Particle Detectors :

Only charged particles can be detected. Neutral particles like photons traverse the tracking
detectors without being detected. Track detectors are so constructed that the detected particles
almost are unaffected. The particles continue out of the detector with in principle the same
energy and direction they had before entering the detector.

In order to reconstruct a ionizing particle trajectory,

e.g. in High Energy Physics Experiments, it is needed to detect the positions of this particles
within the space. The technique used for this purpose consists on the interposition along the
trajectory of several sensors planes which are capable to detect the positions where the
particles pass through; from the interpolation of all these points can be reconstructed the
trajectories followed by the particles. In these environments one of the most important merit
figure of the sensors is the spatial resolution, that is the capability to reconstruct the crossing
point of the particle.

Semiconductor Detectors:
When a charged particle hits a semiconductor, an electron hole pair is created in the
semiconductor. By applying an electrical field in the semiconductor the electrons and the
holes are separated. These are collected at the electrodes, which gives a measurable signal.
The greatest advantage with semiconducting detectors is their high precision; they can
register the position of particles with accuracy of the order of 10 m. Among the drawbacks
are that, they are sensitive to radiation and expensive to produce. Semiconducting detectors
are located closest to the particle collision, inside the wire chambers; since it is there one has
the greatest advantage of their high precision to locate the positions of particle tracks.

Calorimeters:
Outside the tracking detectors are calorimeters that detect the energy of particles. The energy
of both neutral and charged particles can be measured using calorimeters. When a particle
enters a calorimeter it collides with the dense material in the detector. The collisions give rise
to a shower of secondary particles and the energy of the original particle is absorbed in the
calorimeter. Because of this calorimeters are located outside the track detectors so that the
trajectory of the particle already has been registered before it is absorbed in the calorimeter.
A particle enters from the left and hits a plate of lead or iron. The particle will then interact
with the atoms of the plate so that secondary particles are created. These can be detected in a
track chamber behind the plate. This process continues through many layers of lead/iron
plates and wire chambers until a little shower of secondary particles have been created. The
energy of the incoming particle can be calculated by measurements of the activity inside wire
chambers.
APPARATUS REQUIREMENT :

INSTRUMENT MODEL NO.

Octal 300 MHZ Discriminator 708

Quad Coincidence Logic Unit N455
Dual Timer N93B
NIM-TTL-NIM Adapter N89
4-Channel Programmable HV Power Supply N470
Ortec Quad Bias Supply 710
Tektronix Mixed Domain Oscilloscope MD03104
Programmable Power Supply PPE-3323
Agilent Pulse Pattern Generator C165/330 Mhz
NIM to Oscilloscope Adopters Lemo Y Connectors
 Fig. 1 Schematic View of Silicon Detector

ABOUT SOURCES :
In nuclear physics, beta decay ( decay) is a type of radioactive decay in which a beta particle
(an electron or a positron) is emitted from an atomic nucleus. Beta decay is a process which
allows the atom to obtain the optimal ratio of protons and neutrons.

Beta decay is mediated by the weak force. There are two types: beta minus and beta plus. In
the case of beta decay that produces an electron emission, it is referred to as beta minus (),
while in the case of a positron emission as beta plus (+).

Strontium-90 (90Sr) is a radioactive isotope of strontium produced by nuclear fission with a

half-life of 28.8 years. It undergoes decay into yttrium-90, with a decay energy of 0.546
MeV.

Here we are using two Sources

Sr90

Activity: 50 mCi
 Ru-Rh106

Activity: 2 mCi

Charge Collection Efficiency

Irradiation creates defects with Energy Levels deep inside the Band Gap. These defects acts
as Trapping Centers . Charge Carriers are trapped in these levels and released after some time
(Depending on the Depth of the Energy Level).

Charge released with delay are no longer measured within the integration time of the
electronics. So, the Detector signal is reduced.

Irradiated Detectors operated with higher Bias Voltage can compensate partly reduced charge
collection efficiency.

Introduction of Impurity atoms, initially electrically neutral, can combine to secondary

defects and modify the radiated tolerance of the material. Silicon enriched with carbon makes
the detector less radiation hard. Oxygen enriched silicon has proven to be with more
radiation.

FEE BOARD AND MANAS

1) Reads 64 analog signals (honeycomb cells) from the detector.

2) Converts Analog to digital by serial 12 bit , ADCS (AD7476).

