A CASE STUDY

entitled
He Does, I do: One of the Crab
Mentalities of Some Filipinos

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 TITLE: He does, I do: One of the Crab Mentalities
of the Some Filipinos

INTRODUCTION

Public service is a public trust. Government officials and employees are

therefore obliged to prove that they deserve the people trust. Trust is the basis of

their employment and security of tenure in public service. Once this trust is broken

through misdeed or misconduct, any employee or official will be held liable. He is

answerable to the people for whom the government derives its power. The peoples

taxes sustain his salaries and benefits. Hence, he is expected to serve his

clienteles efficiently.

As a mere custodian or steward of public office, an employee cannot hold on

to his position as he pleases to do. A government position is not a private preserve.

It is not his personal gadget to do what he wishes to enjoy. He must live by rules,

regulations, norms, conduct and most especially discipline that are at all times

expected of public servants. Public interest comes first and foremost, rising well

above personal goals.

Section 4 of R. A. 6713 states: It is the policy of the state to promote a high

standard of ethics in public service. Public officials and employees shall at all times

be accountable to the people and shall discharge their duties and responsibilities

with utmost sincerity, integrity, competence, and loyalty; act with patriotism and

justice; lead modest lives; and uphold public interests over personal whims.

The Civil Service Commission (CSC) could not have picked a worse time to

strictly implement its rules on tardiness. It is besieged by constant complains of

clients that many tardy employees make the important transactions delayed.
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Clients must wait for a long period of time before they will be attended by some

irresponsible officials. Indicated in the CSC rules that ten (10) late for at least two

months in a semester or at least two consecutive months during the year is ground

for dismissal from the office. The CSC also announces to the field the modified

flexible schedules for government personnel outside of the regular schedule for

everyday (8:00 am to 5:00 pm). In this scheme, one may choose a schedule that

begins between 7:00 and 9:00 in the morning and ends between 4:00 to 6:00 in the

afternoon. Recently, however, the Commission also authorized the agency heads

to promulgate their own internal rules and regulations on attendance and

punctuality which will require their employees to incur less absences and tardiness

than the frequency allowed by the Commission.

Pursuant to this latest policy, abuse of power was manifested in a certain

school (not to mention). It was in the internal agreement that coming to office by

7:45 am shall not be considered tardy. However, the number of minutes an

employee is late will be deducted from his leave credits. This agency doesnt

tolerate tardiness and excessive absences in the office by salary deductions

computed based on the number of minutes or hours incurred for a month. The

deduction was proportional to his monthly gross income.

Despite this, many thought that these internal agreements were still unfair

for rank- and- file employees. They had many reasons for being chronically late due

to some other factors. Many employees didnt strictly observe the CSC guidelines

considering that their Boss like the School Principal who heads the administrative

office came late to office. Unlike with ordinary employee, this administrator was

usually provided a car, gasoline and sometimes a driver by the office. However,

according to this high ranking official, he should not be compared with the ordinary

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employee because he had the privileges. The head of office always made reasons

of his coming to school late due to many transactions.

INCIDENTS RESULTING TO A CERTAIN ISSUE

There was one ordinary teacher who had been notified of always coming

late and incurring successive absences from his classes. He got notices from the

Principal for his late arrivals. Due to his inefficiency to his job and as a disciplinary

action, his salary was deducted. The teacher really showed dismayed behavior

against his Principal. The former confronted the latter about his salary deductions

with hot temper and emotions. Until such time that a big issue was observed due to

the opposing ideas of two, the Teacher and the Principal.

CONFLICT OF IDEAS OF BOTH PARTIES

In that school (fiscal autonomous) having more than one hundred (100) staff

and faculty members, an ordinary teacher complained and violently reacted about

the promulgation of school internal rules and regulations on attendance and

tardiness. Even he always received notice from the Principal of his coming late; he

refused to indicate in DepEd form 8 (DTR) his actual times of arrival and departure

in the school. The teacher was always coming late due to distance from home to

school. In the first place, he had the reasons to be chronically late due to long

distance travel and other factors. He was also always absent from his classes. As a

disciplinary action, the Principal refused to avail his leave credits due to excessive

absences. His under time and absences was reflected in his salary deductions.

The Principal came late to office also. Unlike with the ordinary teacher, he

had a car and his house was quite nearer than the teacher. As a principal, he was

not getting any notice of being late and absent. He didnt register the time of his
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arrival and departure. He had earned many leave credits because the number of

minutes or hours he was late were not deducted from his leave credits.

The Principal doesnt have any reason to be late because he has all the

accessibility of transportations and financial matters. His house is very near the

school while mine is quite far away from the school. I have many obligations to

accomplish at home. Aside from that, family problems cannot be avoided and these

must be settled in the first place. Implementing guidelines must be true to all

whether you are a Boss or a subordinate. What kind of Head he is? His absences

and under time are not deducted in his leave credits because he is the Boss? No

way! He must be fair. He should deduct his own salary. Head of office like him

enjoys his leave credits convertible into cash upon retirement. Thats unfair and

unethical. He doesnt deserve to be in his position. He is arrogant and

inconsiderate, exclaimed the teacher- complainant with high temper.

He should wait until he becomes a Boss, said the Principal with high tone.

I labored long and hard to be where I am now and when I was where he is now, I

had to follow the rules too. Besides, I am sometimes asked to work on Saturdays or

Sundays and Holidays, without getting overtime pay. Head of office has all the

privileges compared to him as an ordinary teacher. Managerial functions are not

easy as what the ordinary teacher is doing. There are many factors to be

considered before you can attain your objectives to cater the clienteles as well as

the community. Let him be in my position and I will be on his position. Lets see if

he can manage and lead the group? I will resign from my position if he can hold the

real world of school scenarios using his incompetence and laziness.

The two have different principles to fight. The arguments lasted until the

Principal calmed down.

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 QUESTION: What do you think? Who is right, the ordinary Teacher or the
Principal?

CAUSE OF CONTRADICTION OF IDEAS

Prior to the current problem or issue observed in that school, the

administration provided one Logbook for each Department. Each teacher had his

specific number in the Logbook. As he got inside the Campus, he used to write his

name in the corresponding number and affixed his signature. Some teachers were

dishonest about the time of their arrivals and departures. Even they were absent for

yesterdays working hour, they wrote their names secretly in the corresponding

space intended for them.

Due to this scenario, the school head (Principal) provided a Biometric

Machine placed in the main gate. For less than a semester, some teachers

discovered strategies to cheat the machine. They placed their registered thumb

marks early in the morning and escaped from the classes. Before 11:45 am, they

went back to school and registered again their fingerprints for departure. The same

scenario was still observed in the afternoon.

How come that we were marked absent for that day wherein fact, we were

present? The machine didnt recognize our fingerprints anymore. I dont have any

absence this month, some complained. The machine is not reliable attendance

monitor, better to replace it, many teachers complained.

The use of the Biometric Machine resulted to various complains from the

teachers. The Principal went back to the traditional Attendance Notebook

(Logbook). He just did comprehensive revisions about the guidelines in filling up the

Logbook. First come First Serve basis! At exactly 7:30 in the morning and 1:20 in

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the afternoon, the Logbook was already closed. Thats why, the tardiness and

absences were efficiently monitored. The Biometric machine was still being

observed. Each employee had to register his registered finger print for in and out

(morning and afternoon) and afterwards, he had to write his name in the logbook.

So, there were two means of monitoring the attendance of each employee.

The problem occurred when the Principal strictly implemented the CSC

guidelines about tardiness and absences. Salary deductions were done. Many

teachers reacted when the Principal pronounced that only employees who have

filed their Sick Leave before the intended absences can enjoy the Leave credits to

avoid absences. Until such time, one teacher confronted the principal and showed

his dismayed attitude against the Administration. He insisted that since the

guidelines were already promulgated to ordinary teachers like him, the same thing

will be done to the Principal.

Both parties uttered undesirable words against each other. The principal let

the complainant understand and define the nature of his work which provoked him

to be high in temper too. The former explained that ordinary teacher and

administrator like him have differences in functions and privileges. He also insisted

that the complainant should love his job and wait for a right time to become a

school head to do what he wishes to do. He felt insulted and the confrontation

resulted to throwing of unethical words between the two parties. But prior to that

insult made by the Principal, the teacher uttered below the belt statements against

him.

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SOLUTION MADE BY THE SCHOOL HEAD

The Principal stood firm to his decisions and memorandum orders about the

strict observance of DepEd and CSC guidelines. First and foremost, after the

scenario had been calm, he called the complainant and talked him in the office. The

head fatherly explained the functions and responsibilities of every employee.

Our main goal here in school is to serve the students. How to serve them

effectively? We must be devoted to our work. I understand your side and just give

due credits to the guidelines, the Principal explained. He also stressed the

disadvantages of going late in the classes. The parents of these students who had

no class have spent an amount to let their children go to school. We are paid by the

government to deliver best services among our clienteles. How can we offer the

quality of education if we are always absent, if not late? added the Principal. He

also discussed the scope and limitations of the functions of being a teacher and

head of office. He provided and showed the evidences telling the tardiness and

absences of the teacher and the documented activities undertaken by him during

his out from the campus. Discussing the privileges of the school head, the Principal

used his knowledge as to the Professional Ethics and Standards of a Professional

Teacher. The teacher- complainant didnt have to do except follow what has been

transpired in the CSC rules and internal agreement of the group. The principal

applied a win-win solution to this case. Salary deduction for that specific month was

observed for that teacher-complainant but the School Head promised not to reflect

his absences in the Service Record as long as the complainant wont do the same.

After talking the teacher, a short caucus had been called upon. The Principal

clarified some misconceptions in the guidelines issued by him to his teachers. He

also emphasized to the teachers the so called insubordination. And little

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recapitulations about the Ethical Standards of Professional Teachers were done.

The Principal narrated a very inspiring story of a teacher.

There was an ordinary teacher who had been considered a man of example

and inspiration. The said teacher had a very little Take Home Pay reflected in his

national payroll due to several loans but his enthusiasm and love to teach the

students especially the lower sections was excellently manifested by everyone in

the campus where he was teaching. He didnt even need recognition just to do his

function efficiently. Everyone was a witness of his devotion in teaching. He always

made himself busy during office hours. You cannot see him talking with none sense

discussions. Students admired him very much despite of his strict behavior inside

the class. He had always made his class alive by beautiful and educational visual

aids. He always ensured that his classroom was conducive to learning. He never

collected any amount from the students for his teaching materials and classroom

decorations. Some teachers were puzzled how he was able to budget his very

small amount take home pay. But later on, his co- teachers discovered that he was

farming every weekend just to earn money. The teacher was about to retire from

the service when he got a severe sickness. He forgot to get married because he

fully engaged himself in teaching. The teacher always reminded his co- teachers

that rewards wait at heaven. After his retirement, he died and all his benefits were

given to charity as revealed by his Last Will and Testament, the Principal narrated

with a tear in his eyes.

