PD/H/PE Study Notes

Core 1: Health Priorities in Australia

How are priority issues for Australia's identified?

Measuring health status

Role of epidemiology
Is used by governments and health-related organisations to obtain a picture of the
health status of a population, identify disease and health patterns , and analyse how
health services and facilities can best be used.
Epidemiology is limited because it doesn't show variations with population sub
groups, cannot provide a complete health picture, fails to explain why health
inequalities exist and doesn't account for the other health determinants.
Measures of epidemiology
Mortality is the number of deaths in a group of people or from a disease over a set
time period. Overall mortality rates for Australians are decreasing.
Infant mortality is the number of infant deaths in the first year of life per 1000 live
births. Infant mortality rates are decreasing.
Morbidity is a measure of the incidence of illness, injury or disease in a given
population. Morbidity rates are decreasing for most major health conditions but
diabetes and mental health rates are increasing.
Life expectancy is the length of time a person can expect to live. Life expectancy is
increasing.

Identifying priority health issues

Social justice principals

Relate to eliminating inequity in health , promoting inclusiveness and diversity and
establishing supportive environments.
Priority population groups

Allows health authorities to:

Determine the health disadvantages of groups within a population

Better understand the social determinants of health
Identify the prevalence of disease and injury in specific groups
Determine the needs of groups in relation to the principals of social justice
Prevalence of condition
Conditions with high prevalence receive more government funding
Potential for prevention and early intervention
If there is a potential for prevention and early intervention for the condition, this is
where the government funds must be directed. It is easier and more cost effective
to prevent a disease than to cure it.
 As the leading causes of death in Australia are from lifestyle diseases, there is more
money and time spent on modifying individual and environmental determinants of
health.
Costs to the individual and community.
Illness and disease costs the individual for treatment, emotional stress, loss of
productivity, financial loss, diminished quality of life and rehabilitation.
The community has indirect costs ( value of the output lost when people become
too ill or die) like when an individual is away from work. Direct costs are treatment,
caring for the sick, prevention initiatives and education.

What are the priority issues for improving Australia's health?

Groups experiencing health inequalities

ATSI people
ATSI people have a higher mortality rate in all ages, from preventative causes, from
cardiovascular disease, lower life expectancy from birth, and infant mortality rates
up to 3 times higher than the national average.
Overseas born people
Overseas born people generally have lower death rates, hospitalization rates and
reduced incidence of lifestyle related diseases.

High levels of preventable chronic disease, injury and mental health problems

CVD
The three main forms are coronary heart disease, stroke and peripheral vascular
disease. Most of these diseases are caused by atherosclerosis, the build-up of plaque
in the arteries.
3.7 million Australians have health problems related to CVD and it costs around $5.9
billion .
Risk factors include family history, gender and advancing age.
Protective factors include smoking blood fat levels, high blood pressure, obesity,
physical inactivity, diabetes and the pill.
Groups at risk are blue collar workers, males.
Cancer
There are two types of tumors( abnormal cellular growths): malignant (cancerous)
and benign.
The most common cancers non-melanoma skin cancers, prostate, breast, colorectal,
lung and melanoma. Lung cancer rates are increasing for women and decreasing for
men, with most other cancer rates declining except skin cancer (melanoma and non-
melanoma).
Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death and is largely preventable.
Breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in women with 1 in 15 women
affected.
Skin cancer is the most common cancer affecting Australians with the most common
types: basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and malignant melanoma
 Risk factors include smoking, occupational exposure, air pollution, family history,
obesity, late menopause, fair skin, prolonged sun exposure, high fat diet and early
onset menstruation.
Protective factors include avoiding exposure to smoke and hazardous materials, self
examination, regular checks, low fat diet and wearing protective clothing in the sun.
Respiratory disease
Forms include asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, hay fever, chronic
bronchitis and sinusitis.
Asthma death rates are decreasing over the past 15 years, COPD death rates are also
falling.
Risk factors for asthma include drugs, exercise, pollution, smoke, cold air or
temperature changes.
Protective factors for asthma are consulting a doctor, avoiding triggers and
managing with medication.

A growing and ageing population

Healthy ageing
The government has promoted good health in the elderly by encouraging financial
security and independence and by appointing an Ambassador for ageing who
promotes active ageing and assisting older people to access services and programs.
Increased population living with chronic disease and disability
With the growth of the elderly there is an increased incidence of chronic disease or
disabilities. Chronic disease in Australia accounts for approximately 80% of the
burden of disease.
Demand for health services and workers
The government has proposed initiatives to meet the need for services and workers
including providing more nurses to emergency rooms and other high demand areas,
expanding the role of nurses and increasing community care services.
Also, to help provide for people who are unable to work, the government has
imposed compulsory superannuation payments and a means-tested age pension.
Availability of carers and volunteers
Older people can contribute to the workforce as volunteers or carers as paid or
unpaid. This is a way to get the ageing population involved in society.

What role do health care facilities and services play in achieving better health for all Australians?

Health care in Australia

Range and types of health facilities and services.

Hospitals, both public and private, provide the most institutional care. Public are run
by governments and provide most specialised and complex services, same day
surgery and take most outpatients. Private are owned by individuals and provide
short stay surgery, elective procedures and less complex procedures that require
less expensive equipment.
 Nursing homes also provide institutional care for the aged, the chronically ill, people
with dementia, and disability. There are three types; private charitable, private for
profit and state government. Aged-care assessment teams ensure only people in
need are placed in residential care.
Psychiatric hospitals have decreased in number with many mentally ill patients being
treated in community based care programmes or as outpatient treatment by GP's,
private psychiatrists and in residential mental healthcare facilities.
Medical services are doctors, specialists and other health professionals with GP's
being the most extensively used service.
Health related services include dentistry, pharmacy, radiography and optometry
with the most common being the various dental services.
Pharmaceuticals are the drugs, both prescription and over the counter. The
pharmaceutical benefits scheme which lowers the price of some drugs. The PBS
safety net puts a cap on the amount a family will pay each year for subsidised
medication. This means after the cap is reached, the medication is free.
Community supports are a significant factor in promoting good health. These include
the food industry and town planners and engineers.
Responsibility for health facilities and services
Commonwealth government is mainly in charge of the national health policies and
health system financing from tax collection. They contribute major funds to high
level residential care, medical services, research, public hospitals and health
activities.
State governments function to provide hospital services, mental and dental health
services, home/community care, women's, child, adolescent and family health
services and inspection/licensing of institutions and personnel.
Private sector provides a range of services like private hospitals, dentists and
alternate health services. Some organisation like cancer council receive funding from
the government.
Local governments monitor sanitation, immunisations, waste disposal and meals on
wheels.
Community groups are established to target specific problems in an area. Examples
of these groups are cancer council, diabetes Australia and dad's in distress.
Equity of access to health facilities and services
The ability of an individual to access services is influenced by SES, geographic
location, staff shortages, waiting times and knowledge of services.
Health-care expenditure versus early intervention and prevention expenditure.
Health-care expenditure in increasing because the focus in on trying to cure the
disease, rather than to prevent it from happening.
Many health insurance companies recognise that people with positive health
behaviours pay increased taxes to support people who choose risk behaviours. They
charge an increased rate for people who smoke and want life insurance.
Impact of emerging new treatments and technologies on health care
With the improvement and introduction of new non-invasive surgery (keyhole),
there is less chance of infection, less pain, faster recovery times and shorter hospital
 stays. This helps elderly people as it reduces the risk and improves recovery from
surgery.
Early detection methods are also being introduced as the financial and personal
benefits far outweigh curative methods. The only problem is access to early
detection programs with some people being unable to complete rehabilitation or
regularly get to treatment sessions.
Health insurance: Medicare and private
Medicare is Australia's universal health care system. It allows anyone to access most
health services by allowing free treatment in a public hospital and free or subsidised
treatment by medical practitioners.
Private health insurance covers the things that Medicare doesn't. they include
private hospitals, ancillary services and aids and appliances (glasses).

