THE REFLECTION OF LIGHT: MIRRORS

PREVIEW

The ray model of light states that light may be represented by a straight line along the
direction of motion, and ray optics is the study of light using the ray model. Light can be
reflected from a surface such as a mirror. In this chapter, well study reflection from
plane mirrors and spherical mirrors. As light rays are reflected, they may form an image,
which can be real or virtual, depending on the distance from the mirror to the object
which is the source of the light rays. Ray diagrams can be drawn to show the bending of
a light ray or to locate an image formed by a mirror.

QUICK REFERENCE

Important Terms

angle of incidence
the angle between the normal line to a surface and the incident ray or wave
angle of reflection
the angle between the normal line to a surface and the reflected ray or wave
converging mirror
a mirror which converges light rays reflecting from it; also known as
a concave mirror
diverging mirror
a mirror which diverges light rays reflecting from it; also known as a
convex mirror
focal length
the distance between the center of a lens or mirror to the point at which the
rays converge at the focal point
focal point
the point at which light rays converge or appear to originate
image
reproduction of an object using lenses or mirrors
magnification
ratio of the size of an optical image to the size of the object
object (optics)
the source of diverging light rays
plane mirror
smooth, flat surface that reflects light regularly
principal axis
the line connecting the center of curvature of a curved mirror with its
geometrical vertex; the line perpendicular to the plane of a lens passing through
its center
radius of curvature

1
 the radius of a spherical mirror which is equal to twice the focal length of the
mirror
ray model of light
light may be represented by a straight line along the direction of motion
ray optics
study of light using the ray model
real image
an image that can be projected onto a screen
virtual image
an image which cannot be projected onto a screen; point at which
diverging light rays appear to originate

Equations and Symbols

2
r i
1
f R
2
ho d
o
hi d i
1 1 1

do di f
d
m i
do

The Formation of Images by a Plane Mirror

Any wave that bounces off of a barrier follows the law of reflection: the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection as measured from a line normal
(perpendicular) to the barrier (Figure A). In the case of light, the barrier is often a mirror.
This is why if someone can see you in a mirror, you can see him in the mirror as well.

i
Normal
r

Figure A Figure B

A plane mirror is simply a flat mirror. From your everyday experience you know that a
plane mirror always produces an image which is the same size as the object (which could
be you in the morning), left-right reversed, and the same distance behind the surface of
the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror. We say that the image formed by a plane
mirror is virtual, since we cannot place a screen behind the mirror and see the image
projected on the screen. A virtual image is one that cannot be projected onto a screen.

We can locate the image formed by a plane mirror by tracing two reflected rays and then
extending them backward (Figure B). The point at which the two rays seem to meet is
where the virtual image is formed.

Spherical Mirrors, The Formation of Images by Spherical Mirrors, and

The Mirror Equation and the Magnification Equation

3
We will discuss two types of spherical (curved) mirrors: diverging (convex) and
converging (concave), although the AP Physics B exam usually focuses on concave
mirrors.

A diverging mirror is sometimes referred to as a convex mirror. You may have seen this
type of mirror in the corner of a convenience store. The mirror diverges the rays of light
which strike it, allowing the clerk at the store to see practically the entire store in one
mirror. Light rays coming into the mirror parallel to its principal axis will diverge, or
spread apart:

3f 2f f f 2f 3f

Notice that the rays appear to originate from a point behind the mirror. This point is
called the virtual focus, and the distance between the surface of the mirror at its center
and the focal point is called the focal length f.

A converging mirror is sometimes referred to as a concave mirror. If a spherically-shaped

concave mirror is small compared to its radius of curvature R, then light rays coming in
parallel to the principal axis of the mirror will converge to a focal point.

For this kind of mirror, the focal length f and the radius of curvature R of the mirror are
related by the equation f = R.

If you look
3f into 2fa =R
converging fmirror, you will at first
f see an2fimage
=R of yourself
3f which is
inverted (upside-down), but then as you move closer to the mirror your will see your
image turn upright as you pass the focal point of the mirror. Satellite dishes act as
converging mirrors for radio and TV waves, gathering them at a detector located at the
focal point of the dish. Most research telescopes also use converging mirrors rather than
lenses to initially focus incoming light and study images.

The image formed by a converging mirror depends on the location of the object in
relation to the focal length and its orientation, and can be real, which means it can be
projected onto a screen, or virtual. The image can also be upright or inverted (upside-
down), and smaller, larger, or the same size as the object.

4
The object distance do is the distance from the center of the surface of the mirror to the
object, and the image distance di is the distance from the center of the surface of the
mirror to the image.

For the image formed, the ratio of the object height ho to the image height hi is equal to
the ratio of the object distance to the image distance:

ho d o

hi di

and the magnification of the image is given by

h d
m i i .
ho do

Magnification tells us how many times larger or smaller an image is than the object.
The negative sign is inserted as a convention. The object height ho is always taken as
positive, and the image height hi is positive if the image is upright and negative if
inverted. The object and image distances are positive if the image and object are on the
reflecting side of the mirror. If either the object or the image is behind the mirror, the
corresponding object or image distance is negative. In the end, the magnification m is
positive for an upright image and negative for an inverted image.

The relationship between the object distance, image distance, and focal length is

1 1 1

f do di

where f = R.

Example 1
A converging (concave) mirror has a focal length of 20.0 cm. A 5.0-cm tall candle is
placed at a distance of 50.0 cm in front of the mirror.
(a) By drawing a ray diagram, find the location of the image formed by the converging
mirror. State whether the image is real or virtual, upright or inverted, and larger, smaller,
or the same size as the object (candle).
(b) Using the mirror and magnification equations, verify your results from part (a).

