NETWORK ARCHITECTURE For example, a request/reply protocol would support

operations by which an application can send and

To design a network, network designer have to develop a general receive messages.
blueprintsusually called network architecturesthat guide the
2.1.4.2 PEER INTERFACE
design and implementation of networks.
The peer interface defines the form and meaning of
TYPES messages exchanged between protocol peers to
implement the communication service.
Two widely reference architecture is It determines the way in which a request/reply protocol
on one machine communicates with its peer on another
1. OSI Architecture machine.
2. Internet Architecture To summarize, a protocol defines a communication service
that it exports locally (the service interface), along with a set of
rules governing the messages that the protocol exchanges with its
2.1 LAYERING AND PROTOCOLS
peer(s) to implement this service (the peer interface). This situation
is illustrated in Figure 2.2.
2.1.1LAYERING

When a system gets complex, the system designer

introduces another level of abstraction (hide the details
of how the object is implemented from the users of the
object).
Abstraction naturally leads to layering, especially in
network system.
The general idea is that you start with the services
offered by the underlying hardware, and then add a
sequence of layers, each providing a higher (more
abstract) level of service.
A simple network as having two layers of abstraction
sandwiched between the application program and the Fig 2.2 Service and Peer interface
underlying hardware, as illustrated in Figure 2.1. There are potentially multiple protocols at any given
level, each providing a different communication
service.
We therefore represent the suite of protocols that make
up a network system with a protocol graph.

Fig 2.1 Example of a layered network system

2.1.2 FEATURES OF LAYERING

1. It decomposes the problem of building a network into Fig 2.3

more manageable components. Example of Protocol graph
2. It provides a more modular design. If you decide that
you want to add some new service, you may only need The nodes of the graph correspond to protocols, and the
to modify the functionality at one layer. edges represent a depends on relation.

2.1.3 PROTOCOLS
The abstract objects that make up the layers of a
network system are called protocols.
A protocol provides a communication service that
higher-level objects use to exchange messages.
For example, Figure 2.3 illustrates a protocol graph for the
layered system we have been discussingthe protocols
Request/Reply Protocol (RRP) and Message Stream Protocol
(MSP) implement two different types of process-to-process
channels, and both depend on Host-to-Host Protocol (HHP), which
provides a host-to-host connectivity service.

2.1.4 PROTOCOL INTERFACE

2.1.5 PROTOCOL SPECIFICATION
Each protocol defines two different interfaces
1. Service Interface Specifications are generally expressed using a
2. Peer Interface combination of pseudo code, state transition diagrams,
pictures of packet formats, and other abstract notations.
2.1.4.1 SERVICE INTERFACE
2.1.6 ENCAPSULATION
The service interface defines the operations that local
objects can perform on the protocol.
 Consider what happens in Figure 2.3 when one of the
application programs sends a message to its peer by
passing the message to protocol RRP.
From RRPs perspective, the message it is given by the
application is an uninterpreted string of bytes.
RRP does not care that these bytes represent an array of
integers, an email message, a digital image, or
whatever; it is simply charged with sending them to its
peer.
However, RRP must communicate control information
to its peer, instructing it how to handle the message
when it is received.
RRP does this by attaching a header to the message. A
header is a small data structurefrom a few bytes to a
few dozen bytesthat is used among peers to
communicate with each other.
As the name suggests, headers are usually attached to
the front of a message. In some cases, control
information is sent at the end of the message, in which
case it is called a trailer.
Fig 2.4 High-level messages are encapsulated inside of low-level
messages.
The exact format for the header attached by RRP is
defined by its protocol specification.
The rest of the messagethat is, the data being
transmitted on behalf of the applicationis called the
messages body or payload. We say that the
applications data is encapsulated in the new message
created by protocol RRP.
2.1.7 MULTIPLEXING AND DEMULTIPLEXING
RRP as implementing a logical communication
channel, with messages from two different applications
multiplexed over this channel at the source host and
then demultiplexed back to the appropriate application
at the destination host.
2.2 OSI ARCHITECTURE
The ISO (International Standard Organization) was one
of the first organizations to formally define a common
way to connect computers.
Their architecture, called the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) architecture and illustrated in
Figure 2.5, defines a partitioning of network
functionality into seven layers.
Fig 2.5 OSI Network Architecture
LAYERS
The OSI model has seven layers. They are
Physical Layer, Data link Layer, Network Layer, Transport Layer,
Session Layer, Presentation Layer & Application Layer
2.2.1 PHYSICAL LAYER
The physical layer is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next.
Fig 2.6 Physical Layer
DUTIES OF PHYSICAL LAYER
1. Physical Characteristics of interface and media:
It defines the characteristics of the interface
between the device and the transmission
medium.
It also defines the type of transmission
medium.
2. Representation of bits:
It represents data in the form of a stream of
bits (sequence of 0s or 1s) without any
interpretation.
3. Data Rate:
It defines the number bits send each second.
4. Synchronization of bits:
It synchronizes both the send and the
receiver side clocks
5. Line Configuration:
It is concerned with the connection of
devices to the media. In a point-to-point
configuration, two devices are connected
through a dedicated link. In a multipoint
configuration, a link is shared among several
devices.
6. Physical topology:
It defines how devices are connected to
make a network. Devices can be connected
by using a mesh topology, a star topology, a
ring topology, a bus topology, or a hybrid
topology.
2.2.2 DATA LINK LAYER:
The Data link layer is responsible for transmitting
frames from one node to the next.

