ME 303

Convection, Boiling,
Condensation and
Mass Transfer
Semester: August 2015

Dr. Sumon Saha

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
Thursday, November 12, 2015
Convection .. Todays Topic

Dimensional Analysis
 The equations of convective heat
Convection ..
transfer
1. Continuity equation u v w
+ + =0
x y z
2. Momentum equations
u u u u p 2u 2u 2u
+u +v +w = + 2 + 2 + 2 + X
t x y z x x y z
v v v v p 2v 2v 2v
+u + v + w = + 2 + 2 + 2 +Y
t x y z y x y z
w w w w p 2w 2w 2w
+u +v +w = + 2 + 2 + 2 +Z
t x y z z x y z
3. Energy equation
T T T T 2T 2T 2T
C p +u +v +w =k 2 + 2 + 2 + q +
t x y z x y z
Three-dimensional, incompressible flow, Newtonian fluid with constant
properties in Cartesian coordinate system.
 Navier-Stokes and Energy
Convection ..
equations

Three dependent variables
( )


1. Velocity vector V = ui + vj + wk
2. Pressure (P)
3. Temperature (T)

Four independent variables (Cartesian coordinate)
1. x
2. y (space)
3. z
4. t (time)

Four known parameters (fluid properties)
1. (density)
2. (dynamic viscosity)
3. k (thermal conductivity)
4. Cp (specific heat at constant pressure)
All are dimensional quantities and therefore, the total number of inputs are 4.
 Non-dimensional or Dimensionless
Convection ..
Parameters

Some of the important parameters for convection problem
are listed below
1. Reynolds number (Re)
2. Prandtl number (Pr)
3. Grashof number (Gr) Governing parameters
4. Rayleigh number (Ra)
5. Peclet number (Pe)
6. Richardson number (Ri)
7. Nusselt number (Nu)
8. Biot number (Bi) Performance parameters
9. Stanton number (St)
 Convection .. Reynolds Number

Reynolds number (Re) is the ratio of inertial force

to viscous force.
inertia force uref Lref uref Lref
Re = = =
viscous force
where,
= density of fluid, kg/m3
= dynamic viscosity of fluid, Pa.s
= kinematic viscosity of fluid, m2/s Osborne Reynolds
uref = characteristic or reference velocity, m/s
Lref = characteristic or reference length, m
Re can be used as the criterion to determine the change from
laminar to turbulent flow. As the Reynolds number increased, the
inertia forces become dominant and small disturbances in the fluid
may be amplified to cause the transition from laminar to turbulent
flow.
 Convection .. Reynolds Number

Flow over a flat plate u L

ReL = > 5 10 5

Flow inside tube, pipe or duct

uavg D
Laminar flow 2300 ReD = 10000 Turbulent flow

Transitional flow
 Convection .. Prandtl Number

Prandtl number (Pr) is the ratio of molecular

diffusivity of momentum to molecular diffusivity of
heat.
molecular diffusivity of momentum C p
Pr = = =
molecular diffusivity of heat k
where,
= kinematic viscosity of fluid, m2/s
= thermal diffusivity of fluid, m2/s Ludwig Prandtl

It represents the relative importance of momentum and energy

transport by the diffusion process.
Pr relates the relative thickness of the hydrodynamic and thermal
boundary layers.
Pr is the connecting link between the velocity field and thermal
field.
 Convection .. Prandtl Number

Variation of fluid properties and Pr of air with temperature at Patm

 Convection .. Prandtl Number

Variation of fluid properties and Pr of water with temperature

 Convection .. Prandtl Number

Typical range of Pr for common fluids

Question: Define Prandtl number. Explain its physical significance

in relation to (forced and free) convection heat transfer.
 Convection .. Grashof Number

