Laboratory Testing to determine the critical state of sands

B.1. Overview
The preferred method of determining the critical state line is a series of triaxial compression tests
on loose samples. Loose samples do not form shear planes and do not have the tendency to
localization that is normal in dense sands.
Undrained tests are more convenient and should always be the starting point because the strains
required to reach the critical state are into the limits of triaxial equipment for loose samples. In the
other hand drained tests on loose samples, the sample move to the critical state at a much slower
rate and displacements to the limits of the triaxial equipment are required.
Successful critical state line testing is dependent of getting certain details of the triaxial testing
correct:

Uniform sample must be prepared in an appropriately loose state, at a predetermined

void ratio.
Samples must be fully saturated
The void ratio must be known accurately
The measurement system must be capable of measuring low stresses and pore
pressures at a high rate.
B.2. Sample preparation
Much of the concern with sample preparation has been its major effect on the behavior of the
sample during the test. The main concern for specimen preparation in critical state line testing is
therefore that uniform samples are obtained at predetermined void ratios. Figure B.2 in appendix
illustrates methods.
Sample preparation methods for clean sands are detailed below:
B.2.1. Moist Tamping Method
The principle of moist tamping is that the sand specimen is prepared at a moisture content of
about 5%. This moisture content results in capillary forces and allows bulking of the sand density
that will not be achievable with wet or dry samples.
The first step in specimen preparation is to calculate the target void ratio of the test and then work
back to the target preparation void ratio based on estimates of volume changes during the
saturation and consolidation. From the target void ratio and size of the specimen mould the dry
density and dry weight of sand for the sample is calculated.
Once the target dry weight of the sample has been computed, the specimen is prepared as
follows:

Preweight six equals portions of oven dried sand material into six preparation dishes.
Mix the material in each dish with distilled water to give a moisture content of 5-6% and
allow to cure for several hours.
Tamp the first layer into the membrane lined mould. A technique is needed to ensure that
the layer is not over compacted; it should end up being exactly one-sixth of the sample
height.
Scarify the top of the tamped layer gently to avoid a smooth planar surface between
layers.
Repeat the layer deposition and tamping process until all six layers are formed.
B.2.2. Wet Pluviation
Moist tamping results in a specimen fabric or structure that is dissimilar to that which will be
obtained in nature, and therefore pluviation techniques of sample preparation are preferable. It is
no doubt true that moist tamping is not representative of natural sand deposition.
Is important to mention that Pluviation in the quiescent laboratory conditions is unlikely to be
similar to underwater deposition in rivers and sea beds. Nevertheless, wet pluviation is a useful
sample preparation technique when samples without any pre-consolidation due to capillary
tension, or samples with a different fabric from moist tamping, are required. It is however, difficult
to control the ultimate void ratio of a pluviated sample. The steps for sample preparation by wet
pluviation are:
Calculate the total dry weight of sand for the target void ratio
Weigh out a single oven dried sample of the correct amount
Place dry sample in a long necked flask
Add de-aired water to fill the flask
Apply a vacuum to the top of the flask to ensure saturation of the sample
Leave sample to cure for several hours
Fill the membrane lined sample mould with de-aired water
With a thumb over the neck of the flask, invert the flask and insert the neck into the water
in the mould to approximately 25 mm above the bottom of the mould
Remove thumb. The sand will now gradually flow out of the flask under gravity, and
excess water will flow up into the flask to replace the sand.
Allow the sand to pluviate like this while moving the neck of the flask slowly and
continuously in a circular motion. The neck should be kept a constant height of about 25
mm above the top of the forming sample.
Remove flask when all the sand has pluviated out.

It is important to note that wet pluviation does result in some fines loss from the sand, roughly
50%. Thus a sample that starts with 2% fines may end up with only 1% fines after pluviation into
the mould. This should be accounted for in the density and dry weight calculations and it is also
advisable to check the final fines content of the sample after the test.

B.2.3. Slurry Deposition

The slurry deposition method was developed mainly to overcome the problem of particle
segregation in poorly graded or silty sand samples. First, the silt or clay fines must be separated
from the sand. The coarse and fine fractions are then mixed with water and boiled to de-air the
mixtures.
The steps for sample preparation are:
Prepared the sample in a mixing tube with a slightly smaller diameter than the final
sample.
Poured fines mixture into the mixing tube and the fines allowed to settle before pluviating
the sand mixture.
Tube full of water sealed closed. The bottom of the tube should initially have been sealed
with a rubber stopper which the top is covered with a porous stone (de-aired), a thin metal
plate and a stretched rubber membrane. The porous stone will ultimately be placed on
the bottom platen of the triaxial cell
The sample is then mixed by vigorously rotating the mixing tube for about 20 minutes
until a completely homogenous sample is obtained.

The sample can be densified by gentle vibration or tapping as described above for pluviation and
the cell assembly completed as usual.