Solution
(a) To find the image formed by the mirror, we will draw two rays: (1) one ray from the
flame which strikes the mirror parallel to the principal axis and reflecting through the
focal point, and (2) anotherdo ray
= 60cm
from the flame which goes through the focal point and
reflects back parallel to the principal axis. The image is formed at the location of the
intersection of these two rays:1
2

3f 2f f f 2f 3f

di
Note that when the object is place at a distance greater than twice the focal length, the
image is inverted and smaller than the object. If we place a screen at the location of the
image, we would see that the image is real. For a concave mirror, if the image is formed
on the same side of the mirror as the object the image is real. If the image is formed on
the opposite side of the mirror as the object, it is virtual. Recall that a plane mirror will
only produce an image on the opposite side to the object, and thus is always virtual.

If weve drawn our diagram to scale we can simply measure the image distance from the
center of the mirror. Lets say our measurement is di = 32.5 cm, and the height of the
image is 3.2 cm.

(b) Using the mirror and magnification equations, we can solve the image distance:
1 1 1

f do di
1 1 1

20 cm 50 cm d i
d i 33.3 cm

Note that our measurement of the image distance is very close to the calculated value
within reasonable experimental error.

The magnification of the candle can be found by

hi d
m i
ho do
ho d i 5.0 cm 33.3 cm
hi 3.3 cm
do 50 cm
Again, the negative sign indicates the image is inverted.

Example 2
A converging (concave) mirror has a focal length of 20.0 cm. A 5.0-cm tall candle is
placed at a distance of 10.0 cm in front of the mirror.
(a) By drawing a ray diagram, find the location of the image formed by the converging
mirror. State whether the image is real or virtual, upright or inverted, and larger, smaller,
or the same size as the object (candle).
(b) Using the mirror and magnification equations, verify your results from part (a).

6
Solution
If we place the candle at a distance less than the focal length, the reflected rays diverge,
and the image is formed at the point from which the rays seem to originate. Drawing our
two principal rays:

3f 2f f f 2f 3f

Note that this time our second ray is drawn as if it originates at the center of curvature C,
which is located at 2f. A ray that passes through the center of curvature will reflect back
on itself, and therefore if we extend it behind the mirror it continues in a straight line. We
see that the image of the candle is upright, larger, and behind the mirror, and therefore is
virtual.

(b) Using the mirror and magnification equations, we can solve the image distance:
1 1 1

f do di
1 1 1

20 cm 10 cm d i
d i 20 cm
The image distance is negative, indicating it is formed behind the mirror. Note that the
image distance shown in the diagram is slightly less than 20 cm due to measurement
error. The height of the image is
h d
m i i
ho do
ho d i 5.0 cm 20.0 cm
hi 10.0 cm
do 10.0 cm
The positive sign indicates that the image is upright.

The image formed by a concave mirror when the object is placed inside the focal length
is virtual upright and enlarged. Thus if you want to see an upright image of your face in a
concave mirror, you must move the mirror to a distance less than one focal length from
your face.

summary of the images formed by a concave mirror (and a convex lens) is listed in the
table below.
Object placed Image real or virtual upright or larger or
at: distance di inverted smaller
do > 2f + real inverted smaller

7
 do = 2f + real inverted same size
f < do < 2f + real inverted larger
do = f No image No image No image No image
do < f - virtual upright larger

Note that all real images are inverted.

Practice
Verify the results in the table above by drawing the ray diagrams below.

3f 2f f f 2f 3f

3f 2f f f 2f 3f

3f 2f f f 2f 3f
REVIEW QUESTIONS
For each of the multiple choice questions below, choose the best answer.

8
 (E) upright

N
4. A candle is placed on the principal
2 3
1 4 axis of a concave mirror at a distance of
30 cm from the mirror. The focal length
of the mirror is 10 cm. The image
1. In the figure shown the angle of formed will be
incidence is . Which angle(s) is/are the (A) real, upright, and enlarged
angle(s) of reflection? (B) real, inverted, and enlarged
(A) 1 (C) real, inverted, and smaller
(B) 3 and 4 (D) virtual, upright, and enlarged
(C) 3 (E) virtual, upright, and smaller
(D) 4
(E) 1, 3, and 4. 5. A candle is placed on the principal
axis of a concave mirror at a distance of
10 cm from the mirror. The focal length
2. A plane mirror will produce a virtual of the mirror is 20 cm. The image
image formed will be
(A) when the object distance is greater (A) real, upright, and enlarged
than the image distance. (B) real, inverted, and enlarged
(B) when the object distance is less than (C) real, inverted, and smaller
the image distance. (D) virtual, upright, and enlarged
(C) when the object is on the principal (E) virtual, upright, and smaller
axis of the mirror.
(D) when the rays converge at the focal 6. A candle is placed on the principal
point of the mirror axis of a concave mirror at a distance of
(E) at all distances from the mirror. 20 cm from the mirror. The image
formed is magnified 3 times. The image
3. Which of the following mirrors distance is
diverge parallel light rays? (A) 7 cm
(A) plane (B) 20 cm
(B) convex (C) 60 cm
(C) concave (D) 90 cm
(D) inverted (E) 120 cm

9
Free Response Question

Directions: Show all work in working the following question. The question is worth 15
points, and the suggested time for answering the question is about 15 minutes. The parts
within a question may not have equal weight.

1. (15 points)

The concave mirror shown above has a focal length of 30.0 centimeters. You are given a
candle 5.0 centimeters high. You wish to produce an image on a screen which is 15.0 cm
high. cm
180 150 120 90 60 30 30 60 90 120 150 180
(a) State whether you would place the candle on the left side of the mirror shown above
or the right side. Explain your choice.

(b) State whether you would place the screen on the left side of the mirror shown above
or the right side in order to see the image formed by the mirror. Explain your choice.

(c) Choose an appropriate object distance, and calculate the corresponding distance from
the mirror at which the screen should be placed in order to see the 15.0 cm image.

(d) Using an appropriate scale, draw a ray diagram on the figure above which verifies
your calculation.

