Ressentiment (Scheler)

Max Scheler (18741928) was both the most respected and neglected of the major
early 20th century German Continental philosophers in the phenomenological
tradition.[1] His observations and insights concerning "a special form of human hate"
[2] and related social and psychological phenomenon furnished a descriptive basis for
his philosophical concept of "Ressentiment".[3] As a widely recognized convention,
the French spelling of this term has been retained in philosophical circles so as to
preserve a broad sense of discursive meaning and application.[4] Scheler died
unexpectedly of a heart attack in 1928 leaving a vast body of unfinished works.
Extrapolations from his thoughts have always since piqued interest and discussion on
a variety of topics.[5] His works were on theNazi book burn list.

As a concept belonging to the study of ethics, Ressentiment represents the antithetical

Max Scheler (1874-1928)
process of Scheler's emotively informed non-formal ethics of values.[6] But
Ressentiment can also be said to be, at once, Scheler's darkest as well as his most
psychological and sociological of topics, foreshadowing many later findings in those particular social sciences.

Folk wisdom comes closest to Scheler's meaning by recognizing Ressentiment as a self-defeating turn of mind which is non-
productive and ultimately a waste of time and energy. Maturity informs most of us that sustained hatred hurts the hater far more than
the object of our hate. Sustained hatred enslaves by preventing emotional growth from progressing beyond the sense of pain having
[7]
been precipitated, in some way, by whom or what is hated (i.e., another person, group or class of persons).

Contents
1 Background
2 Basic features of Ressentiment
3 Essential structures of Ressentiment proper: "Pathological Ressentiment"
4 Ressentiment and wider societal impact
5 Conclusions
6 See also
7 Further reading
8 Notes
9 References
9.1 Sources
10 External links

Background
It is difficult to imagine the intellectual concern of late 19th and early 20th Century over the collective drift in Western Civilization
away from old-guard monarchial and hierarchical societal structures (i.e., one's station in life being determined primarily by birth),
toward the relative uncertainty and instability embodied in such Enlightenment Era ideals such as democracy, nationhood, class
struggle (Karl Marx), human equality, humanism, egalitarianism, utilitarianism and the like. As such, Ressentiment, as a
phenomenon, was first viewed as a pseudo-ethically based political force enabling the lower classes of society to rise in their
situation in life at the (perceived) expense of the higher, or more inherently "noble" classes. Hence, Ressentiment first emerged as,
what some might view, a reactionary and elitist concept by today's democratic standards; while others of a more conservative mind-
set might view Ressentiment as liberalism disguised as a socialist attempt at usurping the role of individual responsibility and self-
determination. In any event Scheler's contributions regarding this topic can not be fully appreciated without some cursory reference
to the thought of Friedrich Nietzsche (18441900).

Friedrich Nietzsche used the Kierkegaardian term Ressentiment as the source of this emerging degenerative morality issuing from an
underlying existential distinction between what he saw as the two basic character options available to the individual: the Strong
("Over Man," "Superman" or "Master") or the Weak (the "Slave"). The Master-type fully accepts the burdens of freedom and decides
a path of self-determination. The Slave, rather than deciding to be the authentic author of his own destiny, chooses a repressed
unsatisfying mode of life, blaming (by projection) his submissiveness, loss of self-esteem and pitiful lot in life upon the dominant
Master figure (and his entire social class) who by contrast seems to flourish at every moment. A true enough assessment, given that
economic exploitation always seems to lie at the heart of any intrinsic Master / Slave social arrangement, along with the Master class
"washing their hands" (so to speak) of the burdens of social responsibility. This underlying Ressentiment forms the underlying
rationale for a code of conduct (e.g., passive acceptance of abuse, fear of reprisal for asserting personal rights due to implied
[8]
intimidation, or inability to enjoy life) belonging to the Slave-type or class ("Slave Morality").