Complementary and alternative health care approaches.

Reasons for growth of complementary and alternative health products and services.
An increased desire for a more holistic approach to health that examines lifestyles
and seeks to identify the problem, rather than merely treat the symptoms.
An increased knowledge about a range of alternative approaches.
A desire to use a preventative approach in relation to minor health problems and
lifestyle diseases.
Greater visibility of training colleges specialising in alternative health care
approaches e.g. Australian Natural Therapies College.
Health consumers being more open minded and prepared to act on recommended
from friends, GP's and information from media.
Dissatisfaction with, and increased scepticism about, traditional approaches.
Range of products and services available
Aromatherapy- uses oils to modify mind, body and spirit
The Bowen Therapeutic technique-moves muscles and connective tissues.
Chiropractic-adjusts the spine
Herbalism-uses plants and herbs
Homeopathy-recognises unique individual symptoms
Iridology-analyses the human eyes to see problems
Massage-relieves stress and induces relaxation
Meditation-involves focusing on an object, breathing or a word
Naturopathy-addresses the symptoms as well as resolving underlying causes of
illness.
How to make informed consumer choices.
Ask questions like:
What are your qualifications
What can you do for me
How much will it cost
What experience or training do you have.

What actions are needed to address Australia's health priorities

Health promotion based on the five action areas of the Ottawa Charter

Levels of responsibility for health promotion.

Individual and families
Groups in the community and industry, such as schools, workplaces and the media
All levels of government, local, state and Commonwealth
Non-government organisations both in Australia and international
Benefits of partnerships in health promotion

How health promotion based on the Ottawa Charter promotes social justice
The five action areas are:
Developing personal skills-equity, diversity, supportive environments
Creating supportive environments-supportive environments
Strengthening community action-equity, diversity
Reorienting health services-equity, diversity
Building health public policy-equity, diversity and supportive environments
These areas address all the principals of social justice (equity, diversity and
supportive environments), some more than others
The Ottawa Charter in action
Smoker example
Developing personal skills- quit line services
Creating supportive environments- non-smoking workplace
Strengthening community action- local quit initiative
Reorienting health services-advice from doctor or pharmacist
Building health public policy- non-smoking bus
 Core 2: Factors Affecting Performance
How does training affect performance?

Energy systems

ATP is the universal fuel in the body for muscular contraction (movement)

Alactacid system (ATP/PC)

Sources of fuel- adenosine tri phosphate, using creatine phosphate to resynthesise.
Efficiency of ATP production- it makes ATP readily available, however it doesn't last
long periods of time.
Cause of fatigue- the inability to resynthesise ATP as creatine phosphate stores have
been used up
By-products - heat during contraction
Rate of recovery- 2 minutes
Lactic acid system
Source of fuel- carbohydrates in the form of glucose and glycogen
Efficiency of AFT production-quick production of ATP but requires large
quantities of glucose
Duration of the system- maximal effort causes exhaustion in 30seconds, 70-
80% effort causes fatigue in 3-4 minutes
Causes of fatigue- build up of lactic acid, mainly (H*) which in greater
quantities causes tiredness and fatigue.
Rate of recovery- 30minutes to 2 hours
Aerobic system
Source of fuel- carbohydrates, fats and protein
Efficiency of ATP production- very efficient
Duration of the system- 12 hours of rest or 1 hour of hard work.
Causes of the system- exhaustion of glycogen supplies and the transition
from carbohydrates as fuel to fats as it requires more oxygen to use.
By-products of the system- carbon dioxide, water and heat by muscular
contraction.
Rate of recovery- depends on the duration and intensity of performance. Up
to 48 hours.
Summary
All work together
All use ATP but is resynthesised in different ways.

Types of training and training methods

Aerobic training
Continuous is where exercise of sustained for more than 20 mins without a
rest. It is predominantly used in running, swimming and cycling. For
improvement to occur, the session must exceed 30mins
 Fartlek is where the activity has varying speed or terrain over which it is
performed. It is good for sports where there is a stop-start movement or
rapid changes in speed for continuous running.
Aerobic interval is where there is alternating sessions of work and rest. It is
used in the 400m sprint or 800m sprint races. The rest period is very short,
not enough to allow full recovery. As improvement occurs, shorten the rest
period or lengthen the work session.
Circuit training is where participants move from one station to the next,
performing specialised exercises. This can be used for any activity or sport
just by changing the exercises. Improvement can occur when the circuit is
increased in time, more exercises, rest/no rest and increasing the reps at
each station.
Anaerobic training
Anaerobic interval which can be short (develops ATP/PC), medium (lactic
acid) and long (lactic acid/aerobic). It is best described as a sprint over short
distances using maximal effort. It is beneficial for most team sports that
require short bursts of speed.
Flexibility training
Static stretching where the stretch is held for 10-30 seconds. Is it used after
a warm up in most sports
Ballistic stretching involved repeated movements to gain extra stretch,
which activates the stretch reflex (mechanism that stops over stretching). It
is mainly used in warm ups and can be beneficial in most sports, but only to
be used by trained professionals.
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) involves lengthening the
muscle against a resistance. The muscle is statically stretched, then
isometrically stretched and held by partner while the individual relaxes in
the stretch. Good for warm-ups and cool-downs but mainly to be used to
professionals.
Dynamic stretching involves movement and momentum to stretch the
muscle and warm up (e.g. grapevines). It is continuous and the end point is
not held. It can be used for any sport but is preferred for pre-game warm
ups.
Strength training
Free/fixed weights
Elastic
Hydraulic
All involve muscular contraction that is resisted by calculated loads, building
the strength of the muscle.

Principals of training

Progressive overload
Implies that gains can only be made when the training load is greater than
normal and is progressively increased as time passes.
 Applied aerobically- reflected in the hearts ability to pump more blood to
muscles
Increased weight to increase muscle hypertrophy
Specificity
The effects of a training program are specifically related to the manner in
which it is conducted.
The exercises are mainly those that mimic a game scenario
Choosing activities that mimic a marathon/ that strengthen specific muscles.
Reversibility
Training effects are reversible.
Variety
Using different exercises to achieve the same outcome but to keep
challenging the individual.
Aerobically using running or cycling or swimming for a runner. Strength by
using different resistance mediums
Training thresholds
Refers to the point where an individual changes to another energy system.
Warm-ups and cool-downs
Prevent injury, warm-up or cool-down the body to prevent soreness,
mental preparation and stimulate the cardio respiratory system.