This inspiring story cited by the School Head really touched the hearts of the

teachers. Many cried and showed their great appreciation about the story. The

Principal adjourned the meeting with a full of happiness in his heart because he

won the attention of his subordinates.

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 Starting that day, smooth rapport between the Principal and his teachers

was manifested by various school recognitions and awards (both national, regional

and division levels). The teacher- complainant indirectly apologized the

misbehavior he had done and promised to gradually change his work attitude. The

principal was never late since then and he became always visible in the campus to

closely monitor the physical aspect of the school and most especially the academic

excellence of the teachers and students. The head encouraged all his teachers to

pursue their Masters Degrees. Now, almost all of the faculty members are

upgrading themselves academically through Masters Studies and seminars. He

always sent his teachers to national trainings. In fact, most of the regional and

division trainers come from that school. Winning coaches in a specific event are

given due recognition and local service credits. He also allotted per diem

allowances for teachers undergoing seminars on weekends. In addition to this,

every December, the school goes into Educational Trip outside the Mindanao

region to let the teachers experience the beauty of nature and these experiences

gained in the trip might be used in any teaching activity.

The case was excellently resolved. Everyone was happy since

misunderstanding had been finally put into closure with no one was in vain.

BASIS/ SOURCE/ REASON OF THE DECISION MADE BY THE SCHOOL HEAD

The school head of that school used the Civil Service Commission

Handbook of Ethical Standards which explains the Nature, Functions, Scope and

Limitations of Power of a certain employee. He also administered the concept of

transformational leadership since he explained that a public servant is a public

trust. Think what you can give, not what you can get from your clients, he added.
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The teachings of a good management was also emphasized by the school head

since he cited an example of a good and very loved teacher who didnt think of the

personal expenses just to provide his teaching materials and modules without

expecting anything from anyone. The said employee, according to the principal, is a

man of example and inspiration. He had a very small take home pay reflected in his

national pay slip but his enthusiasm to teach the youth had been excellently

manifested by his service. He was a man of action because he always made

himself busy in the campus. The teacher believed that true rewards wait at heaven.

That qualities are best assets to become an effective manager of your own

classroom or even in the higher position, added by the Principal.

The concept of a change process was also emphasized since the Principal

ruled the office by an example. He admitted he has committed mistakes. These

wrongdoings were being reflected and gradually changed into better ones to inspire

his subordinates. The Principal used the concepts of stress and time management

since he was able to control his emotions despite of severe anger he has felt. His

time consciousness was being admired by his subordinates. These characteristics

are best assets to be an effective administrator. Because of those best qualities,

the principal is also known as the Transformer. He has contributed a lot to let the

school known to the Division, Regional or even the National Office for several

awards it has won. Some of these awards are National Best School

Paper,BrigadaEskwela Hall of Fame, first ever recipient of SBM Level III

Academic Excellence, etc. He always put himself into an action for the welfare of

the teachers and students. All activities such as social, individual, physical or

ethical are to be tested in experiences. A good manager is prepared continuously

to change his view of reality. But through a constant reconstruction of experiences,

man is able to keep up the flow of change, and to a certain extent, controls its
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direction. The ideal manager is willing to help change along, to provide the

conditions for improvement. This is what the Principal had done to resolve the

issue of insubordination in his office.

Academic freedom is a contested issue and, therefore, has limitations in

practice. It is a liberty to teach, pursue, and discuss knowledge without restrictions

or interferences. What the teacher- complainant and the principal himself had done

to express their opinions against each other was a concept of Freedom in

education.

Classifications of moral acts such as Ethical or Moral and Unethical and

Immoral Acts had been done in the campus but the unethical issues were

excellently resolved by the Principal using his own managerial skills that he thought

the best remedy to be undertaken in a specific issue.

REACTION/ REFLECTION ABOUT THE ISSUE

Question: What do you think? Who is right, the ordinary Teacher or the

Boss? Both of them are in wrong perception of the CSC rules about tardiness.

Tardiness is a bad habit. Whether you are an ordinary employee or a boss, you are

obliged to report to the office on time. Being habitually late is punishable by CSC

rule of conduct. Each employee is required to be time conscious not only in the

arrival and departure in the office where he is connected with but to his classes

specifically.

The ordinary teacher, as mentioned earlier, should not use his superiors

tardiness as a defense mechanism of being late. He is the one who closely

monitors the students progress. How can he effectively examine the individual

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differences if he always comes on class late? He should adopt the positive sides of

his Boss, not the negative ones. In the first place, his nature of work is quite

different from being school head. He is the direct contact of the students. He is

considered to be the second parent. No parent who has a good mentality will be

able to let his children bitten by the crocodiles. He should not make the principals

weaknesses to escape the issue. He should not act as a boss and most especially,

he doesnt have any right to degrade his Principals reputation. He has to think the

possible consequences before he will utter unethical statements against his

companion.

The Principal should not also use his supreme power to excuse from being

late and absent. There are privileges of being school head but he should not take it

advantageously. He is the boss; therefore, he should set himself as a good

example to everybody. Uttering of bad words against his subordinates is a clear

violation of the Professional Code of Ethics. He is the Head, thus, he has the wide

span of patience. He is more knowledgeable than anyone in the campus. So, he

should not be brought by his emotions.

In fairness to the Principal, he resolved the issue with no bias in his

subordinate. He let him to define his functions and duties as well as the scope and

limitations of his nature of work. He used efficient managerial and transformational

leadership ideas to attend to the different complains of the teacher. He also

admitted his wrongdoings and able to set standards being the head of the school.

Punctuality begets respect. If one is punctual, indirectly he is teaching others

to be punctual too. If a person is used to be always on time, he is idolized by the

ordinary employee. A boss who arrives exactly on prescribed office hour sets a

good example to his followers. Subordinates would feel ashamed to arrive late if

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their superior is already in his office doing his tasks. Coming on time by the Boss

will really encourage self- discipline among rank- and- file employees.

The ordinary employee and the Principal were just giving justifications of

their habitual tardiness which is unethical. They must come on time for duty. They

are paid by the peoples taxes; therefore, they have to give what is due to the tax

payers. Being late can never be compensated with previous overtimes.

A lot of works can be finished, reports can be submitted before due dates

and deadlines can be met if every employee starts his obligations on time. People

who came to the office for business transactions can move to their next important

schedule if the public servant can serve them punctually.

The decision made by the Principal to resolve the case is commendable. He

let his work attitude change into better by making himself no longer late in reporting

to office. He is leading the group by example.

The teacher- complainant is also commendable for he is trying his best to

change his work attitude. He shall continue the best things he started and he will

be successful in the years to come.

It is normal to commit errors but we will not use them to degrade our

personal reputation because its very hard to win again the lost trust. We are all

public servants; therefore, we will serve our clients to the best of our abilities.

SUGGESTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The following are recommended to smoothly achieve our objectives in

dealing with our students:

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 Every teacher must be a public trust. He should give what is due to his

students. He should not let his position taken away from him due to

irresponsible attitudes. He should follow what he thinks will benefit him

best. He should not ruin the public trust given to him by the people by

adopting the unethical cultures of others. He should set his own

philosophy of life that will bring him in the peak of his career. He is also

encouraged to upgrade himself academically and morally to improve his

managerial and leadership skills.

The head of office must set himself as a good example to his

subordinates. He should not abuse the privileges set by CSC rules to

avoid bias to his followers. A good leader is a good follower. He should

listen to the suggestions of the ordinary teacher. He should not shout if

he instructs his teacher what to do. He must be patient enough and

knowledgeable. Then he should give due recognition to the teachers

excelling in their fields. He should know how to appreciate simple things

done for a good purpose. He should be calm in dealing with any issue in

the campus.

Both teacher and head must strictly observe the CSC rules and

Professional Ethics and Standards in dealing with others. They are

discouraged to utter undesirable words against somebody particularly in

front of public. Or else, it will result to public scandal that will last forever

in the minds of other people.

Finally, all DepEd officials and employees should go hand in hand to

alleviate the poor quality of learning in the Philippines. The government

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 should look into action the lifetime solution to the aching system of

education.

What does the Title of the Case Study mean?

He does, I do, as used in the study, refers to the character of an ordinary

teacher who always takes the negative attitude of his Boss as a defense

mechanism to escape from his daily obligations to the students. It simply means

that if a principal (HE) is always coming to the school late, I, as an ordinary teacher

will do the same. This attitude is detrimental to progress, thus, it should not be

adopted by any employee who intends to stay from his job forever.

References:

1. ABDULLAH,S. N. (2015). Emotional Intelligence and Social Competence:

Antecedents of School Administrators Transformational Leadership
Qualities, Journal of US-China Public Administration, March 2015, Vol. 12,
No. 3, 180-184

2. AQUINO, G. V. (2004). Educational Management: Principles, Functions,

Concepts, City of manila: Rex Bookstore

3. Civil Service Commission Distance Learning Program Module

4. DIAMANTE, M.M. AND G. L. TAN (2007). Human Resource Management:

Local and Global Perspectives, Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc.

5. MARTIRES, C. R. AND G.S. FULE (2000).Management of Human

Behaviour in Organization, 2nd Edition, Mandaluyong City: National
Bookstore

6. MARTIRES, C. R. (2003). Human Resource Management: Principles and

Practices, Revised Edition, Mandaluyong City: National Bookstore

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 SULTAN KUDARAT STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Graduate Studies
ACCESS Campus, EJC Montilla, Tacurong City

Topics: Managing Organizational Change and Change Process

Reporters: SAMSUDIN N. ABDULLAH, ALLAN REY M. PACULANAN,
AMIL B. KAMID and RAZID B. ALAB
Subject: DEM 716 (Change Management and Transformational Leadership)

INTRODUCTION

Leadership is the ability and readiness to inspire, guide, direct or manage

others. A leader is ordinarily understood to be a prominent and active person who

is considered to be a good follower too. On the other hand, being a good manager

is not an attribute of the personality but a quality of his role within a specified social

system. A good manager is a leader who is moving in a particular direction and

succeeding to induce others to follow. He doesnt monopolize the decision making

particularly in dealing with different forces that trigger the organization to undergo

changes with respect to its structure, strategy, technological advancement, service,

product or people. The most important element to be considered in every

organization is its goal which aims to improve the quality of services that will

answer to the basic needs of the clienteles.

Manager seeks to bring people and groups from where they are to and from

where they have not been. He enables people to go beyond the confines of

mediocrity and trend into realm of excellence. In the process, he induces people to

define their desires and to pursue them with passion. Ultimately, manager

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transforms potential into reality. He tries to inject a vision that encompasses the

values and expectations of both leaders and followers. Effective manager is a

leader who is a picture of what and where they want to be. He also binds the

people in a joint of intermediate goals. Performance with complacency beyond the

commonplace is the organizational key to success. Here, leadership is necessary

for the manager to please his subordinates. To be effective, managers must

develop their ability to lead. Leadership complements manager ship to make

excellent performance.