Nietzsche was an atheist and harbored a particular disdain for Christianity, which he viewed as playing a key role in supporting Slave
Morality. In supporting the Weak and disadvantaged of humanity, Christianity undermined the authority, social position and cultural
progress of the Strong.[9] Nietzsche viewed the progress of such Slave Morality as a sort of violation of the natural order and a
thwarting of the authentic advancements of civilization available only through the Strong. This view of a "natural order", so typical of
19th Century Europe (e.g., Darwin's Theory of Evolution) is expressed in Nietzsche's metaphysical principal Will to Power.[10]
Scheler, by comparison, ultimately viewed the universal salvic nature of Christian love as contradicting Nietzsche's assessments,[11]
and in later life developed an alternate metaphysical dualism of Vital Urge[Note 1] and Spirit:[Note 2] Vital Urge as closely allied to
Will to Power, and Spirit as dependent yet truly distinct in character.

Contrary to Nietzsche's ultimate intent, much of his legacy ultimately led to an implosion of objectivity in which (i) truth became
relative to individual perspective, (ii) "might ultimately made right" ("Social Darwinism"), and (iii) ethics would become subjective
and solipsistic.

By contrast, Scheler, who also was skeptical over the historically emerging unchecked power of mass culture and the prevalence and
leveling power of mediocrity upon ethical standards and upon the individual human person (as a unique sacred value), was
nonetheless a theistic ethical objectivist.[14][15] For Scheler, the phenomenon of Ressentiment principally involved Spirit (as opposed
to Will to Power, Drives or Vital Urge), which entailed deeper personal issues involving distortion of the objective realm of values,
the self-poisoning of moral character, and personality disorder.[16]

Basic features of Ressentiment

Scheler's described Ressentiment in his 1913 book by the same title as follows:

"Ressentiment is a self-poisoning of the mind which has quite definite causes and consequences. It is a lasting mental
attitude, caused by the systematic repression of certain emotions and affects which, as such are normal components of
human nature. Their repression leads to the constant tendency to indulge in certain kinds of value delusions and
corresponding value judgments. The emotions and affects primarily concerned are revenge, hatred, malice, envy, the
impulse to detract, and spite."[17]

Although scholars do not agree on a fixed number or attributes materially defining Ressentiment, they have nonetheless collectively
articulated about ten authoritative and insightful points (many times combining them) which stake-out the boundaries of this concept:
1) Ressentiment must first and foremost be understood in relation to, what Scheler termed the apriori hierarchy of value modalities.
While the direction of personal transcendence and ethical action is one toward positive and higher values, the direction of
Ressentiment and unethical action is one toward negative and lower values. Scheler viewed values as emotively experienced with
reference to a universal, objective, constant and unchanging apriori hierarchy of value modalities. From lowest to highest these
modalities (with their respective positive and corresponding negative dis-value forms) are as follows: sensual values of the agreeable
and the disagreeable; vital values of the noble and vulgar; mental (psychic) values of the beautiful and ugly
, right and wrong and truth
and falsehood; and finally values of the Holy and Unholy of the Divine and Idols.[18] Ressentiment represents the dark underside, or
inversion, of Scheler's vision of a personal and transformational non-formal ethics of values.

2) Ressentiment, as a personal disposition, has its genesis in negative psychic feelings and feeling states which most people
experience as normal reactive responses to the demands of social life:[19] i.e., envy, jealousy, anger, hatred, spite, malice, joy over
another's misfortune, mean spirited competition, etc. The objective sources of such feeling states responses might be occasioned by
almost anything: e.g., personal criticism, ridicule, mockery
, rejection, abandonment, etc.

For the individual person, the ethical and psychological issue becomes how the energy from these feeling states will be channeled so
as to better benefit the individual person and society
.

3) Ressentiment is highly situational in character in that it always involves "mental comparisons" (value-judgments) with other
people who allegedly have no such Ressentiment feelings,[20][21] and who likewise exhibit genuinely positive values. Hence,
although Ressentiment might begin with something like admiration and respect, but surely ends in a sort of coveting of those
personal qualities and goods of another: i.e., advantages afforded by their beauty, intelligence, charm, wit, personality, education,
talent, skills, possessions, wealth, work achievement, family affiliation and the like. This early stage of Ressentiment resembles what
we might refer to today as aninferiority complex.