Physiological adaptations in response to training

Resting heart rate

Is the number of beats per minute while at rest. Trained athletes will have a
lower resting heart rate than untrained athletes. It DECREASES in response
to training
Stroke volume and cardiac output
Stroke is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle during a
contraction. It INCREASES due to training as more blood fills the ventricle
and is then pumped out.
Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute. HR
x SV = CO. generally it INCREASES in response to training.
Oxygen uptake and lung capacity
Oxygen uptake is the ability of the working muscles to use the oxygen being
delivered. It is generally tested as VO2 Max and it INCREASES in response to
training.
Lung capacity is the amount of air the lungs can hold. Is remains the SAME
during training
Haemoglobin level
Is the amount of haemoglobin molecules in the body, tied to the red blood
cells. Levels INCREASE with aerobic training, especially altitude training, and
they increase the oxygen-carrying capacity.
Muscle hypertrophy
 Refers to muscle growth together with an increase in the size of muscle
cells. INCREASES are achieved best through PROGRESSIVE OVERLOAD and
SPECIFICITY to target specific muscle groups.
Effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres
Slow twitch are red, fast twitch are white.
They INCREASE in size and function after exercise, most people have a
mixture of both, but have more of one or the other. Training increases but
specific types of training is better suited.

How can psychology affect performance?

Motivation

Positive and negative motivation

Positive motivation occurs when the athlete performs because they have received
rewards for similar actions in the past and they realise that continuing to perform as
required results in additional rewards.
Positive is more effective than negative, and can come from many sources like
coaches, crowds, family, friends, peers and self.
Negative motivation is the improvement in performance out of fear of the
consequences of not performing to expectations.
It can result in indecision, lack of creativity, fear of risk taking and 'chocking' up.
Intrinsic and extrinsic
Intrinsic comes from within the individual. It is the preferred type of motivation
because self satisfaction and personal reward are much stronger driving forces than
anything created from outside.
Extrinsic comes from outside a person, like a coach, crowd, parent and so on. It
tends to be outcome or ego orientated. It works well with children but as the athlete
grows older, the focus can be on the end rather than the means.

Anxiety and arousal

Trait and state anxiety

Trait anxiety refers to a personality trait that predisposes the individual to view non-
threatening situations as threatening. It affects all people at different levels.
State anxiety is a result of a specific situation (spiders). In extreme cases, it can
contribute to a degree of physical and mental paralysis.
Sources of stress
Stress can be real or imagined. Factors that produce stress in an individual are called
stressors. They can develop from personal pressure, competition pressure, social
pressure and physical pressure.
Successful athletes don't deny the existence of stress but can mould it to be
beneficial.
Optimum arousal
 Is a physiological process. Arousal is an essential part of sports performance,
although the levels can aim or hinder the performance of skills or tasks.
The inverted-U hypothesis shows the link between arousal and performance.
Generally, where there are less muscles involved, levels of arousal don't need to be
very high. Sports that are easier to do or need large body movements require a
larger amount of arousal.
Optimum arousal levels vary depending on self expectation, expectations of others,
experience, financial pressures, competition level, how difficult it is and skills
finesse.

Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety

Concentration/attention skills
Concentration is the ability to link movement and awareness to the extent that the
individual focuses on doing rather that thinking about doing.
Types of concentration include intense concentration (gymnastics or diving),
intervals of high concentration with periods of less intensity (team sports) and
sustained concentration (tennis, ping pong).
Mental rehearsal/visualisation skills (focussing)
Is a technique of picturing the performance before executing it. Mental rehearsal
relies on the power of mental imagery, improves concentration, provides additional
practice and the chance for a perfect practice.
Mental rehearsal improves performance by elevating the body to the optimal state
of arousal, provides a clear image of the task, heightens concentration and narrows
thoughts to the task at hand.
Relaxation techniques
Are used to control the body's response to stress.
The most commonly used techniques are progressive muscle relaxation, mental
relaxation, self-hypnosis, mental rehearsal, meditation and centred breathing.
Goal setting
Goals are targets that we direct our efforts towards. They can be long term or short
term, behavioural or performance goals.
Goals need to be realistic and attainable

How can nutrition and recovery strategies affect performance.

Nutritional considerations

Pre-performance, including carbohydrate loading

Food consumed prior to activity is useful only if digested and it's energy and nutrient
are made available.
Type of food: high energy complex carbohydrates because they have a slow energy
release.
Amount of food: endurance sports may need larger amount of food than a sprinter.
 When to eat: a normal meal up to 3-4 hours prior. Closer to competition, the meals
should be liquid or snacks. Sports drinks are preferred up to 30 mins prior.
Hydration: as a general rule, 500-600ml 2-3 hours before, 250-300ml in the last
15mins.
Carbohydrate loading is a technique to maximise the storage of glycogen. It is mainly
used in sports 90mins or longer. The old technique used high carb's then high
training, then high carb's. the new method involves a tapering of training and a slow
increase in carbohydrate content.
During performance
Fluid and fuel supplies are affected by intensity, duration, humidity, clothing type
and individual sweat rates.
Hydrate during activity, aiming for a drink every 15-20 mins, ensure your
acclimatised, wear breathable clothing and recognise the symptoms of heat stress.
Post performance
This aims to return the body to its pre-performance state.
It usually begins immediately after and can continue for 8-12 hours.
The best way to recover is to eat foods with high GI and to rehydrate.

Supplementation

Vitamins/minerals
Vitamins are inorganic compound that help the body release energy, build tissue
and in metabolic regulating
Most vitamins are supplied by a balanced diet, some people need supplementation.
However there is no real benefit from supplementation
Minerals help the body to function. Iron and calcium are two main minerals
Most balanced diet's provide enough minerals, however females are more likely to
be iron and calcium deficient
Protein
Protein holds cells together and aids the body in growth, repair and maintenance of
tissue
There is no real benefit from supplementation, and research shows that is there is a
need for more protein, the preferred method is to alter the diet of the athlete.
Excess protein is not stored in the body, it is removed. Too much can cause
osteoporosis by calcium deficiency
Caffeine
Caffeine can improve alertness, memory, concentration and reasoning.
It can be of use in endurance activities and is helpful for its glycogen sparing ability
It has a diuretic affect and can dehydrate an athlete prior to performance.
Creatine Products
There are no real benefits in supplementation of creatine products. The body
doesn't store excess creatine so supplementing will just be excreted.
Major problems with creatine products are that it can cause renal disease and
increases in weight.
Recovery Strategies

Physiological strategies
Cool-down serves to return the body back to its state pre-performance. It usually
consists of 5-10 minutes of walking/jogging and stretching.
Nutritional plan refers to fluid and fuel recovery.
Fluid recovery helps stop dehydration and cramps. A variety of fluids are encouraged
to replace a range of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates and protein.
Fuel recovery for glycogen and blood sugar is best done between 30 mins and 2
hours after exercise. Generally a high carbohydrate diet is recommended for a
recovery diet
Neural strategies
Hydrotherapy uses water to relax, soothe pain and assists in metabolic recovery.
Massage can extend on the cool-down and relieves tension, reduced swelling,
eliminates by-products and promotes flexibility. Properly used, massage can limit
the recovery time between activities
Tissue damage strategies
Cryotherapy involves ice to slow inflammation and prevent waste build-up.
RICER is a common method used in first-aid and recovery.
Ice baths are another common method of immersing the body in ice water then
either going to a warm pool or staying out. The cold restricts blood flow, and when
the body warms, the blood vessels expand, allowing fresh blood to flow.
Psychological strategies
Include relaxation, debriefing, reading, listening to music, visualisation....
The benefits are felt if practiced frequently.