Grashof number (Gr) is the ratio of the buoyancy

force to the viscous force acting on the fluid.
buoyancy force g TL3ref
Gr = =
viscous force 2

where,
= kinematic viscosity of fluid, m2/s
g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2
Franz Grashof
= coefficient of volume expansion, 1/K
T = temperature difference, K
Lref = characteristic or reference length of the geometry, m
Gr is a measure of the relative magnitudes of the buoyancy force
and the opposing viscous force acting on the fluid. The flow
regime in natural convection is governed by Grashof number. It
provides the main criterion in determining whether the fluid flow is
laminar or turbulent in natural convection.
 Convection .. Rayleigh Number

Rayleigh number (Ra) is the ratio of the

buoyancy forces and (the products of) thermal and
momentum diffusivities.
g TL3ref
Ra = = Gr Pr
where,
= kinematic viscosity of fluid, m2/s
= thermal diffusivity of fluid, m2/s
Lord Rayleigh
g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2
= coefficient of volume expansion, 1/K
T = temperature difference, K
Lref = characteristic or reference length of the geometry, m
When the Rayleigh number is below a critical value for that fluid,
heat transfer is primarily in the form of conduction; when it
exceeds the critical value, heat transfer is primarily in the form of
convection.
 Convection .. Peclet Number

Peclet number (Pe) is the ratio of the rate of

advection of a physical quantity by the flow to the
rate of diffusion of the same quantity driven by an
appropriate gradient
rate of advection uref Lref
Pe = = = ReL Pr
rate of diffusion
where,
= thermal diffusivity of fluid, m2/s Jean Claude Eugene Peclet
uref = characteristic or reference velocity, m/s
Lref = characteristic or reference length of the geometry, m

Peclet number is a dimensionless number used in calculations

involving convective heat transfer. If Pe is small, conduction is
important and in such a case, the major source of conduction
could be down the walls of the solid surface.
 Convection .. Richardson Number

Richardson number (Ri) is the ratio of the

buoyancy term to the flow gradient term.
buoyancy term g TLref Gr
Ri = = = 2
flow gradient term uref Re
where,
g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2
= coefficient of volume expansion, 1/K
T = temperature difference, K Lewis Fry Richardson
uref = characteristic or reference velocity, m/s
Lref = characteristic or reference length of the geometry, m
When Ri >>1, inertia forces are negligible and natural convection
effects dominate. When Ri << 1, buoyancy forces are negligible
and forced convection must be considered. At Ri 1, both inertia
and buoyancy forces are equally present and the flow is due to
mixed convection.
 Convection .. Nusselt Number

Nusselt number (Nu) is the ratio of convective to

conductive heat transfer across (normal to) the
boundary. convection heat transfer hL
Nu = = c

conduction heat transfer k

where,
h = convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
k = thermal conductivity of the fluid, W/mK
Lc = characteristic length, m Wilhelm Nusselt

Nu represents the enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid

layer as a result of convection relative to conduction across the
same fluid layer. Nu = 1 Pure conduction heat transfer
 Convection .. Biot Number

Biot number (Bi) is the ratio of the

conductive heat resistance within the object
to the convective heat transfer resistance
across the object's boundary.
internal diffusion resistance hLc
Bi = =
external convection resistance k s
where,
h = convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
k = thermal conductivity of the solid body, W/mK
Lc = characteristic length, m

Bi is used to characterize the heat transfer resistance inside a

solid body whereas Nu is used to characterize the heat flux from a
solid surface to a fluid.
 Convection .. Stanton Number

Stanton number (St) is the ratio of heat

transferred into a fluid to the thermal capacity of
fluid.
h
St =
u C p
where,
h = convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
= density of the fluid, kg/m3
u = free stream velocity of the fluid, m/s Sir Thomas Edward Stanton
Cp = specific heat of the fluid, J/kgK
hL k Nu k C p
St = = Pr = =
=
C p
k u L C p Re L Pr
k

St is used to characterize heat transfer in forced convection flows.