10
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

Multiple Choice

1. C
The angles of incidence and reflection are both measured from the normal line.

2. E
A plane (flat) mirror will reflect light and produce an image at any distance from the
object.

3. B
A convex mirror is also called a diverging mirror.

4. C
The candle is placed at a distance greater than twice the focal length, and so the image
formed will be real, inverted, and smaller than the candle.

5. D
The candle is placed at a distance less than the focal length, and so the image formed will
be virtual, upright, and enlarged.

6. C
di
Since Magnification , then di = (M)(do) = (3)(20 cm) = 60 cm.
do

Free Response Question Solution

(a) 2 points
The candle must be placed on the left side of the mirror, since the left side is the concave
(converging) side of the mirror.

(b) 2 points
In order to see an image on a screen, the image must be real. For a concave mirror, real
images are formed on the same side of the mirror as the object.

(c) 5 points
In order to produce an enlarged real image, the candle would need to be placed at an
object distance between f and 2f. Choosing 40 cm as the object distance, we can find the
corresponding image distance.

11
1 1 1

f do di
1 1 1

30 cm 40 cm d i
d i 120 cm
The screen should be placed 120 cm to the left of the mirror.

(d) 6 points
Drawing one principal ray parallel to the principal axis and reflecting through the focal
point, and one principal ray passing through the center of curvature (other principal rays
could have been used):

cm
180 150 120 90 60 30 30 60 90 120 150 180

12
 THE REFRACTION OF LIGHT: LENSES AND OPTICAL
INSTRUMENTS

PREVIEW

Light can be refracted, or bent, through a transparent medium such as a lens. The
relationship between the speed of light in two different media and the angle of the light
rays can be found using Snells law of refraction. As light rays are refracted, they may
form an image, which can be real or virtual, depending on the distance from the lens to
the object which is the source of the light rays. As in the previous case of mirrors, ray
diagrams can be drawn to show the bending of a light ray or to locate an image formed
by a lens.

QUICK REFERENCE

Important Terms

angle of incidence
the angle between the normal line to a surface and the incident ray or wave
angle of refraction
the angle between the normal line to a surface and the refracted ray
or wave at the boundary between two media.
converging lens
a lens which converges light rays to a focal point; also known as a
convex lens
critical angle
the minimum angle entering a different medium at which total internal
reflection will occur
diverging lens
a lens which diverges light rays passing through it; also known as a
concave lens
focal length
the distance between the center of a lens or mirror to the point at which the
rays converge at the focal point
focal point
the point at which light rays converge or appear to originate
index of refraction
the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in
another medium
lens
a piece of transparent material that can bend light rays to converge or diverge
magnifying glass
optical instrument which results from an object being placed within the focal
length of a convex lens, producing an enlarged virtual image

13
refraction
the change in speed, wavelength, and direction of a light ray due to a change
in medium
Snells law of refraction
when light passes from one material with an index of refraction n1 into a material
of a different index of refraction n2, the angle of incidence 1 is related to the
angle of refraction 2 by the equation n1sin1 = n2sin2.
total internal reflection
the complete reflection of light that strikes the boundary
between two media at an angle greater than the critical angle

Equations and Symbols

c f where
c
n c = speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s
v
f = frequency of light
n1 sin 1 n2 sin 2
= wavelength of light
n2 n = index of refraction
sin c
n1 1 = angle of incidence
ho d 2 = angle of refraction
o
hi di c = critical angle
f = focal length of a lens
1 1 1
ho = height of the object
do di f
hi = height of the image produced by a
di lens
m
do do = distance from the center of the lens
to the object
di = distance from the center of the lens
to the image
m = magnification
The Index of Refraction, and Snells Law and the Refraction of Light

If you put a pencil in a clear glass of water, the image of the pencil in the water appears to
be bent and distorted. The light passing from the air into the water is refracted, bending
due to the fact that its passing from one medium to another. If we consider a single beam
of laser light, we can observe it as it passes from air into a piece of glass.

14
 i
air

glass
r

air
i

The angle i from the normal line at which the beam approaches the glass from the air is
called the angle of incidence. The angle r from the normal line in the glass is the angle
of refraction. As the light passes from the air, a less dense medium, into the glass, a more
dense medium, the beam bends toward the normal line. When the beam of light exits the
glass and passes back into the air, it bends away from the normal at the same angle it
entered the glass from the air.

The light bends toward the normal in the glass because the beam slows down as it enters
the glass. Light travels more slowly in a more dense medium. Recall that sound travels
faster in a more dense medium, but sound is a mechanical wave, while light is an
electromagnetic wave. The ratio of the speed of light in air (approximately a vacuum) to
the speed of light in the glass (or any other medium) is called the index of refraction n:
c
n
v glass

The index of refraction for a vacuum or air is 1, since v = c. The index of refraction for
crown glass is about 1.6, which means that light travels 1.6 times faster in a vacuum than
in crown glass.

We can relate the index of refraction to the angles of incidence and refraction by using
Snells law of refraction:

n1 sin 1 n2 sin 2

where n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction of the first and second media, and and
2 are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.

Example 1

15
A beam of light enters the flat surface of a diamond at an angle of 30 from the normal.
The angle of refraction in the diamond is measured to be 12 from the normal. Determine
the speed of light in the diamond.

Solution
The angle of incidence 1 = 30 and the angle of refraction 2 = 12. The index of
refraction can be found by Snells law:
n1 sin 1 n 2 sin 2
1.0 sin 30 n2 sin 12
n 2 2.5
The speed of light in diamond can be found by
c
n2
v diamond
c 3 x10 8 m / s
v diamond 1.2 x10 8 m / s
n2 2 .5

Total Internal Reflection

Consider a water-proof laser which you can put under the water and shine a beam of light
up out of the water into the air. If you shine the light at a small angle relative to the
normal, the light will emerge from the water and bend away from the normal as it enters
the air.

r
r = 90

total
internal
i r
i reflection
c

As you increase the angle at which the laser is pointed at the surface of the water, the
refracted angle also increases, eventually causing the refracted ray to bend parallel to the
surface of the water:

The angle c is called the critical angle. If the laser is pointed at an angle greater than the
critical angle, the beam will not emerge from the water, but will reflect back into the
water.