How does the acquisition of skill affect performance.

Stages of skill acquisition

Cognitive stage
The athlete gains an understanding of the skill they are required to perform.
Demonstrations, videos and information are important at this stage.
The skill can be broken down into different steps.
Lots of support- the learner is going to make lots of mistakes and may not be able to
recognise them
Associative
The learner has the idea and now has to practice the skill
Demonstrations are still important.
Errors are still made but not so many and the learner may be able to identify them.
Learners may never move on from this stage, or it may take years.
Autonomous
The movement is now performed instinctively.
 Improvement requires manipulation of the environment to ensure the skill can be
reproduced.
Movement is fluid and good too look at .

Characteristics of the learner

Personality
Refers to the way of behaving.
Traits are observable feature of a person.
These traits include cooperativeness, willingness to learn, determination,
enthusiasm, dedication, motivation, aggressiveness and willingness to take risks and
listen.
Heredity
The relative percentage of fast to slow twitch muscle fibres.
Somatotype (endomorph, ectomorph, mesomorph) - refers to body type
Gender
Height
Conceptual ability
Confidence
Unlocks energy and creativity.
Positive achievements enhance confidence, nurture self-image, provides the
foundation for future skill building.
Prior experience
Lateral transfer is from one task to another similar task (backhand in squash to a
backhand in tennis)
Vertical transfer is from a simple skill to a slightly more complicated ( kickboard to a
dolphin kick)
Ability
Is the ease with which an individual is able to perform a movement or routine.
It incorporates a range of factors, including sense acuity, perception, reaction time
and intelligence.
Learners who are good at these factors will move through to the autonomous stage
much quicker than learners who struggle with these factors.

The Learning Environment

The nature of the skill. (All sports lie on a continuum, not one or the other)
An Open skill occurs in an environment that is unpredictable and frequently
changing. A Closed skill occurs in an environment that is stable and predictable. A
leaner will progress easier in a closed skill, because open skills are normally team
skills that are distracting and can cause annoyance.
A Gross motor skill involves the use of large muscle groups for execution. A fine
motor skill uses only small muscle groups for execution. Gross are commonly found
in team sports, while fine skills are more like catching or putting in golf.
 A discrete skill has a distinct beginning and end. A serial skill involves a sequence of
movements that are assembled to make a skill. A continuous skill has no identifiable
beginning or end. A forward roll is distinct, kicking a football is serial and swimming
is continuous.
A self-paced skill is a movement that the performer controls the timing and speed of
execution. An externally-paced skill has an external source controlling the timing. A
tennis serve is self paced, while batting in cricket is externally paced.
Performance elements
Game-centred approach aims to focus on the whole game rather than the
components.
Decision making is best achieved through:
Observation- observing other players in a game
Questioning- highlighting options and having players work through game like
scenarios.
Whole, part, whole approach- the strategy is taught in whole, then broken
down into the specific roles, then practiced as a whole again.
Variation- encourages innovation and imagination
Creativity- encourages each player to think they are an important part of the
team and allows decision making skills to develop.
Strategic refers to the way we play, where we should be at a particular time and
what to do. Tactical id about utilising ways of gaining an advantage over an
opponent. The principals of strategic and tactical development are:
Technical efficiency- players need to use correct technique in the execution
of skills. This enhances their level of consistency
Understanding- players need to fully understand what is required, options
and variations possible and what to do if things don't work.
Skilful execution- strategies work properly only if practiced in training in
drills that replicate game situations. Pressure needs to be gradually applied
through invasive or part-invasive game-play drills that encourage decision
making and create options.
Practice methods
Massed practice involves a continuous practice session with short rest intervals. This
method works best with highly motivated, fresh individuals or people who are
unable to attend a number of sessions.
Distributed practice involves broken practice sessions, with the rest or other activity
period longer than the practice period. This works best with performers who lack
interest, difficult or fatiguing tasks, low motivation or if the task causes discomfort.
Whole practice is where the skill is practiced in its entirety.
Part practice is where the skill is broken down into subroutines that are practiced
separately. This method is the most preferred for new or complex skills.
Feedback
Internal feedback is the natural consequence of performing a skill (the sound of the
ball hitting the bat).
 External feedback is all feedback from outside the performer (a video replay or a
coach)
Concurrent feedback is received during the performance of a skill ( information
about balance while doing a handstand)
Delayed feedback occurs after the skill is performed ( score or coaches advice)
Knowledge of performance is information about how well the skill was performed. It
is normally external but can be internal ( kinaesthetic sense). E.g. coaches feedback
on how well the football player connected with the ball.
Knowledge of results is information about the outcome of the movement. It is
always external and objectively measured ( scoreboard)

Assessment of skill and performance

Characteristics of skilled performers (T.A.C.K)

Technique is the ability to carry out skills. Good technique involves economical,
skilful, aesthetically pleasing movement that is successful, can hold up under
pressure, reduces the chance of injury and allows the performer to move to a
higher level.
Anticipation is the ability to predict what may happen. It is involved in fast-paced
sports where decision making is necessary.
Skilled performers have consistently good results
Kinaesthetic sense allows them to feel the movement, make corrections while
performing the movement and is a direct result of practice.
Objective and subjective performance measures
Subjective is a judgement based on feelings, impressions or opinions.
Objective refers to an empirical measure.
Most sports use an objective measure but all measures are, to a degree, subjective.
Observations can be made more objective by using checklists, measurement
systems, established criteria and rating scales.
Validity and reliability
Validity is how relevant the test is. Validity can be improved by judgement of the
test items ( good performers get better scores, the test that proves this is valid),
using already valid but similar tests, accurate predictions and by ensuring the test
has the component to be tested in it.
Reliability is how consistent the test is. This is improved by repetition.
Personal vs. prescribed judgement criteria
Personal criteria is the preconceived ideas that an individual has to judge the
performance. This creates bias in judges.
Prescribed criteria are established by a sports body and form the basis of
assessment.
 Option 1: Sports Medicine
How are sports injuries classified and managed ?