It is a non-dimensional convection heat transfer coefficient.
 Convection .. Dimensional Analysis

Five reference or characteristic scales are used to obtain non-

dimensional governing equations and boundary conditions
1. Reference time (tref)
2. Reference length (Lref)
3. Reference velocity (uref)
4. Reference pressure (Pref)
5. Reference temperature (Tref)

Consider two-dimensional steady state problem with no body
forces, no internal heat generation and negligible viscous
dissipation, dimensional governing equations are
u v u u p 2u 2u
+ =0 u + v = + 2 + 2
x y x y x x y
T T 2T 2T v v p 2v 2v
C p u +v = k 2 + 2 u + v = + 2 + 2
x y x y x y y x y
 Dimensional Analysis: Forced
Convection ..
Convection

Two independent variables (x, y), four dependent variables (u,
v, p, T) and four known parameters or inputs (, , k, Cp).

Let us choose the following reference or characteristic scales:
1. Reference length, Lref = L
2. Reference velocity, uref = u T, u
3. Reference pressure, Pref = u2ref
4. Reference temperature, Tref = T

Hence the non-dimensional parameters are
x x y y
Non-dimensional coordinate: X= = ,Y = =
Lref L Lref L u L
u u v v ReL = ,Pr =
Non-dimensional velocity: U= =
uref u
,V = =
uref u

p p
Non-dimensional pressure: P= =
pref u2 T = Th Tc = Ts T
Non-dimensional temperature: =
T Tref
=
T T ( Isothermal heating )
T T
 Dimensional Analysis: Forced
Convection ..
Convection

Continuity equation
u v
+ =0
x y
Using the definition, x = LX , y = LY ,u = uU ,v = uV

( uU ) ( uV )
+ =0
( LX ) ( LY )
u U V
+ =0
L X Y
U V
+ =0
X Y
This is the non-dimensional continuity equation.
 Dimensional Analysis: Forced
Convection ..
Convection

x-momentum equation
u u p 2u 2u
u + v = + 2 + 2
x y x x y

Using the definition, x = LX , y = LY ,u = uU ,v = uV , p = u2 P

( uU ) ( uU ) ( u2 P ) 2 ( uU ) 2 ( uU )
uU + uV = + + 2
( LX ) ( LY ) ( LX ) ( LX )
2
( LY )
u2 U U u2 P u 2U 2U
U + V = + X 2 + Y 2
L X Y L X L2
U U P L u 2U 2U
U +V = + 2 2 2 + 2
X Y X u L X Y
U U P 1 2U 2U
U +V = + 2 + 2
X Y X ReL X Y

This is the non-dimensional x-momentum equation.

 Dimensional Analysis: Forced
Convection ..
Convection

energy equation
T T 2T 2T
C p u +v =k 2 + 2
x y x y

Using the definition, x = LX , y = LY ,u = uU ,v = uV ,T = T + T

( T + T ) ( T + T ) 2 ( T + T ) 2 ( T + T )
C p uU + uV =k +
( LX ) ( LY ) ( LX )
2
( LY )
2

u T T 2 2
C p U
X + V = k X 2 + Y 2
L Y L2
L T 2 2
U +V = k 2 2 + 2
X Y C p u T L X Y
1 2 2
U +V = + 2
X Y Re L Pr X 2
Y

This is the non-dimensional energy equation.

 Dimensional Analysis:
Convection ..
Forced convection

Considering two-dimensional steady state problem with no body
forces, no internal heat generation and negligible viscous
dissipation, nondimensional governing equations are
U V
Continuity + =0
X Y
U U P 1 2U 2U
x-momentum U +V = + 2+ 2
X Y X ReL X Y
V V P 1 2V 2V
y-momentum U +V = + 2+ 2
X Y Y ReL X Y

1 2 2
Energy U +V = 2+ 2
X Y ReL Pr X Y

Two independent variables (X, Y), four dependent variables (U,
V, P, ) and two known parameters or inputs (ReL and Pr).
 Convection .. Boussinesq approximation

In fluid dynamics, the Boussinesq

approximation is used in the field of
buoyancy-driven flow (also known as natural
convection).

