archives of civil and mechanical engineering 16 (2016) 503512

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Original Research Article

The approach to mining safety improvement:

Accident analysis of an underground machine
operator

Jacek Karliski, Mariusz Ptak *, Paulina Dziaak **, Eugeniusz Rusiski

Machine Design and Research, Mechanical Department, Wrocaw University of Technology, Poland

article info abstract

Article history:
Received 8 September 2015
Accepted 24 February 2016
Available online 31 March 2016
Keywords:
Biomechanical modelling
Numerical simulations
FAA Hybrid III Dummy
Energy absorption
Accident reconstruction
This paper presents the numerical approach to the safety and ergonomics issues regarding
the biomechanics of the mining machine operator. Based on actual accidents, the authors
analyzed the current requirements for protective structures in regard to operator safety
aspects. The study found that the current type-approval tests do not examine phenomena
related to typical accidents in underground mines, such as rock bursts resulting in thill
uplift, lateral rock tosses, or cover caving. In many cases it may result in severe or fatal
injuries of the mining machine operators. Thus, the authors incorporate a precise human
model into operator safety tests and conducted numerical simulations by the use of the
coupled Finite Element and MulitBody codes. To mitigate the injuries, the state-of-the-art
seat absorber was implemented underneath a typical operator's seat. The device was
designed to dissipate the kinetic energy during the process of rapid oor uplift and
immediate velocity change from the cab to gallery roof impact. In order to compare the
energy-dissipating capabilities of the absorber two approaches were selected for the same
boundary conditions: a standard seat and seat with absorber mounted in the cab during the
impact. The cab initial velocity was the main variable during the simulations. Finally, the
injury criteria for the standard seat and the new approach with the energy-absorbing device
were collated and contrasted.
# 2016 Politechnika Wrocawska. Published by Elsevier Sp. z o.o. All rights reserved.

machine operators [13]. Nevertheless, the norms concerning

1. Introduction
Intensive sub-surface works of greater depths increase the
possibility of rock bursts, consequently inducing phenomena
such as oor uplift, cover caving or rock ejection. Over the last
few decades the risk of rock burst has risen signicantly and is
still growing, causing serious, even fatal injuries of the
operator safety remain invariable, and take into account
operator protection solely in regard to falling objects and
machine rollovers [4]. The other rock burst phenomena are not
mentioned in the regulations, although accidents triggered by
these effects occur constantly. Therefore, any out of the
ordinary situations should be accurately examined and con-
clusions should be drawn. Precise analysis of the conditions

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 71 320 29 46.

** Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 71 320 38 60.
E-mail addresses: mariusz.ptak@pwr.edu.pl (M. Ptak), paulina.dzialak@pwr.edu.pl (P. Dziaak).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acme.2016.02.010
1644-9665/# 2016 Politechnika Wrocawska. Published by Elsevier Sp. z o.o. All rights reserved.
504 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 16 (2016) 503512

Fig. 1 Self-propelled underground loader with the operator's cab.

Fig. 2 The operator's cab from outside (left) and inside (right) after the accident in KGHM Rudna.