Ways to classify sports injuries

Direct and indirect

Direct are caused by an external force applied to the body, such as a collision. They
normally result in a fracture, dislocation, sprain or a bruise
Indirect are caused by a mismanagement of the force within the body.
Soft and hard tissue
Hard tissue injuries are done to bone and teeth.
Soft tissue injuries effect everything else. They can be acute or chronic
Overuse injuries
Are caused by overuse of a specific region over a long period of time.
They cause pain and inflammation around the site of injury.
Most common are stress changes, tendonitis and shin splints.
If untreated, they can result in stress fractures.

Soft tissue injuries

Tears, sprains and contusions

A tear is when the tissue is excessively stretched or severed. There are two types: a
sprain and a strain.
A sprain involves ligaments and result in pain, swelling and the inability to perform
normal joint movements. Proper rehabilitation is needed as healing in the stretched
position causes permanent instability in the joint. Sprains are classified according to
the severity of ligament damage.
Strains occur to tendons and muscles. Any movement will result in sharp pain
Contusions are caused by a sudden blow to the body; a bruise. Some are superficial
but some can cause bone bruising. The contusion interrupts blood flow and causes a
blood tumour (haematoma).
Skin abrasions, lacerations and blisters.
Abrasions are grazes that cause pain and shallow bleeding. The skinned area may
have foreign materials embedded in it so gentle cleaning and sterilisation is needed
to prevent infection.
Lacerations are cuts and can occur anywhere on the body. Pressure is needed to
stop the bleeding, and lacerations larger than one centimetre or that keep bleeding
need to be referred to a doctor. The area needs to be cleaned with antiseptic soap,
dried and covered to prevent infection.
Blisters are caused by a collection of fluid under or within the surface layer of the
skin. They are immensely painful and contain either clear liquid or blood if a vessel is
damaged. They are managed by rest, and the fluid can be drained surgically and a
pad placed on top.
The inflammatory response
 Phase 1.
Pain, redness and swelling around the injured area
Loss of function and mobility
Damage to cells and surrounding tissue
Increased blood flow to the area
Leakage of the fluid causing the swelling
Formation of new blood vessels to promote healing.
Phase 2, the regerative and repair stage, lasting form 3 days to 6 weeks
Elimina6ion of debris
Formation of new fibres
Scar tissue production.
Phase 3, the remodelling stage, six weeks to months.
Increased scar tissue production
Strengthen and developing replacement tissue.
Immediate treatment aims to restore flexibility and full function, return the player to
the field as soon as possible and prevent recurrence.
RICER is the most effective treatment option or soft tissue injuries. To ensure
effective rehabilitation, rest needs to be active, ice shouldn't be applied to
cuts/damaged skin and the ice should remain until the tissue feels numb (20mins)

Hard tissue injuries

Fractures
The two broad classifications for fracture are simple and compound.
A simple or closed fracture is where the bone remains under the skin. A compound
or open fracture is when the bone breaks the skin.
There are many different types of fractures including: greenstick, spiral, depressed,
oblique, comminuted, impacted, longitudinal, transverse and serrated.
Management is:
DRSABCD
Control bleeding
Treat for shock
Use a splint and bandage to immobilise the area
Seek immediate medical assistance.
Dislocations
Is when the bone comes out of the joint
Common signs are:
Deformity and swelling
Pain and tenderness
Loss of function
Management includes:
Secure with a splint to fully immobilise the injury
Ice, elevation and support with bandages
Immediate medical attention
Never put the joint back in.
 In a subluxation, the joint pops out then goes back in by itself. These dislocations still
require medical assistance.

Assessment of injuries

TOTAPS
TALK to the player to find out what happened. Also talk to people immediately
around the player to see if they heard a noise.
OBSERVE - look at the injury site and compare tot eh other side of the body to check
for swelling or deformity
TOUCH - gently feel for deformity or swelling, also pinpoint the injury site
ACTIVE MOVEMENT- ask the player to perform a range of joint movements. If done
without pain, proceed
PASSIVE MOVEMENT- physically move the joint using the full range of movement to
identify and instability or pain.
SKILLS TEST - ask the player to perform a series of skills used in the game. If there is
no problem, they can return to play.

How does sports medicine address demands of specific athletes?

Children and young athletes

Asthma
Is a condition characterised by breathing difficulties due to a reduction in the width
of airways, resulting in less air available. This is caused by inflammation, extra mucus
production and muscle tightening in the airway.
Strategies to reduce risk are: avoid triggers, ensure a suitable warm up, ensure
preventative medication is taken, monitor progress
Signs and symptoms: coughing, shortness of breath, tightening in the chest,
wheezing and blue lips
Management includes: reassure, sit upright, give one puff-four breaths four times, if
no improvement, repeat twice, if no improvement call 000
Sports are recommended as long as an action plan is followed
Diabetes
Strategies to reduce risk: monitor sugar levels and manage them as required.
Exercise can help them manage their sugar levels and decrease the amount of
insulin required. Children may need to modify insulin therapy and nutritional intake
to ensure the advantages of activity outweigh the risks
Epilepsy
Is the disruption of brain function
Strategies to reduce risk: be aware of triggers and limitations, closely supervise,
avoid inappropriate sports and ensure medication is administered
Signs and symptoms: seizing, loss of consciousness, muscle spasms
Management: ensure they are safe, reassure, DRSABCD if unconscious
 Children with epilepsy should still play sports but need to be monitored. Most
people can control the seizures by antiepileptic medication.

Adult and aged athletes

Heart conditions
Exercise regulates the blood pressure and can aid people with hypertension (high
blood pressure)
Each session should have a thorough warm up
To reduce risk: ensure to consult a medical professional, ensure that there is
supervision at the start of the program, use aerobic activity, use a tailer made,
sustainable program and
Fractures and bone density
Osteoporosis is a type of musculoskeletal condition in which there is a deterioration
in the bone structure.
The most important part of an exercise program for people with osteoporosis is that
the risk of falls and broken bones is minimised.
Physical activity increases bone mass and makes bones stronger, as well as delaying
post menopausal bone loss in women.
Endurance activities, low impact and activities that focus on balance, flexibility,
strength and coordination are better suited to these people.
Doctors should guide the program, medication, exercise and any diets required.
Flexibility and joint mobility
Exercise increases flexibility and joint mobility.
Arthritis, aching joints and muscle tightness are often experienced by older people.
Programs should focus on safe stretching, improving the range of movement,
increasing balance and stability, be low impact, specific to the individual and take
into consideration any medical conditions.
Activities include walking, cycling, flexibility classes, Tai Chi and aqua aerobics.