B.2.4. Dry pluviation

Dry pluviation it is a commonly used and reliable method to achieve a uniform density in clean
sands. By close control on the rate of deposition and the drop height of the sand a range of
densities can be achieved with the technique. This sample preparation method needs more
sophisticated equipment than moist tamping or wet pluviation, and there are therefore many
variants of the method.
The principle of dry pluviation is that the correct dry weight of sand is contained in a hopper of the
same diameter as the sample mould. Pluviation rate is controlled by the size and number of holes
in the bottom of the hopper.
While dry pluviation results in the most uniform sample compared to wet pluviation and moist
tamping, its application is limited. Sands with plastic fines cannot be prepared this way as the
drying process coagulates the fines. It is also difficult to prepare very loose samples with this
technique. Finally, as with moist tamping unmeasurable volume changes may occur during
saturation of the samples.
B.3. Sample Saturation
Saturation is important, in that constant volume (or undrained) conditions cannot be assumed
unless the sample is fully saturated.
The degree of saturation is checked by carrying out a B-test, in which a step increment in total
cell pressure (3) is applied with the sample undrained and the corresponding increment in pore
pressure (u) is measured. Skemptons B value is then determined as

=
3
In a fully saturated sample where the water is incompressible compared to the soil skeleton, B
should be 1.
Sand samples are not as compressible relative to water as clay samples. Therefore, a B of about
of 0.97 is achievable and recommended as a target to indicate full saturation. In general, the
larger the grain size of a sand and the less fines it contains, the easier it is to saturate.

B.3.1. Carbon dioxide treatment

One method to reduce the time and back pressure for saturation is to bubble CO2 through the
sample prior to saturation. The CO2 is vented through a thin tube from the top platen which is
best left with its open end under water to observe the bubbles.
Failure to vent the CO2 will result in a pore pressure buildup and collapse of the sample. Too
large a flux of CO2 will result in the CO2 piping and flowing up preferential pathways through the
sand, rather than displacing the air.
An additional trick is to start the CO2 bubbling process during specimen preparation. The sand is
tamped, or pluviated, into a sample mould that essentially contains CO2 rather than air.

B.3.2. Saturation under Vacuum

A more complicated, but nevertheless effective, sample saturation technique is to conduct the
flushing process under a vacuum.
The sample and two de-aired water containers are all attached to the same vacuum line. Water
then flows under gravity from the container connected to the lower platen to the upper platen.
A disadvantage of this system is that the sample is in effect over consolidated by the effective
stresses induced by the applied vacuum to the sample. This is not a major problem as test
consolidation pressures are usually well above the maximum vacuum induced stress
(theoretically about 100 kPa).

B.4. Void Ratio Determination

Measurement of void ratio of sand samples in the triaxial test can be subject to potentially large
errors, especially for loose samples. Volume changes during sample saturation and consolidation
(membrane penetration effects) that can lead to large errors if they are ignored.

B.4.1. Volume changes during saturation

Samples undergo strains during saturation as a result of the changes in effective stresses.
Effective stress changes are induced by changes in the external applied stresses and by the
release of surface tension effects in moist sands.
An error in terms of void ratio of about 0.04 is quite possible and this represents an error in relative
density of about 10 %.
Solution to the problem of sample volume changes during saturation are:
Measure the sample volume directly after saturation, using a pi-tape for diameter and Vernier
calipers for height.
Another method is to measure the sample volume change by the change in the triaxial cell
volume. This is achieved by applying the cell pressure through a burette.
One of the best ways to deal with volume change during saturation is to measure the sample
volume at the end of the test.

B.4.2. Membrane Penetration Correction

When pressure during consolidation is applied to a sample of sand through a rubber membrane,
the membrane deforms and is pushed into the pore spaces between the grains. volume change
during consolidation must be corrected for membrane penetration when void ratio is calculated
membrane penetration can be quantified in terms of a normalized membrane penetration:

=
1
log( )
2

For sands, m is primarily dependent on grain size, assuming other factors such as membrane
thickness and modulus are constant.

Because the membrane penetration correction is so dependent on sand type and testing
equipment, it is advisable in each laboratory test program to measure membrane penetration
directly. There are at least 3 methods to do this relatively simply:
Volume change due to membrane penetration can be calculated approximately from
measurements of axial strain and total volume change made during the reboundnportion
of the test.
Prepare a cylindrical sand sample around a steel insert with a diameter of about 6 mm
less than the full sample. the volume change on unloading and reloading can be assumed
to be small, compared to membrane penetration. This special sample is then
consolidated in the normal way in the triaxial cell, but the measured volume change is
due entirely to membrane penetration effects.
Prepare a sample in the normal way but replace the fine material in the sample structure
by cement

B.5. Additional Test Details

There is no discernable difference between the critical state determined from load or strain rate
controlled tests. Strain rate controlled testing is easier and less susceptible to dynamic effects
during liquefaction and is therefore the recommended method of loading.
Pore pressure measurement is an important detail in undrained testing to determine the steady
state line, especially in load controlled tests where the strain rate can be very high.
Load measurement should use an internal load cell to avoid friction in the piston bearings
affecting the results. This is especially important for loose sand samples where the deviator stress
at the critical state may be in the order of 1 to 5 kPa. An alternative to internal load cells, is to
locate the load cell under the sample.
An area correction to the deviator stress is also essential for critical state line testing, because
measurements are important at large strains (about 20%) rather than small strains. In order for
the area correction to be reasonably accurate at large strains, lubricated end platens are
necessary.
For sand testing, lubricated end platens are essential to reduce the influence of platen restraint
on stresses in the sample and on uniformity of strains.
Membrane penetration effects frequently need to be considered. membrane penetration
affected the determination of void ratio prior to testing. A potentially greater problem is the issue
of what would be the pore pressures measured in the test if there were no membrane compliance
effects.
A simple correction can be applied to critical state line tests, based on the fact that the sample
has obtained a steady state in terms of pore pressures and effective stresses at the end of the
test. This means that at the end of the test the membrane penetration has again resulted in a
defined volume change, which in this case must be compensated for by an equal and opposite
change in void volume of the sample.