However, one can easily extend this notion of "comparing" to externally acquired qualifiers having the potential for negative
valuations which also tend to a support consumer based economics: i.e., status symbol possessions (a lavish house, or car), expensive
fashion accessories, special privileges, club memberships, plastic surgery and the like.[22] This principal is expressed in our common
colloquialism of "Keeping-up with the Jones'". The subliminal result of all of these "comparisons" tend to lend credence the idea that
one's self-concept, self-image, self-esteem, worth or social desirability is linked to our social inclusion or exclusion in a favored
superior class having the means to insulate themselves from the rest of society
.

4) Ressentiment, as situational, also typically extends to inherent social roles. Many social roles involve relationships frequently
occasioning some level of inter-personal value-judgment with accompanying negative psychic feelings and feeling states which
suggest dominant and submissive roles, not unlike Nietzsche's Master
-Slave dichotomy. For example:

The subordinate and/or submissive gender roles assigned to woman in terms of sexuality , child rearing and nurturing
tasks. [23]

Generational Divides ("Generation Gaps"): The rejection of a younger generation by members of an older
generation, due to the latter's inability to accept their own changes and to move beyond the value pursuits proper to
those preceding stages of life. Also, the reverse is true. The rejection of an older generation by members of a
younger generation due to latter's inability to accept the fact that the older generation understands and sympathizes
with the challenges they face.[24]
Progressive forms of inter-family and blended-family relations: i.e., younger siblings toward the elder sense of
entitlement; the hyper-critical mother-in-law toward the daughter-in-law;, [24] or even the more contemporarily
abandonment of an ex-spouse in favor of "trophy wife" or "trophy husband" as a status symbol signaling a raise in
social status; the relational neglect toward children from a previous marriage over ones of the current; the reactions
 of peer friends and family to a romantic relationship involving partners of vastly dif
ferent ages; the pathetic efforts of
a mediocre neer-do-well child to live up to the standards of a successful high achieving parent, etc.
The classic employee / employer adversarial relationships.
5) Ressentiment triggers a tendency in people which Scheler termed "Man's Inherent Fundamental Moral Weakness":[25][26] a sense
of hopelessness which pre-disposes a person to regress and seek surrogates of lower value as a source of solace.

When personal progress becomes stagnant or frustrated in moving from a negative to a more positive plateau given a relatively high
vital or psychic level of value attainment, there is an inherent tendency toward regression in terms of indulgence in traditional vices
and a host of other physical and psychological addictions and self-destructive modes of behavior (e.g., the use of narcotics).[27] This
tendency to seek surrogates to compensate for a frustration with higher value attainment inserts itself into the scenario of consumerist
materialism as an insatiable self-defeating need "to have more" in order to fill the void of our own philosophical bankruptcy and
spiritual poverty.

Essential structures of Ressentiment proper: "Pathological

Ressentiment"
Further refining Ressentiment, Scheler wrote:

"Through its very origin, ressentiment is therefore chiefly confined to those who serve and are dominated at the moment,
who fruitlessly resent the sting of authority. When it occurs elsewhere, it is either due to psychological contagionand
the spiritual venom of ressentiment is extremely contagious or to the violent suppression of an impulse which
." [16]
subsequently revolts by "embittering" and "poisoning" the personality

Hence, certain advanced characteristics of Ressentiment link this phenomenon to what we might refer to today as personality
disorders. As such, Ressentiment Proper [20] ("Pathological Ressentiment) is not materially linked exclusively to issues of socio-
economic status, but rather cuts across all socio-economic strata of society to include even the most powerful.

6) In Pathological Ressentiment a Sense of Impotency develops on the part of those experiencing ressentiment-feelings, especially if
situational and social factors weigh so heavily so as render a person unable to release or resolve negative psychic feelings and feeling
states in a positive and constructive manner:[28] what we refer to today in psychological terms asrepression.

Originally understood, Ressentiment is defused whenever one has the power and ability to physically retaliate, or act out, against an
oppressor. For example, an ancient Roman citizen, as Master, could be expected to take revenge straight away upon his Slave while
the reverse would be unthinkable. "When [negative psychic feelings and feeling states] can be acted out, no ressentiment results. But
when a person is unable to release these feelings against the persons or groups evoking them, thus developing a sense of impotence,
[29]
and when these feelings are continuously re-experienced over time, then ressentiment arises."