Female Athletes

Eating disorders
The most common are anorexia and bulimia.
These may result from peer influence, media, social expectations and the need to
conform to the ideal sporting image. Gymnasts and divers are the most at risk due to
the need to conform to an ideal body shape and image
To prevent disorders, coaches and trainers need to get athletes to do their best, not
focus on winning, be better educated about the signs of eating disorders, observe
training and social practices and invite parents to observe training sessions.
Iron deficiency
Anaemia is a condition where there isn't enough haemoglobin, resulting in low
oxygen
 Iron deficiency contributes to fatigue and loss of energy. Female athletes are most at
risk due to menstruation, so levels need to monitored regularly and
supplementation may be needed
Exercise induced anaemia is where iron stores are exhausted due to increased
training or activity.
Bone density
Is directly related to the amount of calcium in the bones. Calcium is regulated by the
parathyroid, so an overactive parathyroid can contribute to osteoporosis.
Female athletes start to lose bone density in their mid thirties and after menopause.
In a program, the activity needs to be safe and any diet should be high in calcium
rich foods like milk and cheese.
For women with osteoporosis, warm-ups are essential and stretching along with ice
to prevent swelling of joints.
Pregnancy
Sustained, moderate exercise performed in the cool of the day with lots of fluids can
help reduce the chances of a complicated pregnancy.
Competitions have specific rules about pregnant women to reduce risk.
Exercise helps to maintain fitness and general wellbeing, help to control weight after
pregnancy and improves muscle tone

What role do preventative actions play in enhancing the wellbeing of the athlete?

Physical preparation

Pre-screening
Assesses the health status of a person before they become involved in a training
program.
It is necessary to identify people with current health problems and to establish a
training program that the individual will respond to.
It is especially important for:
Males over 40
Females over 50
Asthmatics
People who smoke, are obese or have high blood pressure
People who have a family history of heart conditions.
Pre-screening is an important tool for encouraging people to begin and maintain an
exercise program using an exercise prescription. By understanding limitations you
can motivate and avoid injuries.
Skill and technique
Relates to the efficiency with which we perform the activity.
Skilful players display a high degree of temporal patterning, pacing and control.
Physical fitness
Ensure the level of fitness required is attainable before full competition begins.
Lack of development at the appropriate stage of fitness for a particular sport is a
major contributing factor to injury.
 Warm up, stretching, cool down
The warm up needs to be geared toward the demands of the sport, with the
allocated time varying depending on the sport. Generally, endurance activities
require shorter warm ups than explosive activities
Warm ups cause:
Redistribution of blood flow to enable faster contractions
Increased muscle temperature to increase the ability to stretch without
tearing and improve muscle response times.
Stretching is essential for everyone as muscles lose elasticity with age. The muscles
need to be stretched beyond the range required in the sport, and it needs to be
specific to that sport.
Safe stretching can be :
Static stretching for 30 seconds
PNF which involves isometric stretch, then a static stretch than relax.
Cool downs are periods of recovery following competition or physical activity where
the body returns to its pre-exercise state. An adequate cool down lasts for 10 mins
and involves stretching, callisthenics and a slow gross motor activity.
Cool downs are essential for:
Maintaining the stretch in muscle groups
Dispersing lactic acid
Preventing blood pooling.

Sports policy and the sporting environment

Rules of sports and activities.

The rules of a sport assist the flow of play and protect participants from injury.
Sporting codes have well-defined rules stating what constitutes dangerous activity
and a range of penalties to punish the offence.
Modified rules for children
Major modifications have been made in junior sports to accommodate children.
Children, because of their stature and limitations, have very specific needs in terms
of equipment size, court dimensions, rules and playing environment
When suited to their needs, it adds potential to learn skills and enjoy sports as a
willing participant.
Matching of opponents
Matching children with others of comparable size reduces injury. However this can
be difficult as teams are often assembled by age. there can be a vast difference in
physical maturity between individuals of the same age.
Use of protective equipment.
Protective equipment, ground surround and equipment is essential for players on
most team sports and it must be safe. Good quality equipment is important as it has
been rigorously tested.
All protective equipment must:
Adequately protect the wearer and other players
Allow freedom of movement
 Allow air flow and
Be comfortable
Footwear needs to be both supportive and protective. Sport shoes are unique t each
athlete because different sports put different stresses on the shoe.
Comfort and protection is achieved if:
It is comfortable but not too tight and doesn't cramp the toes
Is flexible where the toes bend and has high support for the Achilles heel
Has support for the arch, can absorb midsole impact, has a non-slip sole and
has appropriate heel support.
Safe grounds, equipment and facilities
Ensure the playing surface is appropriate
Clear away all rubbish
Check and posts cannot harm players (i.e. wrap in padding)
Ensure fences are away from the field
Ensure spectators are back from the sidelines
Ensure lighting
Equipment should be suited by size, is maintained, is padded, is sufficient, is stable
and is properly erected.

Environmental considerations

Temperature regulation
For the body to maintain a constant core temperature, heat loss must match heat
production
Convection is the movement of air or water adjacent to the skin and cool windy
conditions increase the loss of heat
Conduction is direct contact with a colder object, such as water
Evaporation is where body heat is lost from the skin when sweat is evaporated
Radiation is where heat is transferred from the body to the surrounding
environment.
Climatic conditions
Performances in comfortable environmental temperatures usually do not present a
problem, however, extremes in temperatures require specific performance
strategies
Environmental warmth and humidity limit the body's ability to dissipate heat. While
high environmental temperatures impede heat dissipation, humidity prevents
evaporation
The combined effect of convection and conduction contribute to wind chill. Light
clothing that covers most surface areas during running and cycling are examples of
attire used to prevent wind chill
Rain may assist body temperature control during performance in warm to hot
conditions, but is also may adversely affect safety. Rain can affect visibility and this
has the potential to impact on safety.
 Altitude is not a significant factor in terms of safety. As altitude increases, our ability
to perform physical work is affected, particularly in endurance events as athletes will
experience a reduction in aerobic ability. Some short duration events may benefit
due to less resistance.
Pollution can pose a safety hazard for those who train and perform in large cities. It
increases airway resistance, causing irritation to the respiratory tract and reducing
oxygen transport in the blood. The most dangerous in carbon monoxide, but the risk
can be reduced by avoiding cigarette's and not exercising during risk hours.
Guidelines for fluid uptake
Acclimatisation
This is a technique to get athletes to experience different climate stressors, causing
physiological adaptations to occur
It is enhanced by exposure and training in the environments that are prefabricated
to provide the desired effect
Acclimatisation to heat or humidity takes about 5-7 day while acclimatisation to
altitude may take 2-3 weeks depending on the elevation difference.

Taping and bandaging

Preventative taping
Is the area dry and clean, free of hair and is the person allergic to tape?
Asses the size of the tape for the area and how it will restrict movement
Place the body part in the position it will stay in
Identify muscles and joints that will be taped and allow for contraction and
expansion
Ensure overlap
Roll tape straight onto the area
Ensure the tape is smooth and minimise wrinkles.
Taping for isolation of injury
When injuries occur, taping is used to strengthen and isolate the muscles to prevent
the recurrence of the injury.
This support will give athletes the confidence to return to play
Bandaging for immediate treatment of injury
Immediately after an injury is sustained, some bandaging is essential.
Using RICER means that compression bandages are applied to restrict bleeding into
the injured area.