Being an organizational manager is not an easy task but if he considers the

efficiency and effectiveness of the services he wishes to offer, nothing is impossible

to deliver the quality of products the organization wants to produce.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the session, the Ph.D. EM students should be able to:

1. define the basic terms in managing organizational change:

Change

Organizational change

Change process

2. determine the four basic elements to be considered in the change process

3. identify the forces for change and the steps of a change process

4. recognize the different models in the change process

5. enumerate the different steps in making a change

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 6. differentiate planned change from reactive change and pro-active response

from reactive response

7. identify the Kotters Eight Step in the change process

8. give the different ways in overcoming resistance to change

9. identify some approaches to deal with resistance to change

10. give some strategies in making a particular change

PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION

Even if an organizations design is appropriate for its environment at a given

time, the managers must anticipate changes in the environment that will require

future adjustments in the organizations design. Any organization needs stability,

continuity, adaptation and innovation. Organizational change is the essence of

adaptation and innovation. Change is any alteration in the present state of a

system. Thus, it is initiated, implemented, and maintained in organizations to obtain

a new and higher level of performance. Changes can be in strategy, structure,

technology, products and services or people. They are often made in a reactive

sense as a response to changes in the environment but they can also be made in a

pro-active sense as in innovation and invention. The purpose is to increase the

organizations level of competitiveness and boost the productivity of its people.

Organization needs stability and continuity as well as adaptation and innovation.

Without some stability, any organization cannot function, yet, without adaptation it

cannot survive. They go in hand; and, organizations can continuously adapt without

being destabilized.

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Forces for Change

In organizations, change proposals may come from anyone. They may

come from rank and file, supervisors, managers, and key executives, or from

suppliers and customers. However, many changes originate from

management. Management, therefore, acts as the change agent. It initiates

the change and sees to its proper adoption and implementation. As a

manager, you should anticipate that changes may occur any time. You

should study and analyze how the two forces of change be dealt with to

maintain the internal equilibrium and goals of an organization you manage.

1. External forces. They are the environmental factors which include

increasing costs and scarcity of natural resources, worker safety and

antipollution regulations, consumer boycotts, higher levels of education in

the labor market, high interest rates and technological advancements.

2. Internal Forces. Pressures for change may also arise from a number of

sources within the organization, particularly from new strategies,

technologies, and employee attitudes and behavior. These forces may also

include worker dissatisfaction that will lead to strikes.

Managerial Responses to Pressures for Change

Ideas for change are more easily generated than implemented.

Implementation is the most difficult aspect of changing. No matter how

cogent the argument for change may be, chances are, its implementation will

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conflict with some interests and disturb existing relationships. There are two

common responses that managers do in responding to changes.

1. By denying that they exist, resisting them, or avoiding them. This approach

is considered to be destructive response and is not advisable.

2. To deal with change, managers should use two major approaches. First,

they should react to the signs that changes are needed, making piecemeal

modifications to deal with particular problems as they arise. Second, they

should develop a program of planned change, making significant

investments of time and other sources to alter the ways their organizations

operate. Thats why, in the K to 12 program, there are several trainings

being conducted to let the stakeholders understand the real essence of the

program. As teachers, we must be adaptive to the global trend of education.

Individual Change

Individual change in behavior involves a complex process of personal and

social learning. It is a process whereby people unlearn old patterns of behavior

and adopt new ones. As a manager, you should not monopolize the decision-

making in a certain organization. Consider that there is a person more competent

than you in a specific issue being faced by the organization. You should be willing

how to accept your weaknesses and undergo a constructive change. You might be

the highest positioned individual in an organization you belong but it doesnt mean

that you are the most intelligent one in dealing with a particular problem or

situation. You should submit yourself for a change if needed.

Model of the Change Process (Force Field Diagram)

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 Force-Field Analysis, developed by Lewin, can be used as a general

approach to altering the existing equilibrium to make way for proposed change. A

person, or group, or organization can be seen as being in the midst of a force field.

These forces may internal or external to the system; and they may be physical,

psychological, social, political, economic, and technological. The balance of these

forces at any given time determines the state of the system. Thus, change is

inhibited and the status quo is maintained.

Force-Field Diagram

Forces for Change Forces for Maintaining Status

Quo
New Technology
Group Performance Norms

Better Raw Materials

Fear of Change

Competition from Other Groups

Member Complacency

Supervisor Pressures
Well Learned Skills

CURRENT LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE HIGHER LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE

Note: Length of arrow is equal to amount of force.

Kurt Lewin identified three (3) steps in the Change Process

CHANGING

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Trial with New
UNFREEZING Behaviour REFREEZING
Responses to Change

In interacting with their environment, organizations tend to achieve internal

equilibrium over a period of time. This means that people and groups know what to

do and they know what to expect. They have accustomed to doing things the way

these have been done before. They feel comfortable with things as they are. They

relate to one another and to their jobs in ways that are familiar and comfortable.

There is stability. There is continuity. There is predictability.

Change constitutes a discontinuity that threatens the existing equilibrium.

Whenever change threatens a group, the group responds to oppose it and to

maintain the kind of equilibrium it has been used to. Each pressure for change

produces a counter pressure within the group so as to return to it its previous

balance its perceived best way of life. This self-correcting property is called

homeostasis. People behave to establish and maintain a state of need fulfillment

and to protect them from any disturbance.

Different individuals respond to change in various ways. Mainly, individual

response is conditioned by the persons feelings and attitudes toward the change.

The force for change interacts with the individuals internal desires, values, and

23
motivations to produce a response. The persons interpretation of change will,

likewise, be influenced by his experience both inside and outside the organization.

For instance, some may see only the benefits of change while may see only the

cost of change. The person may respond in various ways, sometimes in an

unexpected manner. Certainly, not all responses to change will be negative. After

all, there are changes that people do desire.

Apart from individual response, group response should also be anticipated.

Here, group forces operate on individuals so that they present a common response

to change. For example, the group may stage a work slowdown as a response to

pressures to increase work output although not all members favor it. Group norms,

group loyalty, and group identification engenders the formation of a group response

built on consensus. Rather than different and even conflicting individual responses,

what comes about is a unified stance.

Strategy for Making Changes

A change strategy is necessary for any type of change. Change managers

need to develop an explicit strategy in order to increase the likelihood of successful

change. The strategy will consist of a number of activities that should be carried out

to help managers initiate and implement changes effectively.

1. Determine a real need for change.

2. Look for an idea that suits the need.

3. Consider the benefits and costs of change.

4. Obtain support for change.

5. Change by small steps at a time.

6. Assign an idea champion.

24
 7. Determine any post change problems and treat them.

The Group as a Target of Change

The context of change is important. Individuals do not stand in isolation.

They belong to a group. Dorwin Cartwright suggests that to change the behavior

of individuals, it may be necessary to modify the standards of the group where they

belong: the leadership style, emotional climate, structure and communicating

patterns. Cartwright identified tree (3) considerations with respect to the group as a

target of change, as follows:

1. Shared perception of need for change. The facts and arguments must be

the accepted property of the group if they are to become a useful basis for

change.

2. Shared information. Information relating to the need for change plans for

change, and consequences of change must be shared by all relevant people

in the group.

3. Relations with other groups. Changes in one part of the group produce

strain in other related parts which can be reduced only by eliminating the

change or by bringing about readjustments in the related parts.

Planned Change versus Reactive Change

Planned change is greater in scope and magnitude than reactive change.

It is a means of dealing with those changes that may be crucial for survival. It

involves a greater commitment of time and resources, requires more skills and

25
knowledge for successful implementation, and can lead to more problems if

implementation is unsuccessful.

Group Response to Change

Individual Desires

A
Indifference

B Group
Change
Work Slowdown Demands

C
Strike

D
Harder Work

Stimulus Actual
Response
Kotter's eight - step change model can be summarized as:

1. Increase urgency. Inspire people to move, make objectives real and

relevant.

2. Build the guiding team. Get the right people in place with the right

emotional commitment, and the right mix of skills and levels.

3. Get the vision right. Get the team to establish a simple vision and strategy

to focus on emotionally and creative aspects necessary to drive service and

efficiency.

26
 4. Communicate for buy-in. Involve as many people as possible to

communicate the essentials simply to appeal and respond to people's

needs.

5. Empower action. Remove obstacles, enable constructive feedback and lots

of support from leaders - reward and recognize progress and achievements.

6. Create short-term wins. Set aims that are easy to achieve. Create

manageable numbers of initiatives. Finish current stages before starting new

ones.

7. Don't let up. Foster and encourage determination and persistence.

8. Make change stick - Reinforce the value of successful change via

recruitment, promotion, and new change leaders. Weave change into

culture.

Resistance to Change

A major obstacle to the implementation of new policies, goals, or methods of

operation is the resistance of organization members to change. If there is a

negative reaction to a particular change that occurs in an organization, this can be

considered as resistance to change.

Sources of Resistance to Change

1. Uncertainty about the causes and effects of change. Organization

members may resist change because they are worried about how their work

and lives will be affected by the proposed change. When the change is

initiated by someone else, they may feel manipulated and wonder what the

real intention behind the change is.

27
 2. Unwillingness to give up existing benefits. Appropriate change should

benefit the organization as a whole, but for some individuals, the cost of

change in terms of lower power, prestige, salary, quality of work, or other

benefits will not be sufficiently offset by the rewards of change.

3. Awareness of weaknesses in the changes proposed. Organization

members may resist change because they are aware of potential problems

that have apparently been overlooked by the change initiators.

Overcoming Resistance to Change

Resistance to a change proposal is a signal to managers that something is

wrong with the proposal or that mistakes have been made in its presentation.

Managers, therefore, must determine the actual causes of resistance and then

remain flexible enough to overcome them in an appropriate manner. Kotter and

Schlesinger offer six ways of overcoming resistance to change.

1. Education and communication. If the need for and logic of the change are

explained early whether individually to subordinates, to groups in

meetings, or to entire organizations through elaborate audio-visual education

campaigns the road to successful change may be smother.

2. Participation and involvement. According to a classic study by Lester

Coch and John French, resistance to change can be reduced or eliminated

by having those involved participate in the design of the change. Paul

Lawrence came to similar conclusions, suggesting that in order to avoid

resistance; managers should take into account what he called the social

effects of change.

3. Facilitation and support. Easing the change process and providing support

for those caught up in it is another way managers can deal with resistance.
28
 Retraining programs, allowing time off after a difficult period, and offering

emotional support and understanding may help.

4. Negotiation and agreement. It is sometimes necessary for a manager to

negotiate with avowed or potential resisters to change, and even to obtain

written letters of understanding from the heads of organizational subunits

that would be affected by the change.

5. Manipulation and co-optation. Sometimes managers covertly steer

individuals or groups away from resistance to change, or they may co-opt an

individual, perhaps a key person within a group, by giving him or her

desirable role in designing or carrying out the change.

6. Explicit and implicit coercion. Managers may force people to go along

with a change by explicit or implicit threats involving loss or transfer of jobs,

lack of promotion, and the like. Such methods, though common, risk making

it more difficult to gain support for future change efforts.

Approaches to Planned Change

Organizations are made up of there (3) interacting, interdependent

elements which include structure, technology, and people.