Fig 2.7 Data link Layer
DUTIES OF DATA LINK LAYER:
1. Framing:
The data link layer divides the stream of bits
received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
2. Physical addressing:
If frames are to be distributed to different
systems on the network, the data link layer
adds a header to the frame to define the
sender and/or receiver of the frame.
3. Flow control:
If the rate at which the data are absorbed by
the receiver is less than the rate at which
data are produced in the sender, the data link
layer imposes a flow control mechanism to
avoid overwhelming the receiver.
4. Error control:
The data link layer adds reliability to the
physical layer by adding mechanisms to
detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames.
It also uses a mechanism to recognize
duplicate frames.
5. Access control:
When two or more devices are connected to
the same link, data link layer protocols are
necessary to determine which device has
control over the link at any given time.
2.2.3 NETWORK LAYER
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of
packets from the original source to the final destination.
Fig 2.8 Network Layer
DUTIES OF NETWORK LAYER:
1. Logical addressing:
The physical addressing implemented by the
data link layer handles the addressing
problem locally.
If a packet passes the network boundary, we
need another addressing system to help
distinguish the source and destination
systems.
The network layer adds a header to the
packet coming from the upper layer that
includes the logical addresses of the sender
and receiver.
2. Routing:
When independent networks or links are
connected to create intemetworks (network
of networks) or a large network, the
connecting devices (called routers or
switches) route or switch the packets to their
final destination.
2.2.4 TRANSPORT LAYER:
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a
message from one process to another.
Fig 2.9 Transport Layer
DUTIES OF TRANSPORT LAYER:
1. Service-point addressing:
The transport layer header includes a type of
address called a service-point address (or
port address).
The network layer gets each packet to the
correct computer; the transport layer gets the
entire message to the correct process on that
computer.
2. Segmentation and reassembly:
A message is divided into transmittable
segments, with each segment containing a
sequence number.
These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon
arriving at the destination.
3. Connection control:
The transport layer can be either
connectionless or connection oriented.
A connectionless transport layer treats each
segment as an independent packet and
delivers it to the transport layer at the
destination machine.
A connection oriented transport layer makes
a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine first before delivering
the packets. After all the data are
transferred, the connection is terminated.
4. Flow control:
Like the data link layer, the transport layer is
responsible for flow control.
5. Error control:
Like the data link layer, the transport layer is
responsible for error control.
2.2.5 SESSION LAYER
The Session layer is responsible for establishing,
maintaining, and synchronization of the interaction among
communicating systems.
DUTIES OF SESSION LAYER
1. Dialog control:
The session layer allows two systems to
enter into a dialog.
It allows the communication between two
processes to take place in either halfduplex
(one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways
at a time) mode.
2. Synchronization:
 The session layer allows a process to add
checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a
stream of data.
For example, if a system is sending a file of
2000 pages, it is advisable to insert
checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure
that each 100-page unit is received and
acknowledged independently. In this case, if
a crash happens during the transmission of
page 523, the only pages that need to be
resent after system recovery are pages 501
to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be
resent.
2.2.6 PRESENTATION LAYER
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
DUTIES OF PRESENTATION LAYER
1. Translation:
The processes (running programs) in two
systems are usually exchanging information
in the form of character strings, numbers,
and so on.
The computers use different encoding
systems, the presentation layer is responsible
for interoperability between these different
encoding methods.
2. Encryption/Decryption:
To carry sensitive information, a system
must be able to ensure privacy.
Encryption means that the sender transforms
the original information to another form and
sends the resulting message out over the
network.
Decryption reverses the original process to
transform the message back to its original
form.
3. Compression:
Data compression reduces the number of
bits contained in the information.
Data compression becomes particularly
important in the transmission of multimedia
such as text, audio, and video.
2.2.7 APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer is responsible to enable the user, whether
human or software, to access the network.
2.10 Application Layer
DUTIES OF APPLICATION LAYER
1. File transfer, access, and management:
This application allows a user to access files
in a remote host (to make changes or read
data), to retrieve files from a remote
computer for use in the local computer, and
to manage or control files in a remote
computer locally.
2. Mail services:
This application provides the basis for e-
mail forwarding and storage.
3. Directory services:
This application provides distributed
database sources and access for global
information about various objects and
services.
2.3 INTERNET ARCHITECTURE
The Internet architecture, which is also
sometimes called the TCP/IP architecture.
The Internet architecture evolved out of
experiences with an earlier Packet-switched
network called the ARPANET.
Fig 2.11 Internet Architecture
The Internet and ARPANET were around before the
OSI architecture, and the experience gained from
building them was a major influence on the OSI
reference model.
Fig 2.12 Internet Protocol Graph
2.3.1 NETWORK PROTOCOL
The lowest level are a wide variety of network
protocols, denoted NET1, NET2, and so on.
In practice, these protocols are implemented by a
combination of hardware (e.g., a network adaptor) and
software (e.g., a network device driver).
2.3.2 INTERNET PROTOCOL
The second layer consists of a single protocolthe
Internet Protocol (IP).
This is the protocol that supports the interconnection of
multiple networking technologies into a single, logical
internetwork.
2.3.3 TRANSPORT PROTOCOL
The third layer contains two main protocolsthe
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP).
TCP and UDP provide alternative logical channels to
application programs: TCP provides a reliable byte-
stream channel, and UDP provides an unreliable
datagram delivery channel.
TCP and UDP are sometimes called end-to-end
protocols.
2.3.4 APPLICATION PROTOCOL
The transport layer consists of a range of application
protocols, such as FTP, TFTP (Trivial File Transport
Protocol), Telnet (remote login), and SMTP (Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol, or electronic mail), that enable
the interoperation of popular applications.