Rehabilitation procedures

Progressive mobilisation
Following RICER, movement should be restored to the injury as soon as possible.
This is progressive mobilisation and involves gradually extending the range of
movement through which the injured part can be manipulated
Gradual exercise
 Stretching injured areas is important to ensure it heals without scarring as scarring
shortens muscle length. PNF is the most appropriate type.
Conditioning implies a build up in fitness as a result of adaptations to gradual
increases in physical stress. A rehab program needs to be individualised, specific and
have periods of rest followed by gradual increasing periods of work.
Total body fitness is regaining the level of mental and physical fitness reached by the
athlete before the injury occurred. The training program must progressively and
gradually overload the muscle groups and energy systems so that the required
adaptations are regained.
Training
With total body fitness achieved, full training can resume
Use of heat and cold
The use of heat and cold has always been controversial
Generally cold is applied for up to four days following injury
Heat is not generally used for two to three days after the injury, depending on injury
type and extent of the damage

Return to play

Indicators of readiness for return to play

Elasticity -new tissue stretched and flexible
Strength-new tissue strong and can support stressful movement
Mobility-gained full movement
Pain free-during light and strenuous work
Balance- athlete can balance on injured leg
Monitoring progress
Is done by comparing pre and post test results taken after injury was sustained
This may establish athletes lost fitness such as speed and agility
Tests should incorporate sport specific movements patterns
E.g. knee damage -Illinois test
Psychological readiness
Psychological preparedness underpinned by confidence and a positive outlook is
important in preventing recurrence of injury.
Athletes who want to return to play or who feel pressured to return invite re-injury.
A balance between motivation, self-assurance and common sense is fundamental to
safe return to play
Specific warm-up procedures
Athletes returning from injury must ensure they are fully warmed up and muscle
groups have been properly stretched before activity.
When returning from injury, the warm up needs to be more specific to the injured
area.
The muscles need to be stretched beyond the requirements of a game
Return to play policies and procedures
The decision to return to play varies from sport to sport
 In amateur sports, the decision is made by individuals, physiotherapists, doctors and
other medical personnel.
In professional sports, there are procedures that a player must pass to be free of
injury. At this level, a recurrence of the injury can cost through money and team
performance.
The criteria varies from one sport to another.
Ethical considerations
Individuals may feel pressure from team-mates, coaches or financially to return to
play. Some individuals may need to take painkillers when injuries are not healed.
Pressure to participate -some players may have injuries fully strapped or injections
to prevent pain.
Many coaches see players as commodities who need to play. However it is
irresponsible to insist on or pressure players to resume to the field in pain, as pain is
an indicator of tissue damage
Use of painkillers
Paracetamol can be taken for soreness, but injections of prescription painkillers is a
concern. Prescription painkillers can mask normal pain and can cause more damage
without the athlete's knowledge.
People have different tolerances for pain and it can take the focus off the game,
affecting overall performance.
The decision to use painkillers is up to the individual and the team doctor, trainer
and coach, but ultimately its up the player.
 Option 2: Improving Performance
How do athletes train for improved performance?

Strength Training

Strength is the ability of a muscle or muscle group to exert force against a

resistance. Strength training is a general term that encompasses all types of
exercise designed to improve strength and increase muscle size.
Strength training needs to be exercise specific, employ overload principals and use
progressive resistance.
Resistance training
The resistance can be generated by isotonic measures such as hydraulic or elastic
forces .(isotonic- muscle length shortening and lengthening against resistance).
Elastics improve strength as resistance increases as the band is stretched. They are
versatile, portable and able to be adapted to a range of movements. However bands
can be less durable and need to be discarded if any tears or breaks form.
Hydraulics are designed so that the faster the movement, the greater the resistance
and they act on both push and pull, up and down movements. It is often used in
circuits, cardio fitness and anaerobic programs. Pool water can be a great example
as movements performed in water are harder than if performed on land.
Weight training
This uses set repetitions and weights to provide resistance. It can use eccentric or
concentric contractions to stress muscle fibres.
Plates can be set to a specific weight to ensure that the muscle is overloaded and
resistance is gradual and progressive. It is important to ensure that the weight is
lifted through the full range of the movement.
Dumbbells can be used for large or small muscle groups. They are used in
rehabilitation where a specific muscle or joint needs to be strengthened. However it
is important not the lock your joints as this can stress the joint and cause injury.
Isometric training
(muscle length doesn't change)
The best gains are made when using six to eight reps, each lasting six seconds, four
to five times a week. They are used to strengthen a specific part of a muscle like the
beginning, middle or end of a stretch.
They take little time, are good for rehab reasons and can be performed anywhere
However they don't increase strength through the full movement, causes a raise in
blood pressure, is hard to measure, doesn't help muscular endurance and most of
the benefits occur early in training.

Aerobic training

Continuous
Is non-stop exercise for a set time and is the foundation for most other methods of
training.
 It involves sustained, enduring , low to moderate intensity exercise for 3-4 times per
week.
It is used to improve cardiorespiratory endurance, local muscular endurance and
overall aerobic capacity
Fartlek
Means 'speed play', where pace and terrain vary.
To be beneficial, Fartlek needs to be planned.
There are many different types, such as Fartlek for game players, where it
incorporates running, jogging, walking, agility, sprinting.
Interval training
There are two types; continuous and stop interval.
Continuous is 15-20mins of 30 sec sprints and 60-90 sec jogging
Stop if 10x150m sprints, with a 2 mins recovery.

Anaerobic training

Developing power through resistance/weight training

An athlete who trains for anaerobic events using exercise and practices that
stimulate what is required in the game will further develop the capacity of fast
twitch fibres.
Resistance training programs designed to develop power and speed seek to enhance
fast-twitch fibres involved in the activity.
If the resistance is too heavy, the activity will have to be performed slower and will
improve slow twitch fibres.
Plyometrics
Is where the muscle is lengthened and then rapidly shortened ( stepping up onto a
chair, then quickly jumping down and back up again)
The muscle has the potential to develop maximum tension if it is rapidly stretched,
where the faster it has to stretch, the greater the tension.
Short interval
This involves short bursts of activity with periods of rest. It improves the ability of
the muscles to tolerate lactic acid .
It can be performed in a circuit form

Flexibility training

Muscle strength and length are directly related to the number of muscle fibres
engaged.
Static stretching
Is a technique where the muscle is gradually lengthened and held for 10-30 seconds.
It is used in rehab and warm ups, cool downs
Dynamic stretching
Is where the movement involved the entire range of motion.
It is used where muscle need to be used for forceful movements
Ballistic stretching
 Is used in preparation for athletic events in which explosive movements are
required. It involves stretching the body past the normal range of motion.
It can be dangerous and so it is recommended only for experienced athletes, as the
muscle fibres may over stretch
PNF
Is Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation. It involves passive and isometric
exercise. The stretch is inhibited by a partner who applies resistance and increases
the stretch.