Variations in fluid properties other than
density are ignored, and density only appears
when it is multiplied by g, the gravitational
acceleration

This density difference between the inside
and the outside of the boundary layer that
gives rise to buoyancy force and sustains Joseph Valentin
Boussinesq
flow. ( ) g = g (T T )

where,
= bulk fluid density, kg/m3
= boundary layer density, kg/m3
 Derivation of Boussinesq
Convection ..
approximation

The equation of state of the ideal fluid is
P P
P = RT = and =
RT RT
Here,
= bulk fluid density, kg/m3
= boundary layer density, kg/m3 g
T
= 1
T
It can be written as,
1
T T
1 =
T
 Derivation of Boussinesq
Convection ..
approximation
1
Using series expansion, ( ) = + + + + + for 1 < x < 1
2 3 4
1 x 1 x x x x
In the limit, T  T T

2
T T
1 + + + =
1 < <1


T

It can be written as,

T T

T = 1/T is the
volume expansion
T T
1 = 1 (T T ) coefficient at
T constant pressure.

This result states that the density decreases slightly below as

the local absolute temperature T increases slightly above the
free stream absolute temperature T.
 Dimensional Analysis: Free
Convection ..
convection

Consider two-dimensional steady state problem with buoyancy
forces acting in y-direction, no internal heat generation and
negligible viscous dissipation, dimensional governing equations
are
u v
Continuity + =0
x y
u u p 2u 2u
x-momentum u + v = + 2 + 2
x y x x y
v v p 2v 2v
y-momentum u + v = + 2 + 2 + g (T Tref )
x y y x y

T T 2T 2T
Energy C p u +v =k 2 + 2
x y x y
 Dimensional Analysis: Free
Convection ..
convection

Two independent variables (x, y), four dependent variables (u,
v, p, T) and four know parameters or inputs (, , k, Cp).

Let us choose the following reference or characteristic scales:
1. Reference length, Lref = L
2. Reference velocity, uref = / L
3. Reference pressure, Pref = u2ref
4. Reference temperature, Tref = T

Hence the non-dimensional parameters are
x x y y
Non-dimensional coordinate: X= = ,Y = =
Lref L Lref L g TL3

u uL v vL Gr =
Non-dimensional velocity: U=
uref
=

,V = =
uref


Non-dimensional pressure: P=
p
=
pL2 Pr =
pref 2
Non-dimensional temperature: =
T Tref
=
T T Ra = Gr Pr
T T
 Dimensional Analysis: Free
Convection ..
convection

Continuity equation
u v
+ =0
x y
Using the definition, x = LX , y = LY ,u = U / L,v = V / L

( U / L ) ( V / L )
+ =0
( LX ) ( LY )
UV
2 + =0
L X Y
U V
+ =0
X Y
This is the non-dimensional continuity equation.
 Dimensional Analysis: Free
Convection ..
convection

y-momentum equation
v v p 2v 2v
u + v = + 2 + 2 + g (T Tref )
x y y x y
Using the definition,
x = LX , y = LY ,u = U / L,v = V / L, p = 2 P / L2 ,T T = T
( V / L ) ( ( V / L ) ) ( 2 P / L2 ) 2 ( V / L ) 2 ( V / L )
U + V = + + + g T
L ( LX ) L ( LY ) ( LY ) ( LX )
2
( LY )
2

2 V V 2 P 2V 2V
3 U +V = 3 + 3 2 + 2 + g T
L X Y L Y L X Y
V V P L3 2V 2V L3
U +V = + + + g T
X Y Y 2 L3 X 2 Y 2 2
V V P 2V 2V
U +V = + Pr 2 + 2 + Ra Pr
X Y Y X Y

This is the non-dimensional y-momentum equation.

 Dimensional Analysis: Free
Convection ..
convection

energy equation
T T 2T 2T
C p u +v =k 2 + 2
x y x y

Using the definition, x = LX , y = LY ,u = U / L,v = V / L,T = T + T

( T + T ) ( T + T ) 2 ( T + T ) 2 ( T + T )
C p U + V =k +
L ( LX ) L ( LY ) ( LX )
2
( LY )
2

T T 2 2
C p U
X + V = k X 2 + Y 2
L2 Y L2
L2 T 2 2
U +V = k 2 2 + 2
X Y C pT L X Y
2 2
U +V = + 2
X Y X 2
Y

This is the non-dimensional energy equation.