1. Structural Approach. Leavitt divides structural efforts to bring about

organizational change into three areas:

1.1. Classical organizational design seeks to improve organizational

performance by carefully defining the job responsibilities of organization members

and by creating appropriate divisions of labor and lines of duty. Managers can still

29
improve the performance of their organizations by changing management spans,

job description, and areas of responsibility, reporting relationships, and the like.

1.2. Decentralization creates smaller, self-contained organizational units

that increase the motivation and performance of the members of those units and

help them focus their attention on the highest-priority activities. It also permits each

unit to adapt its own structure and technology to the task it performs and to its

external environment.

1.3. Modifying the flow of work in the organization and careful grouping

of specialties may also lead directly to an improvement in productivity and to

higher morale and work satisfaction.

2. Technological Approach. Technological changes are often difficult to

implement successfully and may prove incompatible with an

organizations structure and its technology.

3. People Approach. It attempts to change the behavior of employees

directly by focusing on their skills, attitudes, perceptions, and

expectations.

Diagram of Interdependent Organizational Elements

Structure

Organizational People
Activities (Tasks)

Technology
30
SUMMARY

Managers must anticipate changes in the environment that will require future

adjustments in the organizations design. Change is any alteration in the present

state of a system. Thus, it is initiated, implemented, and maintained in

organizations to obtain a new and higher level of performance. Changes can be in

strategy, structure, technology, products and services or people. They are often

made in a reactive sense as a response to changes in the environment but they

can also be made in a pro-active sense as in innovation and invention. The

purpose is to increase the organizations level of competitiveness and boost the

productivity of its people. Planned change is greater in scope and magnitude than

reactive change. The former is a means of dealing with those changes that may be

crucial for survival. It involves a greater commitment of time and resources,

requires more skills and knowledge for successful implementation, and can lead to

more problems if implementation is unsuccessful.

Any organization needs stability, continuity, adaptation and innovation.

Organizational change is the essence of adaptation and innovation. The context of

change is important. Individuals do not stand in isolation. They belong to a group.

Dorwin Cartwright suggests that to change the behavior of individuals, it may be

necessary to modify the standards of the group where they belong: the leadership

style, emotional climate, structure and communicating patterns.

Resistance to a change proposal is a signal to managers that something is

wrong with the proposal or that mistakes have been made in its presentation.

Managers, therefore, must determine the actual causes of resistance and then

remain flexible enough to overcome them in an appropriate manner.

31
References
Books
1. AQUINO, G. V. (2004). Educational Management: Principles, Functions,
Concepts, City of manila: Rex Bookstore

2. DIAMANTE, M.M. AND G. L. TAN (2007). Human Resource

Management: Local and Global Perspectives, Quezon City: C & E
Publishing, Inc.

3. MARTIRES, C. R. AND G.S. FULE (2000). Management of Human

Behavior in Organization, 2nd Edition, Mandaluyong City: National
Bookstore

4. MARTIRES, C. R. (2003). Human Resource Management: Principles

and Practices, Revised Edition, Mandaluyong City: National Bookstore

5. MIRANDA, G. S. (2005). Supervisory Management: The management of

Effective Supervision, Revised Edition, Mandaluyong City: National
Bookstore

6. PAUYOS, R. P. AND O. S. ZORILLA (2003). Personal Management in

the 21st Century, City of Manila: Rex Bookstore

Internet

1. Filicetti, John (August 20, 2007). "Project Management Dictionary". PM

Hut. Retrieved 16 November 2009.

2. Kotter, J. (2011). "Change Management vs. Change Leadership --

What's the Difference?". Forbes online. Retrieved 12/21/11.

3. Anderson, D. & L.A. Anderson (2001). Beyond Change Management:

Advanced Strategies for Todays Transformational Leaders. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer. Retrieved 12/21/11 from
http://books.google.com/books?id=WbpH7p5qQ88C&printsec=frontcover
&dq=beyond+change+management&hl=en&sa=X&ei=kEfzTpewMYKpiQ
LGz5S8Dg&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=beyond%20change%2
0management&f=fa

32
 4. Whelehan, S. (1995). Capturing a Moving Target: Change Management.
Consultants News: Retrieved from
http://www.slideshare.net/wikipediaCM/cm-consultantnews

5. Phillips, J. R. (1983). Enhancing the Effectiveness of Organizational

Change Management: Human Resource Management, 22(1/2), 183-199.
Retrieved 12/21/11 from
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/hrm.3930220125/abstract

6. Marshak, R.J. (2005). Contemporary Challenges to the Philosophy and

Practice of Organizational Development. In David L. Bradford and W.
Warner Burke (Eds.) Reinventing organizational development: New
approaches to change in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.

INTRODUCTION

School is one of the most important institutions in a society. It is a social

institution which reflects the culture and beliefs of the society where it exits. It is an

agent for bringing quality in education and in society, for clarifying authority, and for

aligning the curriculum with advances in knowledge and changes in society that will

enable man to explore the knowledge of the human race.

The social significance of elementary and secondary education is to prepare

the children to become responsible and productive individuals. At the institutional

level, the school reflects particular organizational schemes, where knowledge of

administration is extremely necessary to serve as a liaison connecting all

components of the curricular and instructional program with students and teachers

individual differences, culture and community needs. On the other hand, at the

classroom dimension, the schools function is to develop student literacy through

basic skill acquisition and higher order capacity. The underlying assumption
33
behind the effectiveness is the twin concern for people and task that a school

administrator must consider in his administration.

In most schools, the principal serves as the chief administrator. This person

directs the operation of the school according to policies set by the Department of

Education (DepEd). The exact duties of the principals vary among school districts.

But most have a partial responsibility for hiring school employees, developing

educational programs and planning each years budget. They generally shape this

responsibility with the Superintendent and with the School Board.

Our basic education has been blamed for imbalance between educational

outputs and manpower requirements. The concepts of all subjects at all levels shall

be related to the conditions of the time and their implications to our daily lives, to

the actual needs of the people and the local and national problems facing the

country.In response to the thrusts of rationalizing educational program to become

functional and effective, the Department of Education (DepEd) empowers the

school principals in both elementary and secondary levels to become effective in

administrative, supervisory and instructional functions.

Even if an organizations design is appropriate for its environment at a given

time, the managers must anticipate changes in the environment that will require

future adjustments in the organizations design. Any organization needs stability,

continuity, adaptation and innovation. On the other hand, organizational change is

the essence of adaptation and innovation. Change is any alteration in the present

state of a system. Thus, it is initiated, implemented, and maintained in

organizations to obtain a new and higher level of performance. Changes can be in

strategy, structure, technology, products and services or people. They are often

made in a reactive sense as a response to changes in the environment but they

34
can also be made in a pro-active sense as in innovation and invention. The

purpose is to increase the organizations level of competitiveness and boost the

productivity of its people.

Organizational Change

Organizational change is a structured approach in an organization to ensure

that changes are smoothly and successfully implemented to achieve lasting

benefits. In the modern business environment, organizations face rapid changes.

Globalization and the constant innovation of technology result in a constantly

evolving business environment. Phenomena such as social mediaand mobile

adaptability have revolutionized business and the effect of this is an ever increasing

need for change, and therefore it changes management. The growth in technology

also has a secondary effect of increasing the availability and therefore

accountability of knowledge. Easily accessible information has resulted in

unprecedented scrutiny from stockholders and the media. Prying eyes and listening

ears raise the stakes for failed business endeavors and increase the pressure on

struggling executives. With the business environment experiencing so much

change, organizations must then learn to become comfortable with change as well.

Therefore, the ability to manage and adapt to organizational change is an essential

ability required in the workplace today.

Due to the growth of technology, modern organizational change is largely

motivated by exterior innovations rather than internal moves. When these

developments occur, the organizations that adapt quickest create a competitive

advantage for themselves, while the companies that refuse to change get left

behind. This can result in drastic profit and/or market share losses.Organizational

change directly affects all departments from the entry level employee to senior
35
management. The entire company must learn how to handle changes to the

organization.When determining which of the latest techniques or innovations to

adopt, there are four major factors to be considered:

1. Levels, goals, and strategies

2. Measurement system

3. Sequence of steps

4. Implementation and organizational change

Regardless of the many types of organizational change, the critical aspect is

a companys ability to win the buy-in of their organizations employees on the

change. Effectively managing organizational change is a four-step process:

1. recognizing the changes in the broader business environment.

2. developing the necessary adjustments for their companys needs.

3. training their employees on the appropriate changes.

4. winning the support of the employees with the persuasiveness of the

appropriate adjustments.

As a multidisciplinary practice that has evolved as a result of scholarly

research, Organizational Change Management should begin with a systematic

diagnosis of the current situation in order to determine both the need for change

and the capability to change. The objectives, content, and process of change

should all be specified as part of a Change Management plan.Change

Management processes may include creative marketing to enable communication

between changing audiences, as well as deep social understanding about

leaderships styles and group dynamics. As a visible track on transformation

projects, Organizational Change Management aligns groups expectations,

communicates, integrates teams and manages people training. It makes use of

performance metrics, such as financial results, operational efficiency, leadership

36
commitment, communication effectiveness, and the perceived need for change to

design appropriate strategies, in order to avoid change failures or resolve troubled

change projects. Successful change management is more likely to occur if the

following are included:

1. Benefits management and realization to define measurable stakeholder

aims, create a business case for their achievement (which should be

continuously updated), and monitor assumptions, risks, dependencies,

costs, return on investment, dis-benefits and cultural issues affecting the

progress of the associated work.

2. Effective Communications that informs various stakeholders of the reasons

for the change (why?), the benefits of successful implementation (what is in

it for us, and you) as well as the details of the change (when? where? who is

involved? how much will it cost? etc.).

3. Devise an effective education, training and/or skills upgrading scheme for

the organization.

4. Counter resistance from the employees of companies and align them to

overall strategic direction of the organization.

5. Provide personal counseling (if required) to alleviate any change-related

fears.

6. Monitoring of the implementation and fine-tuning as required.

The Nature of Change

A change is any alteration in the present state of a system. For physical

systems, the change is typically induced from outside the system. Thus, an external

force may be applied on a physical object that is in a state of rest which puts it in a

37
state of motion. Or, heat may be applied on an object which changes its

temperature. Social systems can be changed in a similar fashion.

In social organizations, change is initiated, implemented, and maintained to

achieve a new and higher level of performance by the system. Changing involves

the deliberate introduction and management of discontinuity. The purpose is to

increase the organizations level of adaptation to its environment.

A conceptual scheme for organizational change is shown in the figure below.

The model depicts the notion that excellence, growth, and development as well as

satisfaction and high morale are achieved through adaptation and innovation. The

organization is seen as a system with at least five interacting variables: strategy,

structure, technology, products/services, and people. People have been located at

the centre because it is they who link all other variables in a productive way.

The organization tries to obtain a new level of performance and excellence

by adjusting its internal functions and processes as well as modifying its goals. This

means that any or all of the five variables may be changed to realize the necessary

adjustments. Furthermore, the systems elements are highly interdependent and

interrelated, and any change in one will have an influence on the others.