16
This phenomena is called total internal reflection. The inside surfaces of a glass prism in
a pair of binoculars can become like mirrors, reflecting light inside the prism if the light
is pointed at the surface at an angle greater than the critical angle. Total internal reflection
is the also the principle behind the transmitting of light waves through transparent fiber
optic cable for communication purposes.

Example 2

The speed of light in a particular piece of glass is 2.0 x 108 m/s, and the speed of light in
water is 2.3 x 108 m/s.
(a) Find the index of refraction for
i. the glass
ii. water

(b) A sheet of this glass is placed over a tank full of water. Laser light is incident on the
glass from the air above the glass at an angle of 40. Determine whether or not the light
passes into the water, and, if it does, find the angle of refraction of the light in the water.

Solution
c 3.0 x10 8 m / s
(a) i. n g 1.5
vg 2.0 x10 8 m / s
c 3.0 x10 8 m / s
ii. n w 1.3
vw 2.3 x10 8 m / s
(b) First, lets find the critical angle for the light traveling from the glass to the water.

n 1.3
c sin w sin 60
n 1.5
g
If the light passes from the glass toward the water at an angle greater than 60, it will
totally internally reflect inside the glass. The angle of refraction inside the glass can be
found by
n air sin air n g sin g
sin air sin 40
g sin 1 25.4
ng 1.5

Since the angle of the light in the glass less than 60, the light will refract in the water.
The angle of refraction in the water can be found by
n g sin g n w sin w
n g sin g 1 1.5 sin 25.4
w sin 1 sin 29.7
nw 1.3

17
 40

air

g glass

water
w

The Dispersion of Light: Prisms and Rainbows

Each color in the spectrum refracts just a little differently than every other color. This is
why we can separate white light into its component colors by passing it through a prism.
The shorter wavelengths slow down and bend more than the longer wavelengths, so
violet bends the most, and red the least:

Red

Violet

Glass

18
Example 3
Yellow

Glass
30

Violet
30

The glass plate shown above has an index of refraction that depends on the wavelength of
the light that enters it. The index of refraction is 1.54 for yellow light of wavelength 5.80
x 10-9 m in the air and 1.62 for violet light of wavelength 4.20 x 10-9 m in the air. Both the
yellow and violet beams of light enter the glass from the left at the same angle of 30
above the normal, are refracted inside the glass, and exit the glass on the right.

(a) Determine the following for each color for the time the light is inside the glass.
i. the speed of each color in the glass
ii. the wavelength of each color in the glass
iii. the frequency of each color in the glass

(b) On the figure above, sketch the approximate paths of both the yellow and the violet
rays as they pass through the glass and then exit into the air.
(c) The figure below represents a hollow space in a large piece of the type of glass
described above. On this figure, sketch the approximate path of the yellow and the violet
rays as they pass through the hollow space and back into the glass.

Y glass
air

19
Solution
(a) i.
c 3.00 x10 8 m / s
vY 1.95 x10 8 m / s
nY 1.54
c 3.00 x10 8 m / s
vV 1.85 x10 8 m / s
nV 1.62

ii. Since the frequency of the light does not change as the beam passes from one medium
to another, the wavelength is proportional to the speed.
5.80 x10 7 m
Y air 3.76 x10 7 m
nY 1.54
air 4.20 x10 7 m
V 2.59 x10 7 m
nV 1.62

iii. The frequency of each color is the same in the glass and in the air.
c 3.00 x10 8 m / s
fY 5.17 x1014 Hz
air 7
5.80 x10 m
c 3.00 x10 8 m / s
fV 7.14 x1014 Hz
air 4.20 x10 7 m

(b) Violet light slows down more than yellow light, and bends its path more than yellow
light. Both beams bend toward the normal line inside the glass, and away from the
normal line (at 30) when they exit the glass into the air again.

Yellow

Glass
30

Violet
30

(c) Since each beam of light is going from a more dense medium to a less dense medium,
they will bend away from the normal as they enter the air, and toward the normal as they
enter the glass again. Again, violet light will bend more than yellow light.

20
 Y glass
air

Lenses, The Formation of Images by Lenses, and The Thin-Lens

Equation and Magnification Equation

Lenses operate on the principle of refraction. A diverging (concave) lens is a lens which
is thicker on the edges than it is in the middle, and it diverges the light rays that pass
through it:

The focal point of a diverging

f lens can be found by extending the diverging rays back
behind the lens until they seem to meet.

A converging (or convex) lens is a lens which is thicker in the middle than on the edges,
and it converges parallel rays that pass through it:

f f

When you read the words diverging and converging, or convex and concave, be sure you
identify whether the question is asking you about lenses or mirrors. The answers
associated with lenses might be quite different than those associated with mirrors!

21
Just as in the case of the concave mirror, a converging lens can create an image which can
be real or virtual, upright or inverted, larger or smaller in size, or the same size as the
object. It all depends on where the object is placed relative to the focal length of the lens.
Since the AP Physics B exam typically focuses on the converging reather than the
diverging lens, we will look at some examples involving the converging lens.

The ray diagrams for the converging lens are very similar to the ray diagrams for the
concave mirror, as are the equations listed above for relating the focal length of the lens,
the object distance, image distance, and magnification.

Example 4
A converging (convex) lens has a focal length of 15.0 cm. A 5.0-cm tall candle is placed
at a distance of 40.0 cm to the left of the lens.
(a) By drawing a ray diagram, find the location of the image formed by the converging
lens. State whether the image is real or virtual, upright or inverted, and larger, smaller, or
the same size as the object (candle).
(b) Using the lens and magnification equations, verify your results from part (a).

