affecting soil temperature and its
control, effect of water on thermal properties of soil,
influence of soil temperature on plant growth, soil
temperature regimes, soil temperature and its
importance.
8. SOIL AIR
Define soil air, rate of oxygen exchange (ODR),
oxidation reduction potential (redox potential)
composition of soil air factor affecting composition of
soil air ,exchange of gases between soil and atmosphere,
importance of soil air aeration can improve the physical
properties of soil, influence of soil aeration is plant
growth.
9. SOIL COLLOIDS
Define soil colloid, source of changes on colloids, type
of soil Colloids
10. SOIL REACTION
Define soil reaction, type of soil reaction, soil pH,
methods of expressing acidity or alkalinity, kinds of
soil acidity, Buffer capacity factor's controlling soil
reaction, influences of soil reaction on availability of
nutrient, importance of soil pH Buffering capacity of
soils, factor affecting buffering capacity of soil,
importance of buffering is agriculture, significance of
soil buffering capacity.
11. PROBLEM SOIL
Introduction, Acid sulphates soil, Degraded sodic soil,
unit of salinity and alkalinity, classification of
problematic soils and its characteristics, comparison
of different type of salt affected soils, causes of
formation of saline and alkali soils, nutrient availability
is saline and alkali soils, Acid soil its formation nutrient
availability, calcareous soil, management of calcareous
soil, Reclamation of salt- affected soils, management
of acid soils, lime requirement of acid soil.
12. IRREGATION WATER
Introduction, Quality of Irrigation water, water Quality
criteria, management of saline water, use of saline
water for agriculture
Introduction to Soil Science
1 growth. General subfields within edaphology are agricultural soil
SOIL
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Soil science deals with soil considered as a natural body and as
an important medium for plant growth a study of soil science includes
(a) soil geology in which study of the geological materials from
which the soil is derived and its process of formation (b) soil
chemistry the study of the chemical components of the soil, their
interaction with another and the effect of the chemical environment
of the soil (c) soil physics- study the effect of physical lows on the
evolution of chemical properties and physical properties of soil, (d)
soil biology- the study of the effect of plants, animals, and soil
micro-organism on the evolution, chemical composition and physical
condition of the soil.
However, the effect of each one of the above four aspects are
so interrelated that is very much difficult to tell the effect by one
aspect start and where its ends. In fact its study of the soil would
reveal to one that all these four aspects are very minutes, every
second, are going on simultaneously and that the resultant changes
are consequently taking place always in the soil system. So it is
essential to study the soil science taking into consideration the
above four aspects and hence these aspects are being studied in
this book.
Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource on the
surface of the earth including soil formation, classification and
mapping physical, chemical, biological and fertility properties of
soils; and their properties in relation to the use and management of
soils.
Sometimes terms which refer to branches of soil science, such
as pedology and edaphology In case of pedology branch study
7 8 Soil
regarding the formation, chemistry, morphology; classification and
characteristic of soils. Edaphology is concerned with the influence
of soil on living things, particularly plants the terms is also applied
to the study of how soil influences mans use of land for plant
science and environmental soil science.
Both pedology and edaphology are used as if synonymous with
soil science. Soils play a vital role is the quality of our environment.
The objective of the course is to be aware of formation; classification,
physical, chemical and biological properties of soils their reaction
that may influence the behavior of contaminants according to the
different soil types and properties. Because soil is important for
cultivation and agricultural production, soil fertility and productivity
are important issues. Detailed pedological knowledge is useful for
land evaluation purposes. Soils are an integral part of landscapes
and the knowledge of the distribution of different soils helps to
preserve a high standard in environmental quality.