Skills training

Drills practice
Drills improve technique and efficiency while focusing on one aspect of the sport.
Drills can be modified as player progress by adding opponents, adding a time limit,
or imposing new rules to improve the creativity of the players.
Targets should be set to monitor improvements.
Modified and small-sided games
Are a specific way to develop sport-specific adaptations.
Small sided games allow everyone to participate which enhanced tactical and
technical skills.
Coaches can give feedback on the run and are ideal for asking questions at the end
of the game
Games for specific outcomes.
Training games can be created for a specific purpose.
It is important that the players are not over-coached, as the players need to make
decisions.

What are the planning considerations for improving performance?

Initial planning considerations

Performance and fitness needs (individual /team)

Effective programs are based on data such as scores, times, type of score, injuries
from previous seasons. This data is gathered from tests, statistical data, equipment
needs, performance records.
Both the individual and the team need to be assessed to identify areas where
training is needed.
Schedule of events/competitions.
Consideration is required to avoid over committing and inhibiting performance.
However, some coaches see this as gaining experience for young athletes.
Planning should involve competition information such as dates, national or area
championships and required times for qualifications.
The most effective competition dates are ones that will develop and enhance the
athletes ability for best performance results.
 Climate and season
Many athletes have to train all year round during pre and competition seasons.
Knowledge of available indoor facilities is an advantage in case outdoor training is
cancelled.
Elite athletes may train in preparation to acclimatise and prepare with continuous
training for major events or competitions being held in similar conditions.

Planning a training year

Periodisation helps by training volume intensity can be monitored and adjusted

where necessary, time periods to allow adaptations to take place are programmed,
over and under training doesn't take place
Phases of competition
It is not uncommon for elite athletes to train all round. Peaking for major events
must be considered. Different types of training are emphasised and short and long
term goals need to be set.
Pre-season training: is 6-12 weeks before competition, has maximum intensity, has
high volume and is sports specific. This is best improved through programs that
focus on endurance, strength and skill.
In season: the focus is on maintaining the fitness achieved in the pre-season. This is
achieved by focusing on skills, using sustainable intensity and volume.
Off season: the focus is on physical and psychological recovery, with the main areas
being prevention of weight gain, repair of injuries, maintaining aerobic base,
strength and skill level
Sub phases
Macro cycles are large blocks of training usually 3-6 weeks and vary in focus
throughout the phases of competition. Sometimes called an annual plan
Micro cycles are smaller blocks usually 7-10 days and allow for manipulation of
training intensity and volume
Peaking
Is where performance is optimised to meet the demands of the competition
It is a temporary state that is reached only during competition
Tapering
To achieve peak mental and physical performance athletes often reduce aspects of
their training approaching an event.
It allows tissue to rebuild and to fully restore energy stores
It must involve a reduction in training frequency, maintained intensity and start
about 7-10 days before the event.
Sports specific sub phases
They provide an opportunity to target specific areas that require further
development.

Elements to be considered when designing a training session

Health and safety considerations

 Injury prevention, protective equipment, general equipment, apparel, illness and
environmental hazards are all important considerations
Overview of session to athletes
The brief overview ensures that the intentions of the coach and expectations of the
players are matched
Warm up and cool down
Warm ups have four phases: general body warm up, stretching, callisthenics, skill
rehearsal
The cool down is the reverse of the warm up
Skill instruction and practice
There needs to be instruction on other related aspects such as warm-ups, cool
downs, stretching, flexibility, strategies and tactics, game plans and procedural
details
Effective instruction is brief, well timed, specific, constructive, clear, informative and
demonstrable
Conditioning
Like supplementary fitness, coming in the forms of circuits, intervals, continuous and
callisthenics, and is usually taken place following a session of individual or team play
Evaluation
Is the appraisal of performance after training and is normally carried out after or
during the cool down
It should address performance outcomes, goals and how well goals are achieved

Planning to avoid overtraining

Amount and intensity of training

Overtraining is primarily caused by too much training, so adjustments in the amount
and intensity need to be made.
Volume and amount can be manipulated by frequency and duration of sessions
This needs to be individual specific
Physiological considerations
Lethargy is a feeling of slowness, tiredness and lack of energy.
Injury may come as broken bones and pain linked to overuse
Psychological considerations
Symptoms may include increased nervousness, poor concentration, irritability,
anger, sensitivity, depression
It is improved by reduction or stopping training, active rest, relaxation, changing
routine (e.g. running to cycling)
Using positive reinforcement

What ethical issues are related to improving performance?

Use of drugs
 The dangers of performance enhancing drug use
Dangers include tumors, cancer, HBP, trembling, depression, body fluid retention
Changes in social, psychological and emotional behaviour
Mood swings, irritability, aggression, sexual arousal, confusion, memory loss
Taking drugs can result in being banned for the sport for years
Usually they result in loss of reputation, income, sponsorships and endorsements,
pride and personal accomplishment.
For strength
Human Growth Hormone is a naturally occurring substance and increases the rate
that amino acids are transported to skeletal muscle cells.
It increases blood cell production, heart function and the amount of energy available
by stimulating the breakdown of fat
Long term effects include: overgrown face and hands, gigantism, muscle weakness,
diabetes, heart disease, disfigurement, osteoporosis and arthritis
Anabolic steroids stimulate muscle growth and allow for larger and harder training
and better recovery
Side effects include jaundice, liver damage, mood swings, depression, aggression,
baldness, infertility, breast development, body hair growth and suppressed
menstrual cycle
For endurance
Erythropoietin (EPO) is a natural hormone that stimulates blood cells. It is used to
improve aerobic performance and buffer lactic acid
Effects include poor circulation, blood clots, strokes, chest pain, headache, HBP,
joint pain, fatigue and shortness of breath.
To mask other drugs
Diuretics increase the speed at which drugs are removed from the blood
The presence of diuretics is a positive drug test
Side effects include dizziness, dehydration, headaches, loss of coordination and
heart and kidney failure
Alcohol is a diuretic and is banned due to its depressive side effect
Effects: dizziness, loss of coordination, loss of inhibitions, slowed reactions, blurred
vision, aggression, vomiting
Benefits and limitations of drug testing
Australian Sports Anti-Doping Agency does the testing and establishes procedure,
policy and penalty guidelines
Drug testing is not limited to elite performance
Usually it focuses on the drugs most likely to be used in that sport
Generally it is seen as a valuable tool, with the education of young athletes and
genuine support by administrations and officials being essential
Some people feel it is an invasion of privacy
New testing methods cannot compete with the new drugs on the market

Use of technology
 Training innovation
Lactate threshold testing establishes were the threshold is, and it is very important
to elite athletes. The best way for testing is blood tests or portable lactate analysis,
also most heart rate monitors can be used
Biomechanical analysis involves the use of video analysis, slow motion replays and
comparative images. Movements are explored in detail, identifying problems and
solutions.
Video analysis allows for improving technique, visualisation, efficiency and strategies
Equipment advances
Swim suits improve times by reducing friction, having a streamlined shape and using
fully blended seams to improve movement and flexibility
Some issues are: swimmer with these suits are advantaged, it is a natural
progression in the sport and the banning of any material that improves speed,
buoyancy or endurance
Golf balls are larger and have dimples on the surface for maximum elevation and
distance. They are used for elite competition