prevailing in underground mines is necessary. Such analysis of side of the cab roof (Fig. 2). Due to the condentiality of the
the phenomena occurring inside the rock mass, causing post-mortem examination of the operator, the authors, till
different types of catastrophic events, will contribute to now, have received the following statement about the cause
operator safety enhancement. The denition of proper bound- and manner of death. It is reported that the operator suffered
ary conditions and adequate dynamic tests of various accident lethal cervical spine injury [8] due to ruptured vertebral body,
situations should be implemented. which harmed and transected the spinal cord. What is
The current norms and standards which encompass heavy signicant is that, even in the face of the death of the operator,
equipment safety are included in the Machinery Directive the cab was still considered safe after the accident as
2006/42/EC. The document states that every self-propelled measured by the residual deection sag, according to the
mining machine destined to work in an underground mine present regulations [9].
needs to full requirements of the Roll-Over Protective Furthermore, instead of using a biodelic human dummy
Structures (ROPS) and Falling-Objects Protective Structures model, the obligatory examinations utilize the Deection-
(FOPS) procedures [5]. Protective structures of the machines Limiting Volume (DLV), which roughly depicts an approximate
working underground are subjected to the same examinations living space of a large, seated male operator wearing normal
of operator safety as civil engineering machinery [6,7]. clothing and a protective helmet (Fig. 3). The verication tests
However, conditions and accident situations prevailing in
the underground mines are signicantly different than those
in the eld of civil engineering or even opencast mining. There
are no special requirements for the underground mining
machines. However, there are some phenomena that occur
only in this specic environment, i.e. inside the rock mass,
caused by rock bursts, such as thill uplift (lifting the oor layers
due to the pressure inside the rock mass), cover caving etc.
which may result in severe or even fatal operator injuries. The
accident which occurred in the copper mine KGHM Rudna in
2010 clearly supports this statement.
The rock burst with released seismic energy rate equaled to
4.1
107 J, caused the oor heave and subsequent rock falls
and ejections. This eventuated in two miner deaths and three
other seriously injured. One of the fatalities, which circum-
stances are further described in this paper, was the self-
propelled underground loader operator (Fig. 1).
The machine was thrown upwards due to the thill uplift
and, after breaking the connection between the operator cab
and machine, the protective structure struck against the roof. Fig. 3 The deflection-limiting volume
The loads acting on the operator caused rapid vertical motion (H T W T D = 1510 mm T 515 mm T 870 mm) current
of the operator's body which resulted in his striking the bottom ergonomics and safety standard.
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 16 (2016) 503512
are considered positive provided DLV remains intact [10]. The
norms do not take into consideration either forces acting on
the human body during the accident situation or any injury
biomechanics.
Thus, there is an urgent need to implement a precise
human model into the examination of the safety of the
underground mining machine operators. The application of
the mentioned solutions may signicantly improve their
safety [6,11]. The test will considerably better cover the actual
conditions prevailing in the specic underground mine
environment. The examination will also indicate some typical
injuries which machine operator sustain during an accident.
2. Methods
2.1. MADYMO dummy model
The numerical model consisted of three main elements: the
MADYMO dummy, operator protective structure (the cabin)
and the seat with a standard lap seat belt (2-point) with neither
pre-tensioner nor load-limiter.
The MADYMO dummy was used as the human model. Due
to the vertical forces acting on the underground mining
machine operator body during the simulation, instead of the
standard Crash Test Hybrid III Dummy, the Federal Aviation
Administration Hybrid III Dummy (FAA HIII) was chosen [12]. It
is used in testing the far and emergency landing dynamic
conditions. The FAA HIII is based on an automotive 50th
