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Microscope (STEM) were both initially developed in the 1930s. At first sight, they appear to
be very similar in function but in reality, they can provide very different types of images and
information. In particular, the STEM offers unique imaging modes and enhanced
microanalysis capabilities.
The TEM
The TEM has a similar optical configuration to an optical microscope. A flood beam of
electrons illuminates a thin sample. The electron transmitted through the sample are
projected onto a viewing screen or camera for observation (Figure 1). Samples must be thin
(around 100 nm) and the beam energies must be high. Electrons may either pass through the
sample without being scattered or may be diffracted off axis by interaction with the sample.
Electrons may also be backscattered in the sample to re-emerge from the top surface. The
primary beam also interacts with the sample to produce characteristic X-rays. With crystalline
samples, most of the detail in the image is a result of Bragg diffraction. By choosing the
position of the aperture, either the diffracted beam (dark field) or the unscattered electrons
(bright field) can be used to form the image. The TEM is used extensively in the life sciences,
where its similarity to the light microscope is self evident, and also in materials science. In
materials science, the combination of diffraction and imaging provides a unique capability for
understanding the properties of crystals and defects in crystalline materials, which can be
interpreted in detail. Imaging is possible to the nanometer scale and the spatial resolution can
The STEM
The STEM was initially developed at about the same time as the TEM, but its evolution was
much slower until the work of A V Crewe in 1970 demonstrated its potential. The STEM
operated in a very similar way to a scanning electron microscope (SEM). A fine, highly
focused beam of electrons is scanned over a thin specimen (Figure 2). Electrons which pass
through the sample can be collected to produce a variety of transmission images, but, as with
the TEM, backscattered electrons and X-rays are also produced. Secondary electrons (SE)
are also produced, giving yet another imaging mode. One of the most common ways of
carrying out STEM has been to add transmission detectors to an SEM, although this usually
limits accelerating voltage to around 30 keV. It is also common to add scaaning coils to a
TEM but the minimum probe diameter is large and the resolution of microanalysis is limited.
To get the best results, dedicated STEMs such as the HD-2300 from Hitachi High-
Technologies should be used. Such dedicated STEM instruments are much more efficient
than a TEM operating in STEM mode, they permit much higher resolution microanalysis than
Transmitted electrons collected on axis in the STEM give the bright field or phase signal.
These electrons have either not been scattered at all or have been inelastically scattered
through angles of milliradians or less. They exhibit largely crystallographic information. Under
certain conditions, the brightfield mode in the STEM is identical to that in the TEM (Figure 3).
The TEM and STEM ray paths are identical except for the direction of travel, providing ac = bs
and bc = as. For TEM brightfield imaging, ac is approx 10-4 radians (i. e. the beam is
collimated) and bc is approx 10-2 radians for best resolution. Obtaining the equivalent
conditions in the STEM does give a small spot size, but the detector angle is small compared
to the beam convergence so collection efficiency is very low. Thus under TEM conditions,
similar images are obtained from the two instruments but the images from the STEM are
rather noisier. There is clearly little benefit in operating the STEM in this non-optimum way.
However, by using a much larger detector and large as, the STEM becomes much more
efficient. Another significant benefit that results from this mode is the facility to look at much
thicker samples than is possible in the TEM. This is because as electrons travel through the
sample, they lose energy depending on the thickness of the sample. In the TEM there is an
objective lens below the sample and electrons of different energies are focused at different
focal positions - the well-known effect of chromatic aberration. This leads to blurring of the
image and a loss of resolution and contrast. In the STEM, however, there is no lens below
the sample so there is no defocusing effect. Bright field STEM can therefore satisfactorily
image samples up to a few microns thick at 200 keV, compared to only about 0.5 micron for a
TEM at the same energy. With this extra sample thickness, sample preparation is simplified
and there is a better chance of finding the feature of interest in the viewable volume.