Solution
(a) To find out what kind of image will be formed by the lens, we will draw two rays: (1)
one ray from the flame entering the lens parallel to the principal axis and bending through
the focal point, and (2) another ray from the flame which passes straight through the
center of the lens without bending. The image is formed at the location of the intersection
of these two rays:

1
2
cm
45 30 15 15 30 45

We see that in the case where the object (candle) distance from the lens is greater than
twice the focal length, the image is inverted and reduced in size. The image is also real,
so if we placed a screen at the location of the image, we would see the projection of a
small inverted candle. The image formed by a converging lens is real if the object
distance is greater than the focal length.

From the diagram, lets say we measure the image distance at 23 cm from the center of
the lens, and the image is measured to be 3.0 cm tall.

22
(b) Using the lens and magnification equations, we can solve the image distance:
1 1 1

f do di
1 1 1

15.0 cm 40.0cm d i
d i 24.0 cm

Note that our measurement of the image distance is very close to the calculated value
within reasonable experimental error.

The height of the candle can be found by

h d
m i i
ho do
ho d i 5.0 cm 24.0cm
hi 3.0 cm
do 40.0 cm
Again, the negative sign indicates the image is inverted.

If we place the candle at a distance from the lens equal to the focal length, our two rays
would emerge parallel to each other, and no image would be formed.

If we place the candle inside the focal length of the lens, we get a result similar to the
same case for a concave mirror.

Example 5
A converging lens has a focal length of 30.0 cm. A 5.0-cm tall candle is placed at a
distance of 10.0 cm in front of the lens.
(a) By drawing a ray diagram, find the location of the image formed by the converging
lens. State whether the image is real or virtual, upright or inverted, and larger, smaller, or
the same size as the object (candle).
(b) Using the lens and magnification equations, verify your results from part (a).

Solution
(a)

cm
45 30 15 15 30 45

23
With the candle placed inside the focal length, our two rays diverge as they emerge from
the lens. No image is formed on the side opposite to the candle, but extending the rays
backward, we find that they seem to originate on the same side as the candle. The point
from which they seem to originate is where a virtual image of the candle is formed.

From the diagram, lets say we measure the image distance at 17.0 cm from the center of
the lens, and the image is measured to be 8.0 cm tall.

(b) Using the lens and magnification equations, we can solve the image distance:
1 1 1

f do di
1 1 1

30.0 cm 10.0cm d i
d i 15.0 cm

The height of the candle can be found by

h d
m i i
ho do
ho d i 5.0 cm 15.0cm
hi 7.5 cm
do 10.0 cm
The positive sign indicates the image is upright.

A summary of the images formed by a converging lens and a converging mirror is listed
in the table below, where do is the distance from the candle to the object and f is the focal
length of the lens or mirror. For a converging lens, a positive (+) image distance di implies
that the image is formed on the opposite side of the lens as the object, and a negative (-)
image distance implies that the image is formed on the same side as the object. This sign
convention is just the opposite for a converging (concave) mirror.
Object placed Image real or virtual upright or enlarged or
at: distance di inverted reduced
do > 2f + real inverted reduced
do = 2f + real inverted same size
f < do < 2f + real inverted enlarged
do = f No image No image No image No image
do < f - virtual upright enlarged

Practice
Verify the results in the table above by drawing the ray diagrams below.

3f 2f f f 2f 3f

24
 3f 2f f f 2f 3f

3f 2f f f 2f 3f

REVIEW QUESTIONS
For each of the multiple choice questions below, choose the best answer.

2 3

4
glass
5

(A) 2
1. A beam of light passes from the air (B) 1.5
through a thick piece of glass as shown. (C) 0.67
Which of the following angles is the (D) 0.33
angle of refraction? (E) 0.2
(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4
(E) 5

2. The speed of light in a piece of glass

is 1.5 x 108 m/s. What is the index of
refraction of the glass?

25
3. A beam of light passes from air into
water. Which of the following statements
is true?
(A) The angle of incidence is greater
than the angle of refraction in the
water.
(B) The angle of incidence is less than
the angle of refraction in the water.
(C) The angle of incidence is equal to
the angle of refraction in the water.
(D) The frequency of the light decreases.
(E) The frequency of the light increases.
4. Total internal reflection occurs when
(A) light passes from air into water.
(B) light refracts as it exits glass into air.
(C) light reflects off of a mirror.
(D) light passing through glass is
reflected inside the glass.
(E) the angle of incidence is less than
the critical angle.
5. Which of the following is true of a
diverging lens?
(A) Incoming parallel rays passing
through the lens converge to a focal
point.
(B) The lens is thinner in the center than
on the edges.
(C) The lens is thicker in the center than
on the edges.
(D) Light must enter it parallel to the
principal axis.
(E) The lens must be flat on one side.
6. A candle is placed on the principal
axis of a convex lens at a distance of 30
cm from the lens. The focal length of the
lens is 10 cm. The image formed will be
(F) real, upright, and enlarged
(G) real, inverted, and enlarged
(H) real, inverted, and smaller
(I) virtual, upright, and enlarged
(J) virtual, upright, and smaller
26
7. A candle is placed on the principal
axis of a convex lens at a distance of 10
cm from the lens. The focal length of the
lens is 20 cm. The image formed will be
(F) real, upright, and enlarged
(G) real, inverted, and enlarged
(H) real, inverted, and smaller
(I) virtual, upright, and enlarged
(J) virtual, upright, and smaller
8. A candle is placed on the principal
axis of a convex lens at a distance of 20
cm from the lens. The image formed is
magnified 3 times. The image distance is
(F) 7 cm
(G) 20 cm
(H) 60 cm
(I) 90 cm
(J) 120 cm
9. A beam of green light and a separate
beam of blue light enter a converging
lens parallel to the principal axis. Which
of the following statements is true?
(A) The focal length of the green light is
greater than the focal length of the
blue light.
(B) The focal length of the green light is
less than the focal length of the blue
light.
(C) The focal length of the green light is
equal to the focal length of the blue
light
(D) The green light will be absorbed in
the lens, and the blue light will be
transmitted through the lens.
(E) The blue light will be absorbed in the
lens, and the green light will be
transmitted through the lens.
Free Response Question

Directions: Show all work in working the following question. The question is worth 15
points, and the suggested time for answering the question is about 15 minutes. The parts
within a question may not have equal weight.