38
 ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE

Organization Internal
Adjustments

A I
Strategy Structure
D N
A N
P O Excellence
External T V Growth
People
Forces A A Development
T T
I I
O Technology O
Products/
N N
Services

Modification of Goals

Individual Change in Behaviour

Individual change in behaviour involves a complex process of personal and

social learning. It is a process whereby people unlearn old patterns of behaviour

and adopt new ones. As a manager, you should not monopolize the decision-

making in a certain organization. Consider that there is a person more competent

than you in a specific issue being faced by the organization. You should be willing

how to accept your weaknesses and undergo a constructive change. You might be

the highest positioned individual in an organization you belong but it doesnt mean

that you are the most intelligent one in dealing with a particular problem or

situation. You should submit yourself for a change if needed.

Model of the Change Process (Force Field Diagram)

39
 Force-Field Analysis, developed by Lewin, can be used as a general

approach to altering the existing equilibrium to make way for proposed change. A

person, or group, or organization can be seen as being in the midst of a force field.

These forces may internal or external to the system; and they may be physical,

psychological, social, political, economic, and technological. The balance of these

forces at any given time determines the state of the system. Thus, change is

inhibited and the status quo is maintained.

Forces for Change Forces for Maintaining Status Quo

New Technology
Group Performance Norms

Better Raw Materials

Fear of Change

Competition from Other Groups

Member Complacency

Supervisor Pressures
Well Learned Skills

CURRENT LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE HIGHER LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE

Note: Length of arrow is equal to amount of force.
Kurt Lewin identified three (3) steps in the Change Process

CHANGING

Trial with New

UNFREEZING Behaviour REFREEZING

Dissatisfaction with Satisfaction with New

Old Behaviour Behaviour

THE PROCESS OF LEARNING

40
Responses to Change

In interacting with their environment, organizations tend to achieve internal

equilibrium over a period of time. This means that people and groups know what to

do and they know what to expect. They have accustomed to doing things the way

these have been done before. They feel comfortable with things as they are. They

relate to one another and to their jobs in ways that are familiar and comfortable.

There is stability. There is continuity. There is predictability.

Change constitutes a discontinuity that threatens the existing equilibrium.

Whenever change threatens a group, the group responds to oppose it and to

maintain the kind of equilibrium it has been used to. Each pressure for change

produces a counter pressure within the group so as to return to it its previous

balance its perceived best way of life. This self-correcting property is called

homeostasis. People behave to establish and maintain a state of need fulfilment

and to protect them from any disturbance.

Different individuals respond to change in various ways. Mainly, individual

response is conditioned by the persons feelings and attitudes toward the change.

The force for change interacts with the individuals internal desires, values, and

motivations to produce a response. The persons interpretation of change will,

likewise, be influenced by his experience both inside and outside the organization.

For instance, some may see only the benefits of change while may see only the

cost of change. The person may respond in various ways, sometimes in an

unexpected manner. Certainly, not all responses to change will be negative. After

all, there are changes that people do desire.

Apart from individual response, group response should also be anticipated.

Here, group forces operate on individuals so that they present a common response
41
to change. For example, the group may stage a work slowdown as a response to

pressures to increase work output although not all members favour it. Group

norms, group loyalty, and group identification engenders the formation of a group

response built on consensus. Rather than different and even conflicting individual

responses, what comes about is a unified stance.

Individual Response to Change

Change Response

Individual
Personal attitudes and Work
History Sentiments Situation

Management
Culture Style

Group Response to Change

Individual Desires

A 42
Indifference

B
 Group
Change
Demands

StimulusActual Response

Kotter's eight - step change model can be summarised as:

1. Increase urgency. Inspire people to move, make objectives real and

relevant.

2. Build the guiding team. Get the right people in place with the right

emotional commitment, and the right mix of skills and levels.

3. Get the vision right. Get the team to establish a simple vision and strategy

to focus on emotionally and creative aspects necessary to drive service and

efficiency.

4. Communicate for buy-in. Involve as many people as possible to

communicate the essentials simply to appeal and respond to people's

needs.

5. Empower action. Remove obstacles, enable constructive feedback and lots

of support from leaders - reward and recognise progress and achievements.

6. Create short-term wins. Set aims that are easy to achieve. Create

manageable numbers of initiatives. Finish current stages before starting new

ones.

43
 7. Don't let up. Foster and encourage determination and persistence.

8. Make change stick - Reinforce the value of successful change via

recruitment, promotion, and new change leaders. Weave change into

culture.

Resistance to Change

A major obstacle to the implementation of new policies, goals, or methods of

operation is the resistance of organization members to change. As people settle

down and become habituated to certain conditions, they resist most changes

because these are seen as threat to the status quo. It upsets existing patterns of

relationships. People are required to make necessary adjustments to the new

situation. At the time, change forces people to confront uncertainly and

unpredictability. Most people find that uncomfortable and stressful changes. Rather

than venture into unknown and unpredictable, most people seek comfort in what is

familiar and routine.

To be sure, not all changes within organization are not a major scale, like the

transition from centralization to decentralization that can produce large imbalances

and very high uncertainty. Many changes are relatively minor, such as adding a

new employee to a work group, and they affect only a few number of people. In any

case, the reactions of people will have to be anticipated and addressed in order to

increase the likelihood of successful change.

Among possible responses to change, that one that is of primary interest to

change agent is resistance to change. Resistance to change consists of behaviours

that tend to delay if not stop the process of change. It can include habitual

complaints, work slowdowns, and sabotage. Active resistance can derail the entire

process.

44
Sources of Resistance to Change

Most people tend to resist change and the change agent cannot expect to

gain full support among all those who could be affected by change. People cannot

be expected to give the same level of support to every change that is made. Some

may give weak, moderate, or strong support in one instance, and yet actively

oppose change in another. As change agents, managers aim not to eliminate

resistance but to minimize it in a manner similar to managing conflict. The following

are the sources of resistance to change.

1. Uncertainty about the causes and effects of change.

Organization members may resist change because they are

worried about how their work and lives will be affected by the

proposed change. When the change is initiated by someone else,

they may feel manipulated and wonder what the real intention

behind the change is.

2. Unwillingness to give up existing benefits. Appropriate change

should benefit the organization as a whole, but for some

individuals, the cost of change in terms of lower power, prestige,

salary, quality of work, or other benefits will not be sufficiently

offset by the rewards of change.

3. Awareness of weaknesses in the changes proposed.

Organization members may resist change because they are aware

of potential problems that have apparently been overlooked by the

change initiators.

45
Kinds of Resistance

The resistance of people to change can have four different bases: rational,

emotional, social, and political. As shown in the following figure, rational objections

result from a logical appraisal of the merits and demerits of change. These include

time and cost considerations. Resistance can also be based on emotions. Feelings

and attitudes toward the change, the change agent, and others involved in the

change process condition the response. Likewise, objections can be based on

social factors. Here, group forces and the desire to maintain relationship operate to

sustain the status quo. Finally, change can be rejected due to political

considerations. On this basis, there is a desire to preserve existing power

relationship.

Usually, the resistance will be based on a combination of reasons rather

than just one. Naturally, resistance to change is expected to be stronger if there are

many reasons against it. On the other hand, it is possible that the objection might

be based primarily on just a few factors, although other justifications are used to

hide the real reasons for resistance. For instance, in order to preserve power and

authority, rational arguments might be resorted to.

Origin of Resistance to Change

Rational

Possible unemployment
Interference in career patterns
Time to adjust
Costs of change

Emotional

Dislike of change agent

Distrust of other people involved in the change
Desire to keep the status quo
Fear of uncertainty
46
 Social

Need for stable human relationship

Desire to maintain existing friendships
Loyalty and group solidarity
Inconsistency of change with group values

Political

Desire to maintain power

Need to retain existing coalitions
Preservation of decision-making authority
Narrow vested interests

Resistance to change can be frustrating for change agents. But, moderate

resistance is good for the organization. If most employees resist a particular

change and top management, likewise, doesnt support it, probably, the change is

not necessary. Change is disruptive and stressful and it should not be pursued for

its own sake. Moderate resistance to change serves as a control mechanism to

prevent the proliferation of petty and cosmetic changes which benefit no one but

unduly disturb system equilibrium.

Overcoming Resistance to Change

Resistance to a change proposal is a signal to managers that something is

wrong with the proposal or that mistakes have been made in its presentation.

Managers, therefore, must determine the actual causes of resistance and then

remain flexible enough to overcome them in an appropriate manner. Kotter and

Schlesinger offer six ways of overcoming resistance to change.

47
1. Education and communication. If the need for and logic of the

change are explained early whether individually to subordinates,

to groups in meetings, or to entire organizations through elaborate

audio-visual education campaigns the road to successful change

may be smother.

2. Participation and involvement. According to a classic study by

Lester Coch and John French, resistance to change can be

reduced or eliminated by having those involved participate in the

design of the change. Paul Lawrence came to similar conclusions,

suggesting that in order to avoid resistance; managers should take

into account what he called the social effects of change.

3. Facilitation and support. Easing the change process and

providing support for those caught up in it is another way

managers can deal with resistance. Retraining programs, allowing

time off after a difficult period, and offering emotional support and

understanding may help.

4. Negotiation and agreement. It is sometimes necessary for a

manager to negotiate with avowed or potential resisters to change,

and even to obtain written letters of understanding from the heads

of organizational subunits that would be affected by the change.

5. Manipulation and co-optation. Sometimes managers covertly

steer individuals or groups away from resistance to change, or

they may co-opt an individual, perhaps a key person within a

group, by giving him or her desirable role in designing or carrying

out the change.

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 6. Explicit and implicit coercion. Managersmay force people to go

along with a change by explicit or implicit threats involving loss or

transfer of jobs, lack of promotion, and the like. Such methods,

though common, risk making it more difficult to gain support for

future change efforts.

Diagram of Interdependent Organizational Elements

Structure

Organizational People
Activities (Tasks)

Technology

Nature of Change Management

Organization needs stability and continuity as well as adaptation and

innovation. Without some stability, any organization cannot function, yet, without

adaptation it cannot survive. The choice is not between continuity and discontinuity

but a balance between them. They go in hand; and, organizations can continuously

adapt without being destabilized.

Organizational change is the essence of adaptation and innovation. People

and organizations need to be flexible in order to respond to changes in the

environment, or, otherwise, take advantage of them. Often, however, the need for

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change is overlooked. Lulled into false sense of security, they plod along their old

ways. They fail to make the corresponding adjustments to environmental changes

until they suffer in mediocrity or lose their competitive edge entirely. Eventually, the

result is organizational failure.

As the necessity for change looms larger than ever, a more positive attitude

toward it is essential. Managers need to plan and control change to give direction

and consistency to it. As change agents, their aim is to raise the level of

performance by people and groups. Managers must themselves be open to

continuous change if they are to be able to cause change in others.