The soil is at the interface between the atmosphere and
lithosphere (the mantle of rocks making up the Earths crust). It
also has an interface the hydrosphere the soil sustains the growth
of many plants and animals and so forms part of the biosphere. We
considered soil as a natural body of mineral and organic material
that is formed in response to many environmental factors and
processes acting on and changing soil permanently
1.2 Soil: Its Origin and Formation
Soils are a mixture of different things; rocks, minerals, and dead
decaying plants and animals. Soil can be having different from one
location to another, but generally consists of organic and inorganic
materials, water and air. The inorganic materials are the rocks that
have been broken down into smaller pieces. The size of the pieces
varies. It may appear as pebbles, gravel, or as small as particles of
sand or clay. The organic material is decaying living matter. This
could be plants or animals that have died and decay until they
becomes part of the soil. The amount of water in the soil is closely
linked with the climate and other characteristics of the region. The
amount of water in the soil is one thing that can affect the amount
of air. Very wet soil each are found in a wetland probably has very
1
Introduction to Soil Science
1 growth. General subfields within edaphology are agricultural soil
SOIL
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Soil science deals with soil considered as a natural body and as
an important medium for plant growth a study of soil science includes
(a) soil geology in which study of the geological materials from
which the soil is derived and its process of formation (b) soil
chemistry the study of the chemical components of the soil, their
interaction with another and the effect of the chemical environment
of the soil (c) soil physics- study the effect of physical lows on the
evolution of chemical properties and physical properties of soil, (d)
soil biology- the study of the effect of plants, animals, and soil
micro-organism on the evolution, chemical composition and physical
condition of the soil.
However, the effect of each one of the above four aspects are
so interrelated that is very much difficult to tell the effect by one
aspect start and where its ends. In fact its study of the soil would
reveal to one that all these four aspects are very minutes, every
second, are going on simultaneously and that the resultant changes
are consequently taking place always in the soil system. So it is
essential to study the soil science taking into consideration the
above four aspects and hence these aspects are being studied in
this book.
Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource on the
surface of the earth including soil formation, classification and
mapping physical, chemical, biological and fertility properties of
soils; and their properties in relation to the use and management of
soils.
Sometimes terms which refer to branches of soil science, such
as pedology and edaphology In case of pedology branch study
7 8 Soil
regarding the formation, chemistry, morphology; classification and
characteristic of soils. Edaphology is concerned with the influence
of soil on living things, particularly plants the terms is also applied
to the study of how soil influences mans use of land for plant
science and environmental soil science.
Both pedology and edaphology are used as if synonymous with
soil science. Soils play a vital role is the quality of our environment.
The objective of the course is to be aware of formation; classification,
physical, chemical and biological properties of soils their reaction
that may influence the behavior of contaminants according to the
different soil types and properties. Because soil is important for
cultivation and agricultural production, soil fertility and productivity
are important issues. Detailed pedological knowledge is useful for
land evaluation purposes. Soils are an integral part of landscapes
and the knowledge of the distribution of different soils helps to
preserve a high standard in environmental quality.
The soil is at the interface between the atmosphere and
lithosphere (the mantle of rocks making up the Earths crust). It
also has an interface the hydrosphere the soil sustains the growth
of many plants and animals and so forms part of the biosphere. We
considered soil as a natural body of mineral and organic material
that is formed in response to many environmental factors and
processes acting on and changing soil permanently
1.2 Soil: Its Origin and Formation
Soils are a mixture of different things; rocks, minerals, and dead
decaying plants and animals. Soil can be having different from one
location to another, but generally consists of organic and inorganic
materials, water and air. The inorganic materials are the rocks that
have been broken down into smaller pieces. The size of the pieces
varies. It may appear as pebbles, gravel, or as small as particles of
sand or clay. The organic material is decaying living matter. This
could be plants or animals that have died and decay until they
becomes part of the soil. The amount of water in the soil is closely
linked with the climate and other characteristics of the region. The
amount of water in the soil is one thing that can affect the amount
of air. Very wet soil each are found in a wetland probably has very
1
Introduction to Soil Science
little air. The composition of the soil affects the plants and therefore
the animals that can live there.
1.3 Origin of Soil
Physical and biological agents, such as wind, running water,
temperature changes, and living organisms, perpetually modify the
Earths crust, changing its upper surface into products that are
closely in equilibrium with the atmosphere the hydrosphere, and
the biosphere. Earth scientists sum up all processes through which
these alterations take place under the collective term weathering.
One speaks of mechanical weathering in the case that the dominant
forces are mainly mechanical, such as the eroding action of running
water, the abrading action of steam load or the physical action of
wind and severe temperature fluctuations. Similarly, one speaks of
biological weathering when the forces producing changes are directly
or indirectly related to living organisms. Of these, we can mention
several examples, such as the action of burrowing animals, the
penetrating forces of plant roots, and the destructive action of
burrowing animals, the penetrating forces of plant roots, and the
destructive action of algae, bacteria, and their acid-producing
symbiotic community of the lichens, or simply the destructive action
of ma, who continuously disturbs the Earths crust through various
activities. Processes of disintegration, during which mantle rocks
are broken down to from particles of smaller size, without
considerable change in chemical or mineralogical composition are
known as physical weathering processes. Changes of this type
prevail under extreme climatic conditions as in deserts of arctic
regions. They are also prevailing in areas of mountainous relief.