 Dimensional Analysis: Free
Convection ..
convection

Considering two-dimensional steady state problem with
buoyancy forces acting in y-direction, no internal heat generation
and negligible viscous dissipation, nondimensional governing
equations are U V
Continuity + =0
X Y
U U P 2U 2U
x-momentum U +V = + Pr 2 + 2
X Y X X Y
V V P 2V 2V
y-momentum U +V = + Pr 2 + 2 + Ra Pr
X Y Y X Y

2 2
Energy U +V = + 2
X Y X 2
Y

Two independent variables (X, Y), four dependent variables (U,
V, P, ) and two known parameters or inputs (Ra and Pr).
 Dimensional Analysis: Free
Convection ..
or Mixed convection

Change of nondimensional governing equations due to change
of reference scales:
Free Convection Case Reference Velocity, uref Reference Pressure, Pref
1 /L p uref/ Lref
2 /L p uref/ Lref
3 /L uref g TLref
4 /L p uref/ Lref
5 /L p uref/ Lref
6 /L uref g TLref
7 g TLref p uref/ Lref
8 g TLref p uref/ Lref
9 g TLref uref g TLref
Mixed convection uo pu2ref
 Dimensional Analysis: Forced
Convection ..
Convection
Question: What do you mean by dimensional analysis for forced
convective heat transfer?
Dimensional analysis for forced convective heat transfer is a
method which helps us to qualitatively relate the heat transfer
coefficient with fewer dimensionless variables that are required to
describe the forced convection problem.
For finding the heat transfer coefficient during forced convection,
the following factors are considered,
h = f(, L, u, , Cp, k)
or, f(h, , L, u, , Cp, k) = 0
No. of physical quantities :7 [h, , L, u, , Cp, k]
No. of fundamental dimensions : 4 [MLT]
No. of nondimensional -terms : 7 4 = 3
Buckingham -theorem:
f(1, 2, 3) = 0
Select three variables containing all four dimensions: , h, Cp
 Dimensional Analysis: Forced
Convection ..
Convection

Forced Convection: movement dictated by u

Variable Symbol Dimensions

Plate Length L L

Fluid density M L-3

Fluid viscosity M L-1 T-1

Fluid heat capacity Cp L 2 T 2 1

Fluid thermal conductivity k M L T 3 1

Velocity u L T 1

Heat transfer coefficient h M T 3 1

 Dimensional Analysis: Forced
Convection ..
Convection

Consider first term,

1 = La k b cud = M 0 L0T 0 0
( L)
a
( MLT
3
)
1 b
( ML T
1
)
1 c
( LT )
1 d
( )
ML3
= M LT
0 0 0 0

Now equating the powers of M, L, T and of both sides, we

get the following relations:
b+c+1=0
a + b c + d 3 =0
-3b c d = 0
-b = 0
Solving the above equations, a = 1, b = 0, c = -1, and d = 1

So 1 = L 1u = Re
 Dimensional Analysis: Forced
Convection ..
Convection

Consider second term,

2 = Le k f g uh h = M 0 L0T 0 0
( L)
e
( MLT
3
)
1 f
( ML T
1
)
1 g
( LT )
1 h
( MT 3 1
) = M LT
0 0 0 0

Now equating the powers of M, L, T and of both sides, we

get the following relations:
f+g+1=0
e + f g + h =0
3f g h 3 = 0
f1=0
Solving the above equations, e = 1, f = -1, g = 0, and h = 0

So 2 = Lk 1h = Nu
 Dimensional Analysis: Forced
Convection ..
Convection

Consider third term,

3 = Li k j k ul C p = M 0 L0T 0 0

( L ) ( MLT )
1 j
( ML T )
1 k
( LT )
1 l
( )
i 3 1 2 2 1
L T = M LT
0 0 0 0

Now equating the powers of M, L, T and of both sides, we

get the following relations:
j+k=0
i + j k + l + 2 =0
3j k l 2 = 0
j1=0
Solving the above equations, i = 0, j = -1, k = 1, and l = 0