percentile male Crash Test Dummy, although it is also adapted
to measure vertical loads, occurring in the aviation [13]. The
FAA dummy is modied to give it an erect seated posture,
replacing the driver slouch of Hybrid III Dummy. The overall
noticeable changes, comparing to a standard automotive
dummy, implemented in FAA HIII to give it better biodelic
and more accurate response under dynamic axial loading are
as follows:
(1) Substitution of the Hybrid III (HIII) lumbar-pelvic adapter
block with Hybrid II (HII) Lumbar Load Cell and its pelvic
adapter block to record lumbar responses.
(2) Replacement of the curved HIII lumbar column with the HII
straight column.
(3) Substitution of the HIII upper lumbar-thorax adapter with
new adapter made in steel to closely reproduce the mass
distribution of the HII upper torso.
(4) Substitution of the HIII abdominal insert for a standard HII
abdominal insert.
(5) Replacement of the HIII upper leg body parts for the HII
upper body parts.
(6) Replacement the HIII chest esh jacket with the chest esh
from a HII conveniently adapted to allow neck to move free
[14,15].
The paper focuses mainly on the lumbar-pelvis, neck and
head responses of the FAA HIII during the accident situation
caused by the rock burst. Since the conducted research of the
FAA HIII showed that it achieved high degree repeatability and
linearity for the lumbar-pelvis results during testing [16], the
dummy was chosen for further numerical investigation.
505
2.2. Finite element cabin model
The operator protective structures used in the simulations are
the products of Mine Master, a company specialized in the
underground mining equipment [17,18]. The cabs were already
examined [19,20] for the operator safety in compliance with
the current regulations and met imposed requirements. The
protective structure geometrical Computer-aided Design
(CAD) and Finite Element (FE) models were created in
accordance with the technical documentation provided by
Mine Master.
2.3. Seat measurements
The cab's seat geometrical model was created through 3D
scanning by the use of a photogrammetry system and the
ATOS Compact Scan device [21]. Once the recreation of the
geometry was completed from the obtained cloud of points, FE
model was generated. It is based on the Maximo series seat
manufactured by Grammer [22]. The stiffness and strength of
the seat mounting springs were examined experimentally on
the universal testing machine Zwick Z030 [18,2325]. The
measurements enabled the authors to design the simplied
model of the mounting. The material data for the cushion seat
foam was also obtained empirically, from the testing machine
(Fig. 4).
2.4. Seat absorber
As a standard in the current underground machines the
operator's seat is not attached directly to the support structure
of the cabin. Various kinds of intermediate components are
used to ensure adequate, ergonomic position of the operator.
These construction features do not perform any other function
except of the seat height adjustment. The authors concluded
that the space between the seat and surface of the cabin, to
which it is attached by means of an adapter, can be used to
apply an additional energy absorbing element further named
as the seat absorber. The device is designed to dissipate the
kinetic energy due to the contribution of plastic deformation
done over its components during the process of rapid oor
uplift and immediate velocity change from the cab-to-ceiling
impact [2628].
In order to develop the design, a series of computer
simulations were commenced. Energy-absorbing components
[29,30] were validated against selected design parameters such
as shape, length, location on the mounting plates (symmetri-
cal, asymmetrical), thickness and the used material (steel
grade). The outcomes were contrasted with the acceleration
runs obtained through reecting the various boundary con-
ditions (initial velocities) recorded during the underground
accidents. In Fig. 5, the nal version of the energy-absorbing
device is depicted. The load acting on the presented item is
associated with a seat weight (40 kg) mounted to the element
energy-intensive and operator's average weight (75 kg) fas-
tened with the lap seat belt.
The result of the conceptual design is a new original seat
element attached to the superstructure of the cab which is
supposed to absorb the operator and seat kinetic energy in a
controlled manner due to the elastic, plastic and buckling
506 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 16 (2016) 503512