But for Scheler, the essence of Impotency as characteristic of Pathological Ressentiment has less to do with the actual presence of an
external oppressor, and more to do with a self-inflicted personal sense of inadequacy over limitations in the face of positive value
attainment itself.[30] Hence, Resesentiment-feelings tend to be continuously re-experienced over time in a self-perpetuating manner
primarily fueled by a sense of inadequacy felt within the self which the "other" really only occasions.[31] For example, one can have
every advantage in life given them, yet prove to lack the talent for achieving the goals set for him or her self.

These re-experienced feelings of impotency become rationalized on a subconscious level as knee-jerk attitudinal projections: i.e.,
prejudices, bias, racism, bigotry, cynicism, and closed mindedness.

Noteworthy is the "abstract" focus of Ressentiment: the fact that specific individuals (i.e., the "Master figure" or their counterpart
"Slave figure") are no longer even required for Ressentiment feelings and their rationalized forms of expression to continue and drive
forward. One only needs a representative member of the class of one's focus of resentment to be represented in some way. "Members
of a group can become random targets of hate, borne out of impotence that seeks to level the group." [32] Such a random formal
treatment of "otherness" offers a plausible explanation for hate crimes, serial killings (in part), genocide, the general framing of an
enemy in faceless non-human terms, as well as any top-down or bottom-up form of class warfare agenda, etc. Hence, there must be a
psychic distancing of de-personalization between Master and Slave perceptions of "the other" in order for Ressentiment to operate
effectively.

7) Pathological Ressentiment entails "Value-Delusion". Value Delusion is "a tendency to belittle, degrade, dismiss or to reduce
genuine values as well as their bearers."[29] However, this is done in a distinctively non-productive manner because "ressentiment
does not lead to affirmation of counter-values since ressentiment-imbued persons secretly crave the values they publicly
denounce."[29] This aspect of Value Delusions represents ahorizontal shift of value judgment concerning things and the world from a
positive to a more negative orientation. What was once loved or thought of as good becomes devalued as "sour grapes" [33][34] or
"damaged goods" in the mind of the Ressentiment-imbued person, and what was previously lacking in value is now elevated to the
status of acceptable.

In spite of this decidedly negative direction, "the ressentiment-subject is continuously 'plagued' by those distractions of unattainable
values in that he emotionally replaces them with disvalues issuing forth from his impotence. In the background of such an illusory
and self-deceiving over-turning of positive values with illusory negative valuations there still remains transparency of the true
objective order of values and their ranks." [20] Hence, the demands of Value-Delusion manifest in what we commonly refer to as a
superiority complex, i.e., arrogance, hubris, hypocrisy, employment of double standards, denial, revenge, and self-projection of one's
own negative qualities onto the opposition.

Correspondingly, negative feeling states suggest the absence, repudiation or flight from positive values. But nonetheless, negative
values do not stand on their own intrinsic merit: they always refer back in some way to correspondingly positive values.[35]
Emotionally, Value Delusion turns happiness to sadness, compassion to hate, hope to despair, self-respect to shame, love and
acceptance to rejection (or worse, competition), resolve to dread, and so on down throughout the human emotional strata.

Delusion is essential for the Ressentiment-imbued person in order to maintain any semblance of mental homeostasis.

8) Pathological Ressentiment ultimately manifests as "Metaphysical Confusion". Metaphysical Confusion is a form of Value
Delusion in which the value shift is more vertical in character,[36] in relation to the apriori hierarchy of value modalities. In this
dimension, Value Delusion occurs a sort of twisting, or false inversion, of the value hierarchy wherein higher value-contents and
bearers are viewed as lower, and lower as higher. Today we commonly refer to this phenomenon as "Having One's Priorities Out of
Order." Scheler illustrated such an inversion in his analysis of Western civilizations humanistic, materialistic and capitalistic
propensities to elevate utility values above those of vital values.[37][38] Carried to the logical extreme, "Ressentiment brings its most
important achievement when it determines a whole "morality," preventing the rules of preference until what was "evil" appears
"good".[39]