Complacency is the enemy of effectiveness. In order for people or

organization to succeed, they must be willing and able to change. Changing for the

better seems like an old clich. But in todays competitive world, usually, nothing

else will suffice. The role of the manager is to manage change skilfully.

Reactive and Pro-active Adaptation

Adaptation can be achieved in a reactive or pro-active way. Organizational

change can be reactive in the sense that the internal changes are made in

response to external forces. As it happens, constant environmental change is the

reality of modern life. The technological, economic, social, and political environment

of the firm changes over time. Markets and industries develop, grow, and mature.

Industry competitors come and go, increasing or decreasing the intensity of

competition. All these require appropriate responses from the organization or it will

simply be left behind.

A primary source of external pressures is the structure of industry

competition. In response to strategic moves by competitors, the organization can

develop a new strategy, restructure the organization, acquire new technology,

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introduce new products or services, or, it can change the behaviour of people in the

organization. Usually, a combination of responses by the firm would be required.

Thus, external changes trigger internal changes as the firm make adjustments to

improve the previous level of performance.

It would seem as though the position of the firm relative to the environment

is mainly a reactive one, i.e., the firm merely responds to changes in the

environment. That happens frequently, but, organizational changes may also be

made in a pro-active manner when organizations are forward-looking. They initiate

changes in anticipation of pressures in the future. There is also an internal desire

for creativity and innovation. People in the organization see creativity and

imagination as the keys to excellent performance. They do not sit around and wait

until the next crisis before taking action; instead, they seek or create changes on

their own. Pro-active organizations can be seen as changing environments as well

as themselves.

Forces for Change

In organizations, change proposals may come from anyone. They may

come from rank and file, supervisors, managers, and key executives, or from

suppliers and customers. However, many changes originate from

management. Management, therefore, acts as the change agent. It initiates

the change and sees to its proper adoption and implementation. As a

manager, you should anticipate that changes may occur any time. You

should study and analyse how the two forces of change be dealt with to

maintain the internal equilibrium and goals of an organization you manage.

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 1. External forces. They are the environmental factors which include

increasing costs and scarcity of natural resources, worker safety and

antipollution regulations, consumer boycotts, higher levels of education in

the labour market, high interest rates and technological advancements.

2. Internal Forces. Pressures for change may also arise from a number of

sources within the organization, particularly from new strategies,

technologies, and employee attitudes and behaviour. These forces may

also include worker dissatisfaction that will lead to strikes.

Planned Change versus Reactive Change

Planned change is greater in scope and magnitude than reactive change.

It is a means of dealing with those changes that may be crucial for survival. It

involves a greater commitment of time and resources, requires more skills and

knowledge for successful implementation, and can lead to more problems if

implementation is unsuccessful.

K to 12 DepEd program is an example of a planned change. This program

undergoes several steps before its implementation in the field. Several trainings

and seminars are conducted to let the stakeholders adapt the global trend of

education. The program has been pilot-tested to determine its weaknesses and

strengths. Immediate change of an administration in an organization can create

several reactions. This change of management can be considered as reactive

change since the new installed head of office will have to adjust to win the hearts of

his new subordinates.

Approaches to Planned Change

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 Organizations are made up of there (3) interacting, interdependent

elements which include structure, technology, and people.

1. Structural Approach. Leavitt divides structural efforts to bring about

organizational change into three areas:

1. Classical organizational design seeks to improve organizational

performance by carefully defining the job responsibilities of organization

members and by creating appropriate divisions of labour and lines of

duty. Managers can still improve the performance of their organizations

by changing management spans, job description, and areas of

responsibility, reporting relationships, and the like.

2. Decentralization creates smaller, self-contained organizational units that

increase the motivation and performance of the members of those units

and help them focus their attention on the highest-priority activities. It

also permits each unit to adapt its own structure and technology to the

task it performs and to its external environment.

3. Modifying the flow of work in the organization and careful grouping

of specialities may also lead directly to an improvement in productivity

and to higher morale and work satisfaction.

Strategy for Making Changes

A change strategy is necessary for any type of change. Change managers

need to develop an explicit strategy in order to increase the likelihood of successful

change. The strategy will consist of a number of activities that should be carried out

to help managers initiate and implement changes effectively.

1. Determine a real need for change.

2. Look for an idea that suits the need.

3. Consider the benefits and costs of change.

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 4. Obtain support for change.

5. Change by small steps at a time.

6. Assign an idea champion.

7. Determine any post change problems and treat them.

The Group as a Target of Change

The context of change is important. Individuals do not stand in isolation.

They belong to a group. Dorwin Cartwright suggests that to change the behaviour

of individuals, it may be necessary to modify the standards of the group where they

belong: the leadership style, emotional climate, structure and communicating

patterns. Cartwright identified tree (3) considerations with respect to the group as a

target of change, as follows:

1. Shared perception of need for change. The facts and arguments must

be the accepted property of the group if they are to become a useful

basis for change.

2. Shared information. Information relating to the need for change plans

for change, and consequences of change must be shared by all relevant

people in the group.

3. Relations with other groups. Changes in one part of the group produce

strain in other related parts which can be reduced only by eliminating the

change or by bringing about readjustments in the related parts.

Managerial Responses to Pressures for Change

Ideas for change are more easily generated than implemented.

Implementation is the most difficult aspect of changing. No matter how

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cogent the argument for change may be, chances are, its implementation will

conflict with some interests and disturb existing relationships. There are two

common responses that managers do in responding to changes.

1. By denying that they exist, resisting them, or avoiding them. This

approach is considered to be destructive response and is not advisable.

2. To deal with change, managers should use two major approaches. First,

they should react to the signs that changes are needed, making

piecemeal modifications to deal with particular problems as they arise.

Second, they should develop a program of planned change, making

significant investments of time and other sources to alter the ways their

organizations operate.

Functions of Management and Roles of Managers

The management functions have been conceptualized in various ways. One

of the earliest of these conceptualizations was Luther Gulicks POSDCORB

acronym (1937) which stands for planning, organizing, staffing, directing,

coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. Russell Gregg 91957) conceptualized

seven management functions: decision-making, planning, organizing,

communicating, influencing, coordinating, and evaluating.

The seven management functions adopted from Massies conceptualization

and discussed in this book are as follows:

1. Decision-making the process by which a course of action is

consciously chosen from available alternatives for the purpose of

achieving a desired result.

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 2. Organizing the process by which the structure and allocation of jobs

are determined.

3. Staffing the process by which managers select, train, promote and

retire subordinates.

4. Planning the process by which a manager anticipates the future and

discovers alternative courses open to him.

5. Controlling the process that measures current performance and

guides it toward some predetermined goal.

6. Communicating the process by which ideas are transmitted to others

for the purpose of effecting a desired result.

7. Directing (Leadership) the process by which actual performance of

subordinates is guided toward common goals. Supervising is one aspect

of this function at lower levels where physical overseeing of work is

possible.

8. Innovating the process of making or introducing changes in the

organization, such as a new method, a new technique, a new approach,

etc.

Career Management

Career management is both an individual and organization program of

planning, pathing and development of ones present and future work activities to fit

his abilities, skills, competencies and aspirations. In some organizations, this

extends even to his life line outside of the work environment and after his

retirement since his career affects his family life. Thus, he accepts responsibility for

his work activities and for his achievement being involved in planning them.

Research indicates increased productivity, deeper job satisfaction and higher

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retention of employees as beneficial effects of career management program in the

organization. Since the typical, average Filipino workers are shy to articulate their

career plan, management should help them plot and path their career and life line

by institutionalizing this program. A healthy partnership is entered into by the

organization with individuals minimizing, if not precluding entirely, charges of

donation and exploitation of workers.

Time Management

With very heavy and hectic schedule not only in the work setting but also in

the personal and family-cultural activities, managers would do well to value and use

time propitiously and judiciously. Because of its being invisible, elusive, transitive

and successive, time is a resource that is difficult to manage.

Time is both objective and subjective depending on ones state of feelings,

ones culture, ones goals and ones culture. It is thus person-centered and culture

bound. Businessmen and managers who go by action and competition are

servomechanism of time. They are its slaves instead of time serving them.

While in the final analysis, time management is a responsibility of the

individual, the organization can assist through proper scheduling and control of

activities like reduction of numerous meetings, reports, visitors from head office,

readings, clear goals, sound organizational structure, effective personnel

recruitment, screening and selection procedures, and adequate management

information system.

Stress Management

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 The heavy, fast-paced work schedule and unpleasant conditions in many

organizations today, not mentioning the personal, family activities, causes undue

anxiety, conflict and tension among staff from top to bottom levels. If not well

managed, they put the individuals under stress. Too much stress may lead to

counterproductive actions.

Stress is a physiological and psychological agent that causes an individual

to make changes in his work, family and life. On the physiological level, reaction to

uncertain yet important situations causes the pituitary and adrenal glands to

secrete hormones increasing his bodily functions like blood pressure, heart rate,

sugar release into the blood stream. On the psychological level, the individual

experiences anxiety, tension and increased alertness.

Some cultures are more stressed prone than others. People relationships

that are short, fast and quick, a rat-race speed, material-centered value system,

unsupportive work environment are stressors in highly industrialized-citified

societies which are less found in rural areas and developing countries.

The System Approaches in Management

An organize enterprise is dependent on its environment. It is a part of the

larger system, e.g., the industry to which it belongs, the economic and political

systems, and society, in general. Thus, the enterprise receives inputs, transforms

them and exports the outputs to the bigger environment. It is to be noted that any

business organization is described as open-systems models that include

interactions between the enterprise and its external environment.

1. Inputs and claimants. The inputs in the external environment include

people, capital, technical knowledge and skills and managerial skills.

Various groups of people make demands on the enterprise. They are

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 higher pay, job security and professional development. On the other

hand, consumers demand safe and reliable products at reasonable

prices. Suppliers want assurance that their products will be

patronized. Stockholders want high returns on their investment and

security for their money. Other claimants to the enterprise include

financial institutions and labour unions. It may be inferred that many

of these claims are not congruent, and it is the managers job to

integrate the legitimate objectives of the claimants. This may be done

through trade-offs and compromise.

2. The managerial Transformation Process. The main task of

managers is to transform the inputs, in an effective and efficient

manner, into outputs. The transformation process may be viewed

from different perspectives. The focus may be on finance, personnel,

production and marketing. However, the most comprehensive and

useful approach for the job of the managers is to use the managerial

functions of planning, organizing, staffing, leading and controlling the

various activities to be undertaken by the enterprise.

3. The Communication System. Communications, which is the act of

imparting thoughts and information, is essential to all phases of the

managerial process for two reasons. First, it integrates the managerial

functions. The objectives set in the planning process are

communicated so that appropriate organizational structure can be

devised. Communication is important in recruitment and selection,

appraisal, and trainings of managers to fill the roles in the

organization. Effective leadership and the creation of an environment

conducive to motivation depend, to a larger extent, on

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 communication.The second purpose of communication system is to

link the enterprise with its external environment, where many of the

claimants interplay. The customers who are the very reason for the

existence of business should be the primary consideration. It is

through the communication system that needs of the customers are

identified; hence, the knowledge enables the firm to provide the

necessary products and services at a profit. It is through an effective

communication system that the enterprise becomes aware of

competition and other potential threats and constraining factors.

