Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela

Ministry of Popular Power for the Education.

University Polytechnic Institute Santiago Mario

City of Mrida.

ATOMIC
THEORY

Student:

Mara De Los ngeles Mrquez Velazco

Identification Number: V 25.152.396

Chemical Engineering, 2nd Semester.

Asignature: English I

Teacher: Aracelis Torres

June, 2016.
 Index.
1. Introduction.

2. Atomic Theory.

3. Quantum numbers.

Quantun number values.

Quantun number examples.

4. Periodic Table

A Little History.

Reading The Periodic Table.

Reading the Periodic Table: Carbon.

Element name.

Element symbol.

Atomic Number.

Atomic Mass.

Atomic Weight.

Uses.
 Introduction.
Atomism is the philosophy of the existence of atoms. The first recorded theories come
from India. They were put forward by a handful of ancient religious philosophers, many of
whom pondered on the nature of substances of the material world as part of their
spiritual quest. In the sixth century BC, a Hindu sage named Kanad hypothesised that all
matter was composed of nine elements: earth; water; light; wind; ether; time; space;
mind and soul. Around the same time, another philosopher named Pakuda Katyayana
questioned the 'root of all things' and suggested that everything could be classified into
seven categories: earth; water; fire; air; pleasure; pain and soul.

At this stage, Indian atomists developed ideas about how atoms could combine, react and
move, and that they existed in groups. They also suggested that they could obtain energy
by splitting these particles. A century later, Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus
postulated that all atoms were of the same material but that they came in various shapes
and sizes, which contributed to their various properties. In the eleventh century, al-
Ghazali, an Islamic philosopher from the Asharite school of philosophy, wove the Indian
and Greek theories together and suggested that there may be particles smaller than
atoms and that atoms were the only eternal, material things in existence.

In the 1800s, chemist John Dalton considered previous theories. He proposed that atoms
of a particular element were the same size and weight and unlike any other type of atom.
He also believed that different atoms could combine in ratio to make different chemical
compounds. We generally regard Dalton as the founder of modern atomic theory from
which other theories have since developed.

In 1911, the experiment that contributed most to our knowledge of the structure of the
atom was done by Ernest Rutherford. In this experiment, Rutherford bombarded a thin
foil of gold with a beam of alpha particles and looked at the beams on a fluorescent screen,
where he noticed the following:

Most of the particles went straight through the foil and struck the screen.

Some (0.1 percent) were deflected or scattered in front (at various angles) of the foil,
while others were scattered behind the foil.

Rutherford concluded that the gold atoms were mostly empty space, which allowed most
of the alpha particles through. However, some small region of the atom must have been
dense enough to deflect the alpha particle. He called this dense region the nucleus.
Atomic Theory.
Throughout history, human beings have wondered what they would see if they could just
look a little closer. Looking outward from Earth, this has led to the exploration of our solar
system directly, and of the rest of the entire universe through various telescopes. Looking
inwards, our idea of what makes things up has changed and evolved a great deal in the
past three thousand years. One very early theory was that everything was made of four
elements: Earth, Air, Fire, and Water; in various combinations. A Greek named Democritus,
conjectured that every substance was made of tiny indivisible particles (called "atom"),
similar to our modern concept of a molecule.

In the past thousand years or so, alchemists, "philosophers," and scientists have isolated
about 100 substances that cannot be changed into others. These are what we now know
of as "elements," and their smallest building blocks are called "atoms." In the past 100
years, scientists have discovered that atoms are not indivisible after all. Tiny amounts of
electrical charge can be moved from atom to atom with particles called electrons. It was
discovered that there were much heavier oppositely charged particles, now known as
protons.

For a while scientists considered atoms to be tiny random mush-balls of these two pieces,
like chocolate-chip cookie dough is made of chocolate chips spread evenly through dough.
Then at the end of the 19th century, Ernest Rutherford discovered a third particle with no
charge (named a "neutron"), and found that they could almost