Click on to enlarge Click on to enlarge

9) Pathological Ressentiment ultimately results in a deadening (psychological numbing) of normal sympathetic feeling states, as well
as all higher forms of psychic and spiritual feelings and feeling states. As opposed to a pure well ordered emotive life (Ordo Amoris)
appropriate to the ethical person as created in God's image through love (ens amans), Pathological Ressentiment emotively results in
a disordered heart (deordre du coeurs),[36] or what we might commonly refer to as a "hardened heart."
For Scheler, morality finds expression in response to "the call of the hour",[40] or exercise of personal conscience, which is based the
heart's proper order of love (Ordo Amoris) in relation to positive and higher values. By contrast, Ressentiment with its corresponding
Value-Delusions willfully favors varying degrees of a disordered heart (deordre du coeurs) and twisted emotions consistent with
personality disorders. For example, it is precisely the failure to feel for and identify with their victims (even to the extent of deriving
sadistic pleasure) which characterizes the sociopath, the psychopath, the serial killer, the dictator, the rapist, the bully, the corrupt
CEO and the ruthless drug dealerall share this same common denominator.[41] Common Law would refer to this quality as "cold
blooded".

Author Erick Larson in his book Devil in the White Cityrenders with great precision a literary description of this deadening of higher
feeling states in reference to America's first serial killer
, Herman Webster Mudgett, alias Dr. H.H. Holmes

"Holmes was charming and gracious, but something about him made Belkamp [the antagonist] uneasy. He could not
have defined it. Indeed for the next several decades alienists [early psychologists] and their successors would find
themselves hard-pressed with any precision what it was about men like Holmes that caused them to seem warm and
integrating but also telegraph the vague sense that some important element of humanness was missing. At first alienists
described this condition as "moral insanity" and those who exhibited the disorder as "moral imbeciles." They later
adopted the term "psychopath"as a "new malady" and stated, "Besides his own person and his own interests, nothing is
sacred to the psychopath."[42]

The Ressentiment-Imbued person exercises such a pronounced psychic distance from his victims so as to never fully achieve the
desired lasting satisfaction produced though his own unethical actions. "Retaliation" of this sort no longer yields any good, and
"expression" of this sort lacks all possibility of positive results. "In true ressentiment there is no emotive satisfaction but only a life-
long anger and anguish in feelings that are compared with others."[19]

Unfortunately in general, our particular era suffers from a pronounced inability to feel higher levels of vital psychic (intellectual and
sympathetic) and spiritual feeling states.[43] For example, the process of our legal system tends to convert the absolute character of
[44] Can we even imagine the moral education furnished by
moral sentiments to a "blameless" game of negotiation of cost vs. benefits.
such archaic practices as the stockade or tar and feathering so as to invoke real public humiliation for crimes? In addition, we as a
culture have become so desensitized to feelings of outrage over public persons of power and stature lacking in all feelings of shame
over their wrongdoings that our greatest moral problem becomes one of complacency
.

Ressentiment and wider societal impact

10) Finally, Pathological Ressentiment bears a particular relation to the Socio-Political Realm by virtue of, what Scheler describes as,
man's lowest form of social togetherness, "Psychic Contagion".[45][46] Psychic Contagion is the phenomenon of uncritically
"following the crowd", or mob mentality, liken to lemmings charging over a cliff. Positive examples, are good natured crowds in a
pub or at sporting events; a negative example, violent rioting. As a concept, Psychic Contagion bears an affinity to Nietzsche's
assessment of Slave-type mentality.

To the extent that the politically powerful (i.e., the "Master" faction or "Slave" faction of society, as the case might be) are able to
rally collective cultural animosities through the use of Psychic Contagion, they increase their ability to achieve their underlying
socio-political objectives. Such methods usually take the forms of incendiary rhetoric, scapegoat tactics (e.g., anti-Semitism,
homophobia, hatred toward welfare recipients and the disadvantaged, etc.), class warfare, partisan politics, propaganda, excessive
secrecy / non-transparency, closed minded political ideology, jingoism, misguided nationalism, violence, and waging unjust war
.