4. External variables. Effective managers normally scan the external

environment. While it is true that managers have no power to change

the external environment, they have no choice but to respond to it.

The external environment comprises the economic, the social, the

technological, the political and legal, and the needs of the customers.

While technology provides many benefits, it may also create some

problems. To understand better the scope of technology, the

managers should consider its numerous categories. Some authorities

in the field of management recommend that business institutionalize

ethics and develop a code of ethics that should be observed. The

complexity of the various factors in the extreme environment should

be the main concern of managers.

Management by Objectives

Management by objectives is a comprehensive managerial system,

integrating many key activities, consciously directed toward effective achievement

of organizational and individual objectives. This is the rationale why organizations

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require consistent levels of high performance from their employees in order to

survive in a competitive environment. Management by objectives (MBO) is a

cyclical process consisting of steps to achieve the desired results:

1. Objective setting This is a joint undertaking by managers and

employees of appropriate levels of future performance

Leadership

Leadership is both an activity and a process. It is an activity of influencing

people to band together for common purpose and endeavour by the inspiration and

guidance of a leader determined to achieve that purpose. Any person who can

influence people to cooperate to pursue a common purpose is a leader. On the

other hand, leadership is a process of interaction by which desire and purpose are

being advanced to attain the common good. It draws out the best in the

organization; it liberates energy and husbands it for the accomplishment of a

common cause. It is neither a denomination nor a monopoly of power. Rather, it is

interplay of stimulus and action ever moving to preconceived goals in which

everyone contributes his efforts as his talents and time permit. Furthermore,

leadership is not exploitation, and neither is it abuse of trust. It is, rather, an

expression of a covenant arising from a consensus of the organization.

Accordingly, a leader worth his salt does not remain a storehouse. He has to

function as a powerhouse a kind of generator which propels people to action. And

as a human dynamo, he is expected to be a miracle knowledge worker, with the

fiery steam of a president, the tantrums of a prima donna, and the indefatigability of

a political candidate. It means that leadership requires some forms of excellence,

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barrels of achievement, and busloads of accomplishment. Leadership is the best

possible means to measure the distance between the dust and the stars.

Leadership, on the other side, is the ability and readiness to inspire, guide,

direct or manage others. A Leader, for instance, is ordinarily understood to be a

prominent and active person. In addition to this, leadership is not an attribute of the

personality but a quality of his role within a particular or specified social system.

Viewed in relation to the group, leadership is a quality of its structure. A leader is an

individual who is moving in a particular direction and who succeeds in inducing

others to follow. Behaviour on the part of an individual which results in his being

considered a good leader is adequate leadership.

Leadership seeks to bring people and groups from where they are to where

they have not been. It enables people to go beyond the confines of mediocrity and

trend into realm of excellence. In the process, it induces people to define their

desires and to pursue them with passion. Ultimately, leadership transforms

potential into reality. People can wander aimlessly for years without a sense of

direction. Worse, they may not even be aware of it. Leaders seek to inject a vision

that encompasses the values and expectations of both leaders and followers. It is a

picture of what and where they want to be. It binds leaders and followers in a joint

of intermediate goals. Performance beyond the commonplace is the key. Here,

leadership is necessary. To be effective, managers must develop their ability to

lead. Leadership complements manager ship to make excellent performance

possible.

Leadership is very important aspect of management. It is the art or process

of influencing people so that they will strive willingly and enthusiastically toward the

achievement of group goals. It does not mean only willingness to work but also
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willingness to work with zeal and confidence. Leadership is the influential

increment over and above mechanical compliance with the routine directives of the

organization. This means that an organizational role may encompass different

objectives, but become non-personal so motivation is closely interrelated. By

understanding motivation, one can appreciate better what and why they act as they

do.

For an organization or group to exist, to survive and to function, effective

leadership plays a crucial role. Although leadership is highly related to and vital to

management, leadership and management are not similar concepts. One can serve

as an effective manager but lacks still of a leader or the opposite. Today, many

organizations are putting a heavy premium on managers who possess leadership

skills. However, John P. Kottler suggested a view that espouses a rather

synergistic relationship between management and leadership. He pointed out that,

management produces orderly results. Leadership creates useful change. You

need both to be effective.

The Leadership Choice

Whenever a problem or opportunity arises that requires the involvement of

other people, the leader must make a choice. The essential leadership choice is to

decide on a power base coercion, utility, or principles. The choice will be limited

by the character and by his interactive skills, capacity, and history. It is relatively

easy, when push comes to shove and pressures are on, to lean on position or

status or credentials or affiliation or size to force someone else to follow. In the

absence of well-developed interactive skills, or the capacity to remain true to deeply

held values under pressure or a history of integrity and trust in others, it is almost

impossible not to resort to force when a leader is in the middle of a crisis.

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 For the leader who wishes to increase principle-centered power, a long-term

commitment is required. Trust in relationships, which is the foundation of principle-

centered power, cannot be fabricated ad hoc. Sincerity cannot be faked for long.

Eventually leaders reveal themselves, and what a leader is, beyond what the leader

can do to followers, ultimately determines the depth of principle-centered power he

has.

POWER PROCESS

YOU

LEADERSHIP CHOICE

Principle-centered Power Utility Power Coercive Power

Honor Fairness Fear

Sustained Proactive Function Reactive Temporary Reactive

Influence Influence Control

Ten Power Tools of Leadership

The more a leader is respected and genuinely regarded by others, the more

legitimate power he will have with his subordinates. There are ten suggestions for

processes and principles that will increase a leaders power and respect with his

subordinates.

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5. Persuasion, which includes sharing and rationale, making a strong

case for ones position or desire while maintaining genuine respect for

followers ideas and perspectives; tells why as well as what; commits

to stay in the communication process until mutually beneficial and

satisfying outcomes are reached.

6. Patience, with the process and the person. In spite of the failings,

shortcomings and inconveniences created by followers, ones own

impatience and anticipation for achieving goals; maintain a long-term

perspective and stay committed to goals in the face of short-term

obstacles and resistance.

7. Gentleness, not harshness, hardness, or forcefulness, when dealing

with vulnerabilities, disclosures, and feelings followers might express.

8. Teachable, which means operating with the assumption that one

does not have all the answers, all the insights, and valuing the

different viewpoints, judgements, and experiences followers may

have.

9. Acceptance, withholding judgement, giving the benefit of the doubt,

requiring no evidence or specific performance as a condition for

sustaining high self-worth making them ones agenda.

10. Kindness, sensitive, caring, thoughtful and remembering the little

things (which are the big things) in relationships.

11. Openness, acquiring accurate information and perspective about

followers as they can become while being worthy of respect for what

they are now, regardless of what they own, control, or do, giving full

consideration to their intentions, desires, values and goals rather than

focusing exclusively on their behaviour.

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 12. Compassionate confrontation, acknowledging error, mistakes, and

the need to make course corrections in a context of genuine care,

concern, and warmth, making it safe for followers to risk.

13. Consistency, so that ones leadership style is not a manipulative

technique that can bring into play when he doesnt get his way, is

faced with crisis or challenge, or feeling trapped; rather, this becomes

a set of values, a personal code, a manifestation of character, a

reflection of who one is and who he is becoming.

14. Integrity, honesty, matching words and feelings with thoughts and

actions, with no desire other than good of others, without malice or

desire to deceive or take advantage, manipulate or control; constantly

reviewing ones intent as he strives for congruence.

TRAITS OF A LEADER

A leader envisions the future. He inspires the members of the organization

and charts the course of the enterprise. Here are some traits of a good leader.

1. Knowledge A leader must have a thorough knowledge of the

capabilities and limitations of his subordinates. He should be endowed

with superior intelligence and have the necessary professional know-how

of the job.

2. Bearing A leader is dignified in appearance and behaviour to earn

respect. He should not be seen anywhere except those places promoting

a high morale of workmanship.

3. Courage A leader must possess the physical and mental ability to act

decisively with fortitude and tenacity in spite of danger and hardships.

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4. Endurance A leader must have a physical and mental endurance to

continue relentlessly in pursuing the goals and objectives of the

organization for a common good.

5. Enthusiasm A leader mustpossess a higher degree of interest and

sensitivity in responding to the needs of the organization.

6. Integrity A leader must possess a good moral character and an

impeccable integrity.

7. Decisiveness A leader should have the ability to decide promptly and

correctly at the proper time and to announce his decision clearly and

briefly with authority.

8. Dependability A leader must demonstrate a higher degree of initiative

in the performance of his duty even with or without supervision.

9. Force A leader must be able to demonstrate efficacious power within

the bounds of law to compel obedience among his subordinates.

10. Humility A leader must possess the virtue of humility the state of

being reasonably modest and not proud, assuming, arrogant, and

boastful.

11. Humor A leader must possess a good sense of humor which is a metal

disposition to appreciate and narrate amusing incidents of everyday life

in a comical way.

12. Initiative A leader must have the ability to start or originate an idea or a

work concept leading to action when others are absent or passive.

13. Judgement A leader must have the power of mind to weigh intervening

factors affecting a problem and to decide with due care and prudence.

14. Justice A leader must be able to render judgement which conforms to

principles of reason, to generally accepted standards of right and wrong,

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 and to the sated terms of laws, policies and rules. He should be impartial

in rendering punishment and giving credit where credit is due.

15. Loyalty A leader must be sincere and faithful to the ideals of the

organization.

16. Sympathy A leader must be able to understand and to share the

feelings of another, especially in time of sorrow or adversity.

17. Empathy A leader must show some intellectual and emotional

identification with feelings, thoughts, and attitudes to employees affected

by pain because of misfortune.

18. Tact A leader must observe prudence to avoid giving offense. This is a

keen feeling and a sense of what is appropriate, tasteful and aesthetically

pleasing.

19. Unselfishness A leader must show some degree of magnanimous

considerations to subordinates without prejudicing the interest of others

who are in need of help.

20. Wit A leader must possess a keen perception and appropriate

expression of amusing words and ideas which awaken amusement and

pleasure.

Leadership Traits

Leadership is at once personal, interpersonal, and situational. But it can be

viewed from perspective at a time. At personal level, traits and skills are

highlighted. At the interpersonal level, style comes to the fore. Finally, at the

situational level, which is discussed in the next section, the contingent nature of

leadership manifests itself. Style emerges at both personal and interpersonal

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levels. A manager draws from each perspective the salient points that he may find

useful in his actual leadership. Leadership, after all, is more practice than theory.

Jose Rizal, Andres Bonifacion, and ApolinarioMabini were all great leaders,

and so were Mao Zedong and Mahatma Gandhi. Looking at the social and political

milieu of their times, they sought to change it. In the pursuit of their purpose, they

displayed the kind of courage, determination, and tenacity that overcome obstacles.

Each of them in his own way exuded charisma that fired the imagination of their

followers to pursue impossible dreams. They scaled the heights of human

achievement. Certainly, personality traits must have played a role.