The STEM also offers significant benefits in dark field operation with a unique imaging mode,
High Angle Annular Dark Field (HAADF) imaging. Here, (Figure 4) the inner angle of the
annular darkfield detector is made so large (30 milliradians) that no Bragg diffracted electrons
are collected. The images therefore come from elastically scattered electrons which have
passed very close to the atomic nuclei in the sample. High (single atom column) resolution is
possible with no unwanted diffraction contrast which can mask structural information. The
HAADF signal is directly proportional to the density and thickness of the specimen and
proportional to Z3/2 where Z is the atomic number. Thus it is possible to produce images
which shows contrast due to the mass-thickness (ie the signal is proportional to the number
of atoms) or Z contrast images (where the signal is proportional to the atomic number of the
sample). HAADF is suitable for inorganic and organic samples and for crystalline and
amorphous materials. Figure 5 shows HAADF images from two different samples. The dark
field resolution of the STEM is mainly determined by the probe diameter. The HD-2300 has a
measured FWHM width of 0.17 nm at 200 keV which brings the ability to achieve atomic level
imaging on many samples. Switching between bright field (phase contrast) and dark field (Z-
contrast) imaging is done by the simple click of an icon and no additional adjustment of the
An additional bonus offered by the STEM is the ability to collect secondary electrons and
backscattered images in the same way as a standard SEM. This makes it possible to
correlate surface information (from secondary electrons) with bulk information from the STEM
mode. It is also possible to use the secondary electron mode to image samples which are too
thick even for STEM observation. The high accelerating voltages available in the STEM offer
by the primary electron beam entering the sample or by backscattered electrons leaving the
sample. These latter electrons carry bulk information from as far as 250 microns into the
sample at 200 keV for silicon. Figure 7 shows the effect on bright field and secondary
The use of an optional live diffraction unit brings even more versatility to the STEM by
allowing diffraction images and Z contrast images to be obtained simultaneously (Figure 8).
This enables true nanoscale diffraction since the feature of interest can be precisely located
Microanalysis
As well as its considerable and varied imaging capabilities, the STEM also offers significant
microanalysis capabilities. Two microanalysis methods are available: energy dispersive X-ray
analysis (EDX) and electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS). In traditional EDX analysis in
the SEM, the spatial resolution is limited to around one micron by the interaction volume of
the beam within the sample. Although EDX analysis is possible in the TEM, the spatial
resolution is then limited by the ability of the system to focus the beam. In the STEM,
however, EDX analysis can be performed at the nanometer scale using thin samples. In
addition to improved spatial resolution for EDX, the STEM also offers improved sensitivity
compared to conventional TEM. This is because the solid angle of X-ray collection subtended
at the EDX detector in the STEM is around 2.5 times larger than that in the TEM, resulting in
a similar increase in sensitivity. For thin specimens, high spatial resolution can be achieved,
but with low X-ray count rates from thin specimens, it may be necessary to collect the data
over extended periods of time. This could be accompanied by specimen drift, which would
limit the spatial resolution. The HD-2300 overcomes this problem with a dynamic drift
compensation system, in which phase contrast images of the sample are compared to the
original image and feedback adjustments made to the position of the electron beam to
eliminate the effects of drift. This effect of drift compensation is illustrated in Figure 9. Dopant
layers in a semiconductor device at levels lower than 0.001% of As can be mapped and a
2nm think oxide layer can be clearly observed. Another analysis method uses electron
energy loss spectrometry of the transmitted electrons. This also offers elemental mapping at
2 nm spatial resolution. In addition, this technique achieves real time mapping over as little as
40 seconds (see Figure 10) and is particularly useful for light elements and transition metals,
since there is no overlap in the detection of the elemental peaks in the spectrum, unlike the
EDX case. The ability to achieve two dimensional nanoscale analysis by these techniques,
which was previously unobtainable, will have significant impact in materials investigation.
Ease of use
Even though TEMs have been commercially available for many years, the technique remains
a specialist one, and dedicated operators are generally required to achieve the best results.
The operation of the STEM, however, is remarkably similar to that of a scanning electron
microscope, and the HD-2300 uses a similar user interface to the Hitachi range of SEMs.
This means that SEM users can quickly adapt to the STEM technique and they can can
perform high resolution imaging and nano-analysis quickly and routinely. The STEM is
extraordinarily versatile with its unique imaging properties and is likely to become a much
Author: Paul Ansell, EM Sales Manager and Michael Dixon Product Group Manager, Hitachi
Scientific Instruments, 7 Ivanhoe Road, Hogwood Lane Industrial Estate, Finchampstead,
Wokingham, Berkshire, RG40 4QQ.
Press Enquiries: Denis Bulgin, In Press Public Relations Ltd, PO Box 24, Royston, Herts,
SG8 6TT. Tel: 01763 262621 Fax: 01763 262655 E-mail: denis@inpress.co.uk.
208HIT-EM
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