Fig. 4 Measurements of the seat mounting: (a) examination on the universal testing machine and (b) stiffness of the
mounting spring.

Fig. 5 Final design of the seat absorber.

modes which occur during the compression and also the

extension phase. The seat absorber is made of Domex 700
which is hot rolled, high strength, cold forming steel with the
yield strength of 700 MPa and maximum tensile strength of
950 MPa. The nite element method uses the models of
hardening at deformation velocity based on the abovemen-
tioned model, i.e. CowperSymonds model, which is described
in [17]. The developed device is effortlessly adapted for
mounting under typical operator's seat (Fig. 6) since its
dimensions are 360 mm
110 mm
300 mm (W
H
D).

2.5. Coupling

The performed simulations entailed the combination of two

different numerical codes i.e. Finite Element Analysis and
Multibody. Thus, to conduct the simulations LS-DYNA
MADYMO coupling was applied [32,33]. This method enabled
combining the capabilities of the Multibody (MB) with Finite
Element (FE) code, by using them in a parallel simulation [34]. It
is considered a valuable tool during safety examination. On the
one hand MADYMO contains advanced, well-developed and
validated dummies; on the other hand LS-DYNA provides
accurate contact denitions and state-of-the-art materials
models. An additional advantage of the coupling process in the
computational testing is time efciency. The use of the
MADYMO dummy instead of the FE model enabled reducing Fig. 6 The developed device adapted for mounting under
the duration of the numerical calculations signicantly. operator's seat [31].
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 16 (2016) 503512
Fig. 7 Numerical models of the analyzed operator protective structures: (a) standard seat and (b) seat with absorber.
Therefore, embedding the MADYMO FAA HIII dummy into LS-
DYNA FE environment (Fig. 7) was considered a suitable
solution.
2.6. Loading and boundary conditions
The denition of the boundary conditions for the simulations
was one of the major issues. The physical data concerning
phenomena occurring inside the rock mass in the under-
ground mines are relatively difcult to obtain. However, after
accident analyses, basing on the recorded mine's data, the
authors managed to estimate the velocity of the operator's cab
after the thill heave as increasing from 0 to 10 m/s in 30 ms (i.e.
30 g) and stopping from 10 m/s in 5 ms, causing the cab
acceleration of 200 g during the cab to gallery roof impact. To
validate the velocity curve run, the average acceleration of the
cab after the thill uplift and distance between the top surface
of the cab and the bottom surface of the gallery roof were also
taken into consideration. The gathered boundary condition
data facilitated the numerical calculations.
It must be noted, that the initial velocity of 10 m/s causing
the initial acceleration of the cab of 30 g is the maximal
magnitude which have been recorded in the considered
underground mines. Thus, the authors also analyzed lower
velocity magnitudes to obtain a clear overview of operator
biomechanical injuries during some potential accidents. For
this purpose, the initial velocity was gradually raised from 4 m/
s up to maximal 10 m/s in 1 m/s increments. To compare the
energy-dissipating capabilities of the absorber, two
approaches were selected for the same boundary conditions:
a standard seat and seat with absorber mounted in the cab.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Numerical simulations
The simulations of the oor uplift in the underground mine
after the rock burst were conducted for operator protective
structure FM 2.3. The seismic energy released from the rock
mass resulted in a rapid upwards machine ejection. After-
wards, the cab with operator struck the roof of the mine
507
gallery. Fig. 8 presents the comparison of two simulations of
the oor uplift for the FM 2.3 protective structure. The Z-
displacement magnitude [mm] of the dummy restrained with
lap seat belt is plotted for the model without the seat absorber
and contrasted with the seat equipped with the new energy-
absorbing device. For the sake of better visualization of the
accident phases the device was magnied in the gure.
After the rst phase of the oor uplift (20 ms), the inertia of
the operator and the seat caused the compression of the seat's
mounting system modelled by nonlinear springs. Hence, the
relative vertical displacement (Z axis) of the dummy's CG was
negligibly small (approximately 8 mm) for both constructions.
During the second phase (40 ms) the mounting system is fully
compressed (compare Fig. 4) and this the moment when the
seat absorber starts to dissipate the kinetic energy through its
compression. The CG of the dummy was vertically displaced
by 163 mm for the standard system and 133 mm for the seat
with absorber. As the structural capability of the absorber for
further compression is intentionally limited, to protect the
operator's lower limbs, the device is engineered to also reduce
the acceleration by its controlled extension. The process of
elongation of the middle steel plates occurs at 60 ms after the
impact. The double C design of the middle plates exhibits
elasto-plastic deformation which enable the energy absorp-
tion in a controlled mater, consequently decelerating the inert
operator and seat. Thus, the relative vertical operator's CG
displacement is 628 mm i.e. 170 mm more than for the
standard seat. This is a desirable feature of the absorber, when
we consider the lack of the load limiter in the lap seat belt.
Using the precise MADYMO dummy allowed the authors to
determine whether the loads such as acceleration acting on
the human body during the accident situation may be life-
threatening or even fatal. The injury criteria taken into
consideration during analysis are forces measured in the
lumbar spine and neck and acceleration acting on head of the
machine operator [35].
3.2. Biomechanical criteria
The lumbar spine force is a maximum force measured
between lumbar and pelvic elements of the FAA HIII. The
limit value of this criterion correspond to 20% possibility of
508 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 16 (2016) 503512

Fig. 8 Simulations of the floor uplift for the FM 2.3 protective structure (Z-displacement magnitude [mm] of the dummy) with
the initial velocity of 10 m/s: left without the seat absorber; right with the seat absorber (magnified for better
visualization).
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 16 (2016) 503512 509

Fig. 9 Force measured in the upper neck (upper row) and lumbar spine (lower row) of the dummy during the accident
simulations: standard seat (left column) vs. seat with absorber (right column).

medium to severe injury at the level of 2+ Abbreviated Injury
Scale (AIS) [36] and it is 10 kN for a 50th percentile male. Head
Injury Criterion (HIC) is a measure of the head injury possibility
during the accident situation. The limit HIC value1000 is
equivalent to an 18% probability of a severe (AIS 4) head injury,
a 55% probability of a serious (AIS 3) injury and a 90%
probability of a moderate (AIS 2) head injury, to an average
adult [37]. The head acceleration was measured in the centre of
gravity of the FAA HIII head model. The limit values of the used
criteria are based on the military air transport requirements.

Fig. 10 Comparison of the maximal force measured in neck (upper row) and lumbar spine (lower row) of the dummy during
the accident simulations: tension (left column) vs. compression state (right column).
510 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 16 (2016) 503512

Fig. 11 Head acceleration of the dummy (upper row) for seat without absorber (left) vs. seat with absorber (right) and HIC
comparison (lower row).