Perhaps, it was Sun Wu Tzu who first recognized the importance of

personality traits in leadership. Sun Wu Tzu wrote The Art of War 2,300 years ago.

In that classic piece of Chinese literature, he identified five qualities that a military

leader should possess: wisdom, sincerity, benevolence, courage, and strictness.

Sun Wu Tzu also recognized five weaknesses that could afflict a general: if

reckless, he can be killed, if cowardly, he can be captured, if quick-tempered, he

can be easily provoked, if sensitive to honour, he can be easily insulted and if over-

compassionate to the people, he can easily be harassed.

Thus, the analysis of leadership began with the study of personality traits of

leaders. The idea is that leaders are born and not made. In other words, leadership

is large a matter of genetics. In the trait approach, theorists sought to identify

certain personality traits like intelligence, ambition, and charisma that are

associated with effective leaders. Murray Ross and Charles Hendry drew a

personality profile of effective leaders from many tests conducted to identify

leadership traits. In general, they found that effective leaders have attributes as

follows: a) self-confident, well-integrated, and emotionally stable, b) warm,

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sensitive, and sympathetic, toward other people and give practical, helpful

suggestions, c) intelligent in relation to the group members, d) identify with the

goals and values of the groups they lead, e) want to take leadership responsibility

and are competent in handling new situation, and f) can be relied on to perform

leadership functions consistently.

If a consistent relationship between leadership effectiveness and personality

traits exists, it would be easy to pinpoint people who could be effective leaders by

testing whether these people possess such traits. However, no consistent pattern

of relationship between traits and leadership ability has been found. In many

instances, people who possess many of the traits do not become effective leaders

while those who possess only a few can also be effective. As a result, the trait

approach to leadership has lost much of its appeal.

Leadership Skills

Skills can be taught, learned, acquired, developed and practiced. This

means that everyone has the potential to become a leader. In so far as leadership

skills are concerned, Henry Mintzberg described the following:

1. Skills of introspection the ability to understand the position of a

leader and his impact on the organization.

2. Entrepreneurial skills the ability to take sensible risks and implement

innovations.

3. Conflict-resolution skills the ability to mediate conflict, to handle

disturbances under psychological stress.

4. Peer skills the ability to establish and maintain a network of contacts

with equals.

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 5. Information-processing skills the ability to build networks, extract

and validate information and disseminate information effectively.

6. Skills in unstructured decision-making the ability to find problems

and solutions when alternatives, information, and objectives are

ambiguous.

7. Resource generation and allocation skills the ability to find and

develop resources as well as to decide among alternative uses of time

and other scarce organizational resources.

Leadership Style

Leadership style is the pattern of behaviour and actions that leaders make

over a period of time as perceived by followers. It is how leaders behave, over time,

when they are trying to influence the performance of others. Style is the visible

aspect of leadership. It can be seen in the day-to-day interactions of leaders with

followers. It is a manifestation of a leaders assumptions, philosophies, and

attitudes.

Any management style has salient features which can be readily observed.

Don Andres R. Soriano practiced a paternalistic style of management.

1. He viewed workers as human beings with needs, men of dignity and

honour. He chatted with them and listened to their problems. Workers

were not mere statistics in a business ledger.

2. He looked after the welfare of his employees and this concern extended

beyond their personal needs. He also looked after the well-being of their

families.

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 3. He expected his subordinates to know their jobs. He expected them to

have the answers to his questions at once. He wanted them at his beck

and call while he was working.

4. He compensated his workers well, but he demanded utmost loyalty from

them. Invariably, because of his fatherly attitude towards them, they

wholeheartedly gave him loyalty.

5. He gave the recognition to a job well done. He would personally

commend those who performed well with the advice that one should

never to be contented with ones work and to always improve.

6. He hesitated to lay off personnel, but if this had to be done during a

business downturn, he issued directives that laid-off personnel must be

rehired as soon as operations return to normal.

Components of the Leadership Situation

Certain factors in the leadership situation either enhance or inhibit the extent

of control and influence that leaders have over the outcomes of their actions and

decisions. Knowledge of these factors should enable managers to select what

leadership style will be effective. In the work setting, Fiedler identified three primary

components that determine control and influence in the situation: leader-member

relations, task structure, and position power.

1. Leader-Member Relations. This concerns the degree to which group

supports the leader. Fiedler considered this to be the mostimportant

single element in the leaders situational control. If the leader has the

groups support, he doesnt have to rely as heavily on position power or

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 task structure to obtain compliance. Group members accept the leaders

decisions and are eager to get things done.

2. Task structure. This is the degree to which the task clearly spells out

goals, procedures, and guidelines. Fiedler regarded this as the second

most important dimension of control and influence. If the tasks or

assignments are spelled out in great detail, there is a good chance that

these will be accomplished. In contrast, with an unstructured task, no one

can predict whether a plan will be successful until it is implemented.

3. Position Power. This is the extent to which the position gives the leader

authority to reward and punish that the organization vests on the

leadership position for the purpose of directing subordinates. According

to Fiedler, position power is the least important of the three dimensions of

situational control. No matter how much enough to [prevent sabotage by

a disgruntled subordinate or to evoke more than a grudging effort from an

uncooperative group.

The Path-Goal Approach to Leadership Effectiveness

According to path-Goal Theory, the main function of the leader is to clarify

and set goals with subordinates, help them find the best path for achieving the

goals, and remove obstacles. This theory categorizes leader behaviour into four

groups:

1. Supportive Leadership Behaviour. It gives consideration to the needs

of subordinates, shows a concern for their well-being, and creates a

pleasant organizational climate. It has the greatest impact on

subordinates performance when they are frustrated and dissatisfied.

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 2. Participative Leadership. It allows subordinates to influence the

decisions of their superiors and can result in increased motivation.

3. Instrumental Leadership. It gives subordinates rather specific guidance

and clarifies what is expected of them; this includes aspects of planning,

organizing, coordinating, and controlling by the leader.

4. Achievement-Oriented Leadership. It involves setting challenging

goals, seeking improvement of performance, having confidence that

subordinates will achieve high goals.

The path-goal theory does not suggest that there is one best way to lead;

rather, it suggests that the appropriate style depends on the situation. When

subordinates are confused, then the leader may tell them what to do and show

them a clear path to goals. This is the task-oriented style. For routine tasks,

however, such as those on the assembly line, additional structure may be

considered redundant. To put it another way, employees want the leader to stay out

of their way because the path is already clear enough.

The theory proposes that the behaviour of the leader is acceptable and

satisfying to subordinates to the extent that they see it as a source for their

satisfaction. It also proposes that the behaviour of the leader increases the effort of

subordinates that is, it is motivating insofar as 1) this behaviour makes

satisfaction of the needs of subordinates dependent on effective performance and

2) the behaviour enhances the subordinates environment through coaching,

directing, supporting, and rewarding.

The key to the theory is that the leader influences the paths between

behaviour and goals. The leader can do the following:

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 15. By defining positions and tasks roles;

16. By removing obstacles to performance;

17. By enlisting the assistance of group members in setting goals;

18. By promoting group cohesiveness and team effort;

19. By increasing opportunities for personal satisfaction in work

performance;

20. By reducing stresses and external controls;

21. By making expectations clear; and

22. By doing other things that meet peoples expectations

Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership enhances the motivation, morale, and

performance of followers through a variety of mechanisms. These include

connecting the follower's sense of identity and self-motivation to the project and the

collective identity of the organization; being a role model for followers that inspires

them and makes them interested; challenging followers to take greater ownership

for their work, and understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers, so

the leader can align followers with tasks that enhance their performance.

James MacGregor Burns (1978) first introduced the concept of transforming

leadership in his descriptive research on political leaders, but this term is now used

in organizational psychology (Bass &Riggio, 2006). According to Burns,

transforming leadership is a process in which leaders and followers help each other

to advance to a higher level of morale and motivation. He related to the difficulty in

differentiation between management and leadership and claimed that the

differences are in characteristics and behaviors. He established two concepts:

"transforming leadership" and "transactional leadership". He also added that the

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transforming approach creates significant change in the life of people and

organizations. It redesigns perceptions and values, and changes expectations and

aspirations of employees. Unlike in the transactional approach, it is not biased,

instead, its on a "give and take" relationship. Transforming leaders are idealized in

the sense that they are moral exemplars of working towards the benefit of the team,

organization and/or community. Burns theorized that transforming and transactional

leadership was mutually exclusive styles.

Bernard M. Bass(1985), extended the work of Burns (1978) by explaining the

psychological mechanisms that underlie transforming and transactional leadership.

Bass introduced the term "transformational" in place of "transforming." Bass added

to the initial concepts of Burns (1978) to help explain how transformational

leadership could be measured, as well as how it impacts follower motivation and

performance. Theextent to which a leader is transformational, is measured first, in

terms of his influence on the followers. The followers of such a leader feel trust,

admiration, loyalty and respect for the leader and because of the qualities of the

transformational leader are willing to work harder than originally expected. These

outcomes occur because the transformational leader offers followers something

more than just working for self-gain; they provide followers with an inspiring mission

and vision and give them an identity. The leader transforms and motivates followers

through his or her idealized influence (earlier referred to as charisma), intellectual

stimulation and individual consideration. In addition, this leader encourages

followers to come up with new and unique ways to challenge the status quo and to

alter the environment to support being successful. Finally, in contrast to Burns,

Bass suggested that leadership can simultaneously display both transformational

and transactional leadership.The full range of leadership introduces four elements

of transformational leadership:

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1. Individualized Consideration The degree to which the leader attends to

each follower's needs, acts as a mentor or coach to the follower and listens

to the follower's concerns and needs. The leader gives empathy and

support, keeps communication open and places challenges before the

followers. This also encompasses the need for respect and celebrates the

individual contribution that each follower can make to the team. The

followers have a will and aspirations for self-development and have intrinsic

motivation for their tasks.

2. Intellectual Stimulation The degree, to which the leader challenges

assumptions, takes risks and solicits followers' ideas. Leaders with this style

stimulate and encourage creativity in their followers. They nurture and

develop people who think independently. For such a leader, learning is a

value and unexpected situations are seen as opportunities to learn. The

followers ask questions, think deeply about things and figure out better ways

to execute their tasks.

3. Inspirational Motivation the degree to which the leader articulates a

vision that is appealing and inspiring to followers. Leaders with inspirational

motivationchallenge followers with high standards, communicate optimism

about future goals, and provide meaning for the task at hand. Followers

need to have a strong sense of purpose if they are to be motivated to act.

Purpose and meaning provide the energy that drives a group forward. The

visionary aspects of leadership are supported by communication skills that

make the vision understandable, precise, powerful and engaging. The

followers are willing to invest more effort in their tasks; they are encouraged

and optimistic about the future and believe in their abilities.

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 4. Idealized Influence Provides a role model for high ethical behavior, instills

pride, gains respect and trust.

References

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Behaviour in Organization, 2nd Edition, Mandaluyong City: National
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