The most prominent agents of physical weathering are: _ differential
stress caused by unloading of deep-seated rocks on emerging the
surfaces: _ differential thermal expansion under extreme climatic
conditions; expansion of interstitial water volume by freezing that
leads to rupturing along crystal boundaries. Other mechanical agents
enhance the effect of mechanical weathering. These may include
processes such as gravity, abrasion by glacial ice or wind-blown
particles. The word soil occurs many times in this course. In
agriculture this word is used to describe the thin layer of surface
earth that, like some great blanket, is tucked around the wrinkled
and age-beaten from of our globe. The harder and colder earth under
2
Soil
this surface layer is called the subsoil_. It should be noted, however,
that in waterless and sun-dried regions there seems little difference
between the soil and the subsoil. The face of the earth as we now
see it, daintily robed in grass, or uplifting waving acres of corn, or
even naked water-scarred, and disfigured by mans neglect, is very
different from what it was in its earliest days. How was it then? How
was the soil formed? Scientists think that at first the surface of the
earth was solid rock. How was this rock changed into workable
soil? Occasionally a curious boy picks up a rotten stone, squeezes
it, and finds his hands filled with dirt, or soil. Now, just as the boy
crumbled with his fingers this single stone, the great forces of nature
with boundless patience crumbled or, as it is called, disintegrated,
the early rock mass. The simple but giant-strong agents that beat
the rocks into powder with a club like force a million fold powerful
than the club force of Hercules were chiefly (1) heat and cold; (2)
water, frost, and ice; (3) a very low form of vegetable life; and (4)
tiny animalsif such minute bodies can be called animals. In some
cases these acted singly; in other, all acted together to rend and
crumble the unbroken stretch of rock.
1.4 Definition of Soil
There have been several conception held about soil in the historic
past. This has led to several definitions of soil by different people
at various times. Some of the several definitions range from very
simple definitions such as the following:
1. Soil is a thin layer of material on the Earths surfaces in
which plants have their roots. It is made up of many things,
such as weathered rock and decayed plant and animal
matter. Soil is formed over a long period of time.
2. Soil is the unconsolidated mineral or organic material on
the immediate surface of the Earth that serves as a natural
medium for the growth of land plants.
3. The unconsolidated mineral or organic matter on the surface
of the Earth that has been subjected to and show effects of
genetic and environmental factors of: climate ()including
water and temperature effects , and macro-and
microorganisms, conditioned by relief, acting on parent
material over a period of time. A product-soil differs from
Introduction to Soil Science
little air. The composition of the soil affects the plants and therefore
the animals that can live there.
1.3 Origin of Soil
Physical and biological agents, such as wind, running water,
temperature changes, and living organisms, perpetually modify the
Earths crust, changing its upper surface into products that are
closely in equilibrium with the atmosphere the hydrosphere, and
the biosphere. Earth scientists sum up all processes through which
these alterations take place under the collective term weathering.
One speaks of mechanical weathering in the case that the dominant
forces are mainly mechanical, such as the eroding action of running
water, the abrading action of steam load or the physical action of
wind and severe temperature fluctuations. Similarly, one speaks of
biological weathering when the forces producing changes are directly
or indirectly related to living organisms. Of these, we can mention
several examples, such as the action of burrowing animals, the
penetrating forces of plant roots, and the destructive action of
burrowing animals, the penetrating forces of plant roots, and the
destructive action of algae, bacteria, and their acid-producing
symbiotic community of the lichens, or simply the destructive action
of ma, who continuously disturbs the Earths crust through various
activities. Processes of disintegration, during which mantle rocks
are broken down to from particles of smaller size, without
considerable change in chemical or mineralogical composition are
known as physical weathering processes. Changes of this type
prevail under extreme climatic conditions as in deserts of arctic
regions. They are also prevailing in areas of mountainous relief.