1. (15 points)

60 60

A beam of light is directed from the air toward a glass prism in the shape of an equilateral
triangle. The index of refraction of the glass is 1.47.

(a) On the diagram above, sketch the path of the beam of light in the prism, and as it exits
the prism. Be sure to use a straight-edge to draw the path of the light in each region.

(b) Calculate the angle from a line normal to the surface of the right face of the prism at
which the beam exits the prism.

The prism is actually the top of a convex lens of focal length 50.0 cm. In addition to this
lens, you are given a lens holder, an optical bench on which the lens and holder can be
placed, a 5.0-cm tall candle and matches, and a screen on a holder which can be mounted
on the optical bench. Your teacher tells you that you are to produce an image on the
screen which is twice as tall as the candle itself.

(c) On the diagram below, draw and label the equipment so that it is assembled in such a
way as to produce this image. Be sure and place each item at an accurate distance, and
show any calculations you used to help you find the accurate distances.

27
 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 275 300

candle Lens Screen

and and
Holder Holder

(d) If the lens were placed under water, would the focal length of the lens increase,
decrease, or remain the same as in air? Explain.

ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

Multiple Choice

1. E
Angle 5 is the angle of refraction, as measured from the normal line in the glass.

2. A
c 3x10 8 m / s
n 2
v 1.5 x10 8 m / s

3. A
When the light enters the water, the beam bends toward the normal line, causing the angle
of refraction to be less than the angle of incidence The frequency remains constant.

4. D
Total internal reflection implies that no light exits the glass since it is reflected inside the
glass.

5. B
A diverging lens is also called a concave lens, and is thinner in the center than on the
edges.

6. C
The candle is placed at a distance greater than twice the focal length, and so the image
formed will be real, inverted, and smaller than the candle.

28
7. D
The candle is placed at a distance less than the focal length, and so the image formed will
be virtual, upright, and enlarged. This is the case for a magnifying glass.

8. C
If the image is 3 times larger than the object, the image distance must be 3 times larger
than the object distance.

9. A
Green has a longer wavelength than blue, and longer wavelengths travel at a higher speed
than shorter wavelengths in glass. Thus, the green light undergoes a smaller change in
speed in the glass, and therefore bends less than blue, producing a longer wavelength.

Free Response Question Solution

(a) 3 points
N

30

2 4
3
60 60

(b) 5 points
The angle of refraction 2 in the glass can be found by Snells law:

sin 1 1 sin 30
2 sin 1 sin 19.9
n glass 1.47
Using this angle and some geometry gives the angle of incidence 3 = 40.1 for the beam
before it exits the prism. Then the refracted angle 4 as the light exits the prism is
n glass sin 3 1 1.47 sin 40.1
4 sin 1 sin 71.3
nair 1

(c) 5 points
First, lets choose an object distance and calculate the corresponding image distance. If
we are to produce a real image twice as large as the object, we must place the candle
between f and 2f such that the image distance is twice the object distance (di = 2do). Using
the lens equation:

29
1 1 1

f do di
1 1 1

f do 2d o
1 3

f 2d o
1 3

50.0cm 2d o
d o 75.0cm
d i 150.0cm

So we can place the candle at 0, the lens at 75, and the screen at 75 + 150 = 225.

0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 275 300

(d) 2 points
The focal length of the lens in the water would be greater, since there would be less of a
change in speed of the light between the glass and the water as compared to the glass and
the air.
Air

f f

Water

f f

30
INTERFERENCE AND THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT

PREVIEW

Wave optics is the study of the wave nature of light. Because of its wave nature, light can
undergo phenomena such as superposition, diffraction, and interference. Light diffracting
through a single-slit or double-slit opening will interfere constructively and destructively,
producing bright fringes, or antinodes, and dark fringes, or nodes, respectively. When
light enters a thin transparent film, reflects off of a surface beneath the film, and emerges
from the film once again, the light waves may be in phase or out of phase, depending on
the thickness of the film. The pattern produced is called thin-film interference.

QUICK REFERENCE

Important Terms

constructive interference
addition of two or more light waves which are in phase, resulting in a light wave
of increased amplitude (brightness)
destructive interference
addition of two or more light waves which are out of phase resulting in a light
wave of decreased amplitude
diffraction of light
the spreading of a wave beyond the edge of a barrier or through an opening
diffraction grating
material containing many parallel lines which are very closely spaced so that
when light is passed through the lines, an interference pattern is produces
geometrical optics
the study of the straight line motion of light and the reflection and refraction of
light
principal maxima of a grating
the bright fringes of light produced by a diffraction grating
superposition of light waves
the addition of the electric fields of two or more light waves to roduce the electric
field of a new wave
thin-film interference
the interference of light as a result of part of the light wave passing through the
film and part of it reflecting off the surface of the film
wave (physical) optics
the study of the wave nature of light including interference and diffraction

31
Equations and Symbols

m where
sin , m 0,1,2,3,...
d
y = angle of spread of the light passing
tan
L through a single or double slit
m = the integer representing the order of
film vacuum a fringe caused by the diffraction
n
m film and interference of light
t , m 0,1,2,3,.. y = distance from the center of the
2
central bright line produced on a
(destructive interference)
screen by the interference of light
1 and the center of another bright line
m film
2 (antinode) of light produced on the
t , m 0,1,2,3,..
2 screen
(constructive interference) L = distance from the diffraction grating
m and the screen on which the
sin , m 0,1,2,3,.. interference pattern is produced.
W
= wavelength of light
n = index of refraction
t = thickness of a thin film
W = width of the bright central antinode
produced on a screen by light
passing through a
single slit

32
 The Principle of the Linear Superposition, and Youngs Double-Slit
Experiment

As discussed in an earlier chapter, diffraction is the bending of a wave around a barrier or

through an opening. If we pass a light wave through a narrow single slit, it will behave
very similarly to the water waves discussed earlier, with the edges of the light waves
lagging behind the center of the waves. If we place a screen opposite to the single-slit
opening, we would see a bright light near the center of the screen with narrow lines
becoming dimmer toward the edges of the screen. These lines form because of
interference from light waves arriving from different locations within the slit.