So 3 = k 1 C p = Pr
 Dimensional Analysis: Forced
Convection ..
Convection
Using the Buckingham method we group the variables in
dimensionless number:
Lu
1 = L k u = Re =
a b c d

hL
2 = L k u h = Nu =
e f g h

k
C p
3 = L k uC p = Pr =
i j k l

k
This dimensional analysis for either internal or external forced
convection indicates the possibility of correlating the variables as
Nu = f ( Re, Pr )

Question: Using dimensional analysis, show that for forced

convection heat transfer over a flat plate, Nu = f(Re, Pr).
 Dimensional Analysis: Free
Convection ..
Convection
Question: Using dimensional analysis, show that for
natural convection heat transfer over a flat plate, Nu =
f(Gr, Pr) = f(Ra).

For finding the heat transfer coefficient during free convection, the
following factors are considered,
h = f(, L, gT, , Cp, k)
or, f(h, , L, gT, , Cp, k) = 0
No. of physical quantities :7 [h, , L, gT, , Cp, k]
No. of fundamental dimensions : 4 [MLT]
No. of nondimensional -terms : 7 4 = 3
Buckingham -theorem:
f(1, 2, 3) = 0
Select three variables containing all four dimensions: , h, Cp
 Dimensional Analysis: Free
Convection ..
Convection
Free Convection: movement dictated buoyancy force per unit
mass is gT
Variable Symbol Dimensions
Plate Length L L

Fluid density M L-3

Fluid viscosity M L-1 T-1

Fluid heat capacity Cp L 2 T 2 1

Fluid thermal conductivity k M L T 3 1

Buoyancy force per unit mass gT L T-2

Heat transfer coefficient h M T 3 1

 Dimensional Analysis: Free
Convection ..
Convection

Consider first term,

1 = L k ( g T ) = M 0 L0T 0 0
a b c d

( L)
a
( MLT 3
) ( ML T ) ( LT ) ( ML ) = M
1 b 1 1 c 2 d 3
L T 0 0
0 0

Now equating the powers of M, L, T and of both sides, we

get the following relations:
b+c+1=0
a + b c + d 3 =0
-3b c 2d = 0
-b = 0
Solving the above equations, a = 3/2, b = 0, c = -1, and d = 1/2

1 = L3/2 1 ( g T ) = Gr Gr
1/ 2
So
 Dimensional Analysis: Free
Convection ..
Convection

Consider second term,

( )
h
2 = L k e f g
g T h = M LT
0 0 0 0

( L)
e
( MLT 3
) ( ML T ) ( LT ) ( MT
1 f 1 1 g 2 h
1 ) = M 0 L0T 0 0
3

Now equating the powers of M, L, T and of both sides, we

get the following relations:
f+g+1=0
e + f g + h =0
3f g 2h 3 = 0
f1=0
Solving the above equations, e = 1, f = -1, g = 0, and h = 0

So 2 = Lk 1h = Nu
 Dimensional Analysis: Free
Convection ..
Convection

Consider third term,

( ) p
l
3 = L k i j k
g T C = M LT
0 0 0 0

( L)
i
( MLT 3
)
1 j
( ML T1
)
1 k
( LT )
2 l
( L2 2 1
T ) = M LT
0 0 0 0

Now equating the powers of M, L, T and of both sides, we

get the following relations:
j+k=0
i + j k + l + 2 =0
3j k 2l 2 = 0
j1=0
Solving the above equations, i = 0, j = -1, k = 1, and l = 0

So 3 = k 1 C p = Pr
 Dimensional Analysis: Free
Convection ..
Convection
Using the Buckingham method we group the variables in
dimensionless number:

g TL3
1 = La k b c ( g T ) = Gr =
d

2
hL
2 = L k ( g T ) h = Nu =
e f g h

k
C p
3 = L k ( g T ) C p = Pr =
i j k l

This dimensional analysis for a free convection over a plate

indicates the possibility of correlating the variables as

Nu = f ( Gr , Pr ) = f ( Gr Pr ) = f ( Ra )