The most prominent agents of physical weathering are: _ differential
stress caused by unloading of deep-seated rocks on emerging the
surfaces: _ differential thermal expansion under extreme climatic
conditions; expansion of interstitial water volume by freezing that
leads to rupturing along crystal boundaries. Other mechanical agents
enhance the effect of mechanical weathering. These may include
processes such as gravity, abrasion by glacial ice or wind-blown
particles. The word soil occurs many times in this course. In
agriculture this word is used to describe the thin layer of surface
earth that, like some great blanket, is tucked around the wrinkled
and age-beaten from of our globe. The harder and colder earth under
2
Soil
this surface layer is called the subsoil_. It should be noted, however,
that in waterless and sun-dried regions there seems little difference
between the soil and the subsoil. The face of the earth as we now
see it, daintily robed in grass, or uplifting waving acres of corn, or
even naked water-scarred, and disfigured by mans neglect, is very
different from what it was in its earliest days. How was it then? How
was the soil formed? Scientists think that at first the surface of the
earth was solid rock. How was this rock changed into workable
soil? Occasionally a curious boy picks up a rotten stone, squeezes
it, and finds his hands filled with dirt, or soil. Now, just as the boy
crumbled with his fingers this single stone, the great forces of nature
with boundless patience crumbled or, as it is called, disintegrated,
the early rock mass. The simple but giant-strong agents that beat
the rocks into powder with a club like force a million fold powerful
than the club force of Hercules were chiefly (1) heat and cold; (2)
water, frost, and ice; (3) a very low form of vegetable life; and (4)
tiny animalsif such minute bodies can be called animals. In some
cases these acted singly; in other, all acted together to rend and
crumble the unbroken stretch of rock.
1.4 Definition of Soil
There have been several conception held about soil in the historic
past. This has led to several definitions of soil by different people
at various times. Some of the several definitions range from very
simple definitions such as the following:
1. Soil is a thin layer of material on the Earths surfaces in
which plants have their roots. It is made up of many things,
such as weathered rock and decayed plant and animal
matter. Soil is formed over a long period of time.
2. Soil is the unconsolidated mineral or organic material on
the immediate surface of the Earth that serves as a natural
medium for the growth of land plants.
3. The unconsolidated mineral or organic matter on the surface
of the Earth that has been subjected to and show effects of
genetic and environmental factors of: climate ()including
water and temperature effects , and macro-and
microorganisms, conditioned by relief, acting on parent
material over a period of time. A product-soil differs from
Introduction to Soil Science Soil

the material from which it is derived in many physical, Soil is a dynamic entity with material continually and simultaneously
chemical, biological, and morphological properties and added, removed, and transformed. Its formation beings with parent
characteristic. material derived from either the underlying rock or material
4. Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and transported from somewhere else to its present site.
organic matter), liquid, and gases that occurs on the land
surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or
both of the following, or layers, that are distinguishable from 1.5 Soil Composition
the initial material as a result of additions, losses, transfers, While a nearly infinite variety of substances may be found in soils,
and transformations of energy and matter of the ability to they are categorized into four basic components: minerals, organic
support rooted plants in a natural environment. matter, air and water. Most introductory soil textbooks describe the
Some of the concepts that have affected the definition of soil in ideal soil (ideal for the growth of most plants) as being composed
the past includes:- of 45% minerals, 25% water, 25% air, and 5% organic matter (Fig.
1.1). In reality, these percentages of the four components vary
Soil as thin mantle over the land surface tremendously. Soil air and water are found in the pore spaces
Soil as a medium for plant growth between the solid soil particles. The ratio of air-filled pore space to
Soil as a basic matter of the universe water-filled pore space often changes seasonally, weekly, and even
daily, depending on water additions through precipitation, through
Soil as a mantle of loose and weathered rock
flow, groundwater discharge, and flooding. The volume of the pore
Soil as an organized natural bodies space itself can be altered, one way or the other, by several
Also, the definition of soil varies with the profession and
perception of the person defining soil. What a soil is to civil engineers
is different from the definition of soil by geologists,
geomorphologists, archeologists and soil scientists
However, among the different definition of soil in the historic
past, two have stood the test of time. These are soil as a medium
for plant growth and soil as organized natural bodies.
The concept of soil as a medium for plant growth must have
been one of the first held by man. When man began to grow his
food rather than gather it, the nature of soil assumed a direct bearing
on his welfare. Man then realized that the soil underfoot was a
medium for plant growth, something in which seed could be sown
and from which plant could be produced to provide food, if all went
well. This concept regard the soil in the soil as a medium for plant
growth, both as a substrate providing mechanical support and as
store house for essential plant nutrients.
Soil, in terms of its morphological characteristics, is defined as
unconsolidated surface material forming natural bodies made up of
mineral and organic materials and the living matter within them.
Fig. 1.1 : composition of an ideal soil (by volume)