Waves Intensity

1st min

D Central max

1st min

If we replace the single-slit opening with a double-slit opening, the pattern on the screen
changes. As the light passes through the two openings, it becomes two sources of light

waves instead of one. These two light waves behave like the semi-circular water waves,
interfering constructively in some places and destructively in others. The pattern on the
screen would consist of a central bright band of light, with alternating light and dark
bands toward the edges of the screen:

Waves Intensity 2nd bright fringe (m=2)

1st bright fringe (m=1)

d
Central max (m=0)

1st bright fringe (m=1)

2nd bright fringe (m=2)

The bright bands on the screen are the places where constructive interference is occurring
(antinodes) and the dark bands are a result of destructive interference (nodes). In 1801,
Thomas Young was able to measure the wavelength of light waves using this double-slit
diffraction pattern. He found that for a given distance between the slits and length from
the slits to the screen, the width of the bright central antinode on the screen is
proportional to the wavelength of the light. Thus, red light would produce a wider bright
central band than violet light.
Consider the monochromatic (one color) light passing through a double-slit and creating
an interference pattern of nodes and antinodes on the screen at the right. The pattern of
light on the screen is represented by the graph of light intensity I as a function of position
y.
P

L Q
y

d
L y

Intensity

The intensity graph shows a bright central antinode in the center of the screen, and the
next brightest antinodes above and below the central antinode. We call these antinodes
above and below the central antinode the first-order bright lines.

The wavelength of the light can be found by the equation

m d sin

where m = 1 (first order), d is the distance between the slits, and is the angle between
the line of length L drawn from the center of the slits to the center of the central antinode,
and the length L from the center of the slits to the center of the first-order antinode.

If the angle is small, say, less than 10, we can approximate the wavelength by
assuming the small-angle approximation:

y
sin tan
L
Then
y
d sin d
L

We might call this equation a first-order approximation of the wavelength of the light.
If we consider the point P on the screen, we see that it is located at the second-order
bright line, or m = 2. A line drawn from the lower slit to point P differs in path length
from a line drawn from the slits to point P by a path difference of m, or in this case 2.
If m is a whole number, the light rays from the two slits will interfere constructively, and
3
if m is not a whole number, such as m at point Q on the screen, the light rays will
2
interfere destructively.

Example 1
A particular color of light is passed through the double-slit shown below. The distance
between the slits d = 1.40 x 10-4 m, and the length from the slits to the screen is L = 2. 50
m. The second-order bright fringe is measured to be y = 2.07 x 10-2 m from the bright
central antinode. The wavelengths of several colors of light are listed below.

Color Wavelength
red 664 nm
orange 622 nm
yellow 580 nm
green 520 nm

(a) Which color was passed through the slits?

(b) Find the distance y3 to the third-order bright fringe for this color.

Q y

d

Intensity

Solution
(a) The angle can be found by
y 2.07 x10 2 m
tan 1 tan 1 0.47
L 2.50m
Then the wavelength of the light is

d sin

1.40 x10 4 m sin 0.47
5.80 x10 7 m
m 2
The color of light is yellow.

1 m 1 3 5.80 x10 m
7

(b) sin sin 4

0.71
d 1.4 x10 m
y 3 L tan 2.50m tan 0.71m 3.11x10 2 m

Thin-Film Interference

If you hold a compact disc (CD) at an angle to a light source, you see colors of light
reflecting from the surface of the CD. Different angles of incidence reflect different
colors. There is a thin transparent film on the reflecting (mirrored) surface of the CD
which separates the colors. But the colors which are reflected depend on the refraction,
reflection, and interference of the light.

Consider a thin film with an index of refraction nfilm and thickness t which is on the
surface of glass with a higher index of refraction nglass. If monochromatic light is incident
on the film from the air at a small angle to the normal, some of the light is reflected, and
some of it is refracted in the film and reflected off the surface of the glass:

air

film
t

glass

The ray which is refracted in the film eventually emerges parallel to the ray reflected off
the surface of the film, but has traveled a longer distance. If the incident light enters and
exits the film perpendicular to the surface of the film, then the extra distance traveled by
the light ray in the film is twice the thickness of the film, or 2t. The two emerging rays
can interfere with each other, If the are in phase, that is, differ by a whole number of
wavelengths in the film (1, 2, 3,), they will interfere constructively, and your eye
would see a bright light (antinode) reflected back into the air. If the two emerging rays are
1 3
out of phase, that is, differ by a half number of wavelengths in the film , ,... ,
2 2
they will interfere destructively, and the light reflected back to the air would be a
minimum (node). Whether the light rays are a whole or half number of wavelengths in or
out of phase depends on how much farther the refracted ray has to travel through the film,
which would be 2t. Thus, the condition for interference is

2t = m
 1 3
where m = 1, 2, 3, for constructive interference and m = , ,... for destructive
2 2
interference. Remember, the wavelength in the equation above is the wavelength in the
film, which can be found by

air
film
n film
where nfilm is the index of refraction of the film.