The use of such methods of negative Psychic Contagion can be viewed as having propelled such historical figures or movements as
Nero (burning of Rome), the French Revolution (Ressentiment in the original concept), Hitler (genocide of the Jews, the Aryan
Master Race agenda and the Lebensborn project), the 1975-1979 Cambodian Khmer Rouge (genocidal social engineering), the 1994
Rwanda (tribal based genocide), International Fundamental Islamic errorism.
T
Conclusions
It is a mistake to assess Scheler's concept of Ressentiment as chiefly a theory of psychological pathology, though surely it is that in
part. In addition, Ressentiment is a philosophical and ethical concept from which to assess the spiritual and cultural health both of
individual persons and society as a whole: a task which seems all the more urgent given economic globalization (i.e., a tendency
toward carte blanche predatory capitalism).[47] For example, it is entirely acceptable to view human ethical transcendence as
complementary and commensurate with a bottom-up psychology of needs and drives so long as the arch of that qualitative direction
is positive in nature. However the reverse is false. Negative parallel aspects are irreducible to Scheler's top-down metaphysical
principal of good as emanating from our personal development as spiritual beings. This distinction is illustrated by the many cases in
which negative role models can, and do, emerge as highly self-actualized economically powerful individuals from a psychological
standpoint (clearly "Superman" type persons), but who are entirely lacking from an ethical, social and spiritual standpoint: e.g., the
drug king-pin or pimp as a person young boys admire and look up to, or the corrupt CEO who absconds with obscene bonuses while
his company goes bankrupt and the employee pension fund disintegrates. These negative manifestations of values and value
inversions demonstrate how the philosophical conception of Ressentiment rests upon qualitatively different grounds transcending
science and pure economics.

For Scheler, Ressentiment is essentially a matter of self in relation to values, and only proximately an issue of social conflict over
resources, power and the like (Master / Slave, or dominant / submissive relationships). For Scheler, what we call "having class", for
instance, is not something as one-dimensional as power, money, or goods and services readily sold or purchased. Rather, liken to the
array of apriori hierarchy of value modalities, "class" has to do with who you make of yourself as a person,[48] which involves a
whole range of factors including moral character, integrity, talents, aptitudes, achievements, education, virtues (i.e., generosity),
reciprocal respect among diverse individuals (active citizenship) and the like.

Scheler's formulation of Ressentiment backhandedly acknowledges the underlying principal of love, as replacing raw will to power,
with its accompanying decision to pursue uncompassionate domination of our fellow man. As such, the best case scenario for
Nietzche's Master / Slave distinction lies in the free self-mastery by the individual person to channel negative psychic feelings and
feeling states, and to become disillusioned [49] with unpragmatic beliefs,[50] so as to intelligently benefit themselves and society. As
such, we should promote a society which is inclusive, rather than exclusive, in character; but which also promotes individual and
social responsibility. Repression should be constructively defused wherever reasonable and possible. We might also foster a society
which seeks to resolve (instead of deny) attitudinal conflicts and differences through constructive means: i.e., dialogue, education,
constructive negotiation, enhanced personal communication, and professional intervention. Force and violence should always be used
only as a last resort.

Since society must be guided by the rule of law above power, we must promote government which relies upon fairness (See John
Rawls) and egalitarian principal[51] in terms of channeling our national economic forces. Self-interest (as in Adam Smith's "invisible
hand") is man's (and nature's) most highly efficient means of positively converting Vital Urge into human economic benefits-the
point at which "the rubber hits the road"but it is also a force highly susceptible to greed. Therefore, government must insure that
such raw pursuit of utility value is not purely an end in itself, but must serve primarily to form an economic base upon which genuine
value strata and culture can take root and flourish for the common good as well as everyone's respective individual needs. We should
realize that living with less materially does not diminish in any way our access to greater emotional, intellectual, artistic and spiritual
fulfillment. Only in such ways can virtue truly become its own reward.