3) The 4 MANAS Chips and 2 ADCS are controlled by MARC (MUON ARM READOUT
CHIP).

4) MANAS is 16 channels Multiplexed AN alog And Signal Processor.

5) Communicates with DSP (CROCUS -DAQ) through LINK PORT BUS (4 bit)
 TRANSLATOR BOARD

1) Signals from FEE boards are LVTTL type. Translator converts all LVTTL signals from
FEE boards

i.e 4 data bits Do-D3 and CLK,& Token Back to LVDS levels (LOW VOLTAGE
DIFFERENTIAL SIGNALS) before going to CROCUS.

2) It also translates all LVDS signals from CROCUS i.e TRIG,RESET,LDCLK,

LDDATA,ACKL, TOKEN IN , EN to LVTTL (Low voltage TTL).

3) On the patch Bus all signals are LVDS. CAL signal is analog signal for calibration.

4) Trim pots for adjusting threshold levels of signals.

 FEE BOARD BLOCK DIAGRAM

AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE (APD):

An Avalanche Photodiode (APD) is a highly sensitive semiconductor electronic device that
exploits the photoelectric effect to convert light to electricity. APDs can be thought of as
photodetectors that provide a built-in first stage of gain through Avalanche Multiplication.
From a functional standpoint, they can be regarded as the semiconductor analog to
photomultipliers .By applying a high reverse bias voltage (typically 100-200 V in
silicon),APDs show an internal current gain effect (around 100) due to impact ionization
(avalanche effect).However, some silicon APDs employ alternative doping and beveling
techniques compared to traditional APDs that allow greater voltage to be applied (>1500 V)
before breakdown is reached and hence a greater operating gain(>1000).In general, the
higher the reverse voltage the higher the gain. APD gain varies strongly with the applied
reverse bias and temperature, it is necessary to control the reverse voltage to keep a stable
gain. Avalanche photodiode therefore are more sensitive compared to other semiconductor
photodiodes. If very high gain is needed (10^5 to 10^6),certain APDs (single-photon
avalanche diodes) can be operated with a reverse voltage above the APDS BREAKDOWN
VOLTAGE. In this case the APD needs to have its signal current limited and quickly
diminished.

APD applicability and usefulness depends on many parameters. Two of the large factors are:
Quantum Efficiency, which indicates how well incident optical photons are absorbed and
then used to generate primary charge carriers, and total leakage current , which is the sum of
the dark current and photocurrent and noise. Electronic dark noise components are series and
parallel noise. Series noise, which is the effect of shot noise, is basically proportional to APD
capacitance while the parallel noise is associated with the fluctuations of the APD bulk and
surface dark currents. Another noise sources is the Excess Noise Factor, ENF.It describes the
statistical noise that is inherent with stochastic APD multiplication process. This is not to be
confused with the fano noise (F),which describes the fluctuation of the total electric charge
collected in the APD.

APDs with an active area of 5mm by 5mm are used for inherent avalanche gain. To
minimize the noise in the setup and to avoid any ambient light, test assembly is put in a light
tight box and with proper grounding. The signal from the APDs has been coupled to a FEE
board consisting of MANAS, ASIC[2] consisting of 16 channels along with MARC (Muon
Arm Readout Chip)[3] is interfaced through a Translator Board (for translating LVDS to
LVTTL and vice versa) . An Agilent pulse generator is used for sourcing the pulsed light.
The evaluation of APD parameters such as spectral response, noise, response to charged
particles etc. requires precise measurement of the APD gain at the operating bias voltage of
photo diode. The 5 mm multi colored and blue of KING BRIGHT have been used for tests
with pulsed light. The variation of output with applied voltage is recorded for both blue and
multi colored LEDs. It is seen that gain is almost constant up to about 200 volts, and
increases at higher bias voltages, As expected, all the 4 APDs have given higher ADC values
with red followed by green and then blue as the gain is dependent on wavelength. The
problem with these LEDs is, being multi colored; they require a higher forward voltage for
blue in comparison with red and green and the viewing angle also is more (30 to 60degree).
So it was difficult to get a suitable intensity of light for all the 3 colors, at the same settings
on pulse generator which switches on these LEDs. The relative radiant intensity is maximum
for red and lowest for blue for the multi colored LED. So for determining the gain of the
APDs we have used the standard blue colored LED (viewing angle is 20degree).
Typical RMS values at 425Volts and variation of RMS with bias.