Example 2
Color Wavelength
red 664 nm
orange 622 nm
yellow 580 nm
green 520 nm
nair = 1.00
air

Surface 1

film nfilm = 1.35

351 nm

Surface 2

opaque
glass t

The surface of an opaque glass plate is coated with a transparent thin film. A beam of
monochromatic light traveling in air is incident practically perpendicular to Surface 1 as
shown above. The reflected and refracted angles are exaggerated for clarity. The beam is
partially transmitted through the film and partially reflected off the surface of the film
and glass.

(a) Calculate the wavelength of the light in the thin film.

(b) If the thickness of the film is 351 nm, which color from the table above will be
reflected back through the film and into the air at maximum brightness (intensity)?
(c) Calculate the frequency of this light both in air and in the film.

Solution
c 3.00 x10 8 m / s
(a) v film 2.22 x10 8 m / s
n film 1.35
(b) The light passes through the film, reflects off the glass, and passes back through the
film into the air. In a round trip through the film, the light covers a distance of
2(192.5 nm) = 385 nm. In order for the reflected light to be at maximum intensity, this
total distance would have to be a whole-number multiple of the wavelength of the
unknown color of light. For simplicity, lets assume that this value is equal to the
wavelength in the film. Then the wavelength of the light in the air would be
air n film film 1.35 385nm 520 nm
The color incident on the film is green.

(c) Frequency does not change when light is refracted.

c 3.00 x10 8 m / s
f 5.77 x1014 Hz
5.20 x10 7 m

REVIEW QUESTIONS
For each of the multiple choice questions below, choose the best answer.
1. If light is passed through a narrow,
single-slit opening onto a screen, the
pattern of light produced on the screen is
(A) alternating bright and dark lines of
equal width.
(B) a bright central band of light with
much smaller, dimmer bands toward
the edges.
(C) concentric circles of light.
(D) one circle of light.
(E) one band of light.
3. Which of the following colors, when
passed through a double-slit opening,
will produce the widest central band of
light?
(A) red
(B) orange
(C) yellow
(D) green
(E) blue
4. Light passes through a double-slit,
producing bright and dark bands on a
screen. The dark bands are caused by
waves from each slit
(A) interfering constructively.
(B) meeting exactly one wavelength out
of phase.
(C) meeting exactly one-half wavelength
out of phase.
(D) meeting exactly one-fourth
wavelength out of phase.
(E) missing the screen altogether
Questions 5 6:
2. If light is passed through a double-slit
opening onto a screen, the pattern
produced on the screen is
(A) a bright central band of light with
slightly-diminished alternating bright
and dark bands called nodes and
antinodes.
(B) a bright central band of light with
tiny lines toward the edges of the
screen.
(C) a large circle of light with tiny
circles around it.
(D) equally-sized concentric circles of
light.
(E) One antinode and no nodes.
Light is incident on a thin film which
covers a mirrored surface.
5. The processes which must occur to
produce a bright reflection are
(A) reflection, diffraction, interference
(B) reflection, refraction, interference
(C) diffraction and refraction only
(D) refraction and reflection only
(E) interference, polarization, refraction
6. In order to see the brightest reflection
of light after passing through the film,
which of the following must be true?
(A) the thickness of the film must be
greater than the wavelength.
(B) the wavelength must be equal to half
the thickness of the film
(C) the wavelength must be equal to 4
times the thickness of the film.
(D) the wavelength must be a multiple of
twice the thickness of the film.
(E) the thickness of the film must be less than the wavelength.

Free Response Question

Directions: Show all work in working the following question. The question is worth 15
points, and the suggested time for answering the question is about 15 minutes. The parts
within a question may not have equal weight.

1. (15 points)
y(mm)

3.00

2.00

1.00

d 0
L = 4.50
m
1.00

2.00

3.00

Violet light of wavelength = 4.20 x 10-7 m is shined through two slits which are a
distance d = 1.50 mm apart. The light lands on a screen a distance L = 4.50 m away.

(a) Determine the position of the first- and second-order bright fringes on the screen
produced by the light passing through the slit.

(b) On the diagram of the screen above, sketch the light intensity vs. screen position y,
with the light intensity maximum at the location of the bright fringes.

(c) For the first minimum in the interference pattern, determine the path difference m
between the light arriving at this point from the two slits.
(d) Briefly but concisely describe how the interference pattern would change if we
change each of the following. Explain your reasoning.
i. The distance between the slits is increased.
ii. Red light is used instead of violet light.
iii. The screen is moved to a distance L = 9 m away from the slits.
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS

Multiple Choice

1. B
The single-slit diffraction pattern creates a central antinode which is much larger than the
fringes.

2. A
Light passing through a double-slit creates a prominent central fringe and bright fringes
on either side of the central antinode.

3. A
Red has the longest wavelength, and the width of the central antinode is proportional to
the wavelength.

4. C
If the waves meet one-half wavelength out of phase, the light undergoes destructive
interference, creating dark bands.

5. B
Reflection of the light from the film and the mirror, refraction through the film, and
interference of the two reflected rays create the bright reflection of the light.

6. D
The equation that governs the bright reflection is 2t = m.

Free Response Question Solution

(a) 4 points
m 1 1 4.20 x10 m
7
1 sin 1 sin
3
0.016
d 1.50 x10 m
y1 L tan 1 4.50 m tan 0.016 1.26 x10 3 m 1.26 mm

m 1 2 4.20 x10 m
7
2 sin 1 sin 3
0.032
d 1 . 50 x10 m
y 2 L tan 2 4.50 m tan 0.032 2.52 x10 3 m 2.52 mm
(b) 3 points y(mm)

3.00

2.00

1.00
2
1
d 0
L = 4.50 m
1.00

2.00

3.00
Intensity

(c) 2 points
1

Path Difference m 4.20 x10 7 m 2.10 x10 7 m
2
(d) 6 points
L
For small angles, y . So,
d
i. If d is increased, y is increased and the bright fringes will be farther apart.
ii. Red wavelength is greater than violet wavelength, so y would also be greater for red.
iii. If L is increased, y increases, so the bright fringes would be farther apart.