See also
Max Scheler
Scheler's Stratification of Emotional Life
Ressentiment
Master-slave morality
A Theory of Justice (John Rawls)
Further reading
Czopek, Michael J. "Max Scheler's Problem of Religion: A Critical Exposition." Diss. Chicago: DePaul University
,
1981.
Scheler, Max (1973). Man's Place in Nature. Translated by Hans Meyerhoff. New York: Noonday.

Notes
1. "...the lowest stratum of psychic being is the presence of an unspecified, undif ferentiated, blind 'urge forward'
(Drang). It is completely conscious-less and, therefore without inner or outer sensation. This urge reveals itself as a
slow 'towards' and 'away from' (e.g. towards light) and it must first be attributed to plant life. It is at the same time the
[12]
'vapor' (Dampf), which is at the bottom of all life, driving forward all life up to its highest manifestations."
2. "...the essential difference between animal and man is the presence of Spirit G
( eist), which makes human life highly
independent of drives, and independent of attachment to environment (in contrast to the basically environment-
stricken animal).... This is clear when we consider that man forms his own environment in social life and history as
well as in using artificial means to change it for better adjustment and comfort....
Spirit elevates man above world
and above himself (as organic being)....Spirit, then, cannot have its foundation or source in this objective world, but
only in the primordial principal of the cosmos Urgrund)
( itself."[13]

References
1. Scheler (1973c), Editor's introduction, pp. xixiv 26. Scheler (1973a), Part II, and Chapter 9 (a) "The law of
2. Frings (2001), p. 145 the tendency toward surrogates when a 'deeper'
emotional determination of the ego is negative"
3. Scheler (1972a)
27. Scheler (1973a), pp. 345346
4. Frings (1996), p. 53
28. Scheler (1972a), pp. 7071
5. Frings (2001), p. 11
29. Scheler (1972a), pp. 2324
6. Scheler (1973a)
30. Scheler (1972a), p. 71
7. Frings (1996), pp. 5354
31. Scheler (1972a), pp. 6972
8. Nietzsche (1995), Editor's introduction, pp. xiiixv
32. Frings (2001), pp. 148149
9. Nietzsche (1995), Editor's introduction, pp. xxiii
33. Scheler (1972a), p. 73
10. Nietzsche (1995), pp. 134135
34. Frings (2001), p. 147.
11. Scheler (1972a), p. 22
35. Scheler (1972a), p. 60
12. Frings (1996), p. 11
36. Frings (2001), p. 70
13. Frings (1996), pp. 1517
37. Scheler (1972a), pp. 149174
14. Scheler (1972a), pp. 1315
38. Frings (2001), pp. 154159.
15. Frings (2001), pp. 164165.
39. Scheler (1972a), p. 81
16. Scheler (1972a), p. 48
40. Frings (2001), pp. 6668
17. Scheler (1972a), pp. 4546
41. Scheler (1972a), p. 65
18. Scheler (1973a), Part I, Chapter 2-B (5) "A priori
relations of rank among value-modalities" 42. Larson (2003), pp. 8788
19. Frings (2001), p. 148 43. Frings (2001), pp. 165166
20. Frings (2001), p. 146 44. Frings (2001), p. 161
21. Scheler (1972a), p. 53 45. Scheler (1973b), pp. 1418
22. Scheler (1972a), p. 63 46. Frings (2001), pp. 9293, 100
23. Scheler (1972a), pp. 6162 47. Frings (2001), Chapter VI, pp. 167180
24. Scheler (1972a), pp. 6264 48. Frings (2001), p. 150
25. Scheler (1972a), pp. 2326 49. Scheler (1972b), pp. 167168
50. Frings (2001), p. 165
51. Frings (2001), p. 177
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String Press.
Scheler, Max (1973a). Formalism in Ethics and Non-Formal Ethics of V
alues. Translated by Manfred S. Frings and
Roger L. Funk. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
Scheler, Max (1973b). The Nature of Sympathy. Translated by Peter Heath. Hamden: ShoeString Press.
Scheler, Max (1973c). Selected Philosophical Essays. Translated by David R. Lachterman. Evanston: Northwestern
University Press.

External links
Prof. Frings' Max Scheler website

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