Force in the neck was measured in its upper part along the
vertical direction and limit value for this criterion is 4.5 kN.
The values of the criteria obtained from the simulation are
presented on the charts in Figs. 811. The simulations for the
standard seat and seat with mounted absorber were con-
ducted. The test was divided into 2 stages during the analysis
of results: compression and tension. During the compression
stage the operator is pressed into the seat while rapid upwards
machine ejection. This stage last from 20 to 6070 ms
irrespectively of the analyzed initial velocity. Until 20 ms,
the operator do not experience any injuries due to the stiffness
of the springs acting in the seat mounting. The second stage is
the tension, when the machine impacts the roof of the mine
gallery. The operator is thrown upwards and the fastened seat
belt keeps him on the seat. This stage starts from 7080 ms to
120 ms of the simulation. The values of the injuries obtained in
this stage are twice as high as the results achieved from the
compression stage. Maximal values of the criteria obtained
from the simulations with and without seat absorber were
compared in the following gures. The capabilities of the
energy-absorption of the designed device can be seen
especially in the tension stage.
3.3. Results comparison and limitations
Table 1 presents the maximal values obtained during the
simulations and the comparison between the results achieved
from the seat with absorber and standard seat. It may be seen
that the effects of the absorber in tension stage are signicant.
However, for the compression stage the results are not
satisfactory.
The designed absorber enabled meeting the required
criteria limits for the velocities up to 9 m/s. In contrast, for
the standard seat, the criteria are met up to 6 m/s. Above all,

Table 1 Peak values of biomechanical criteria for the standard seat and seat with absorber for different cab velocities of the
impact.
V [m/s] Standard seat Seat with absorber

HIC Force in lumbar Force in upper HIC Force in lumbar Force in upper
spine [kN] neck [kN] spine [kN] neck [kN]

Tension Compression Tension Compression Tension Compression Tension Compression

10 2580 38.4 19.0 8.6 3.0 1373 21.6 16.6 4.9 3.3
9 2160 36.4 16.7 6.7 2.5 1056 19.0 15.2 4.2 2.9
8 1440 30.3 12.7 6.0 2.3 702 18.9 13.3 3.6 2.2
7 877 29.3 12.1 5.2 3.7 503 18.7 10.8 3.1 1.9
6 556 21.4 9.6 4.4 1.4 344 17.3 8.5 2.6 1.5
5 391 17.7 7.7 3.6 1.2 210 14.2 7.2 2.1 1.3
4 123 12.0 6.0 2.1 1.0 107 9.6 5.8 1.5 1.0
 archives of civil and mechanical engineering 16 (2016) 503512
the lumbar spine criterion was below the critical limit only in
one case when the absorber was used and the velocity was
4 m/s. In spite of many undertaken attempts and various
design approaches, the authors were faced with major
contraction: the height availability in the underground cab
characterized by a relatively low roof. Additionally, in contrast
to typical energy-absorbing solutions, this type of device needs
to absorb energy derived from tension and compression forces.
Thus, the presented design of the absorber was considered as
the most capable to absorb the operator and seat kinetic
energy in a controlled manner during both the compression
and the extension phase.
4. Conclusions
In the presented paper, the authors analyzed the accident that
occurred in the underground copper mine. The thill uplift
induced by the rock burst phenomena caused rapid vertical
motion of the cab which resulted in death of the machine
operator. Basing on the accident, the authors conducted
numerical tests by the use of coupled FE and MB codes. The
attempt of the prevention of the fatal injuries in this type of
accidents was made. The simulations were carried out for
different possible velocities of the cab-to-roof impact during this
type of accident. Basing on the results from the numerical
analysis, the authors concluded that the space between the seat
and surface of a typical cabin, to which the seat is attached, can
be utilized for an energy absorbing element. Consequently,
the energy absorbing device was developed and included into
the computational models. The major contradiction to over-
come was to construct an element which would dissipate the
impact energy during the compression and tension phase. The
study found, that the double C design of the middle plates
enabled the energy absorption in a controlled mater, conse-
quently decelerating the fastened operator and signicantly
decreasing the loads acting on the human body.
Acknowledgement
The work described in this paper was partially supported by a
grant from The National Centre for Research and Development
(Poland): INNOTECH-K2/IN2/30/182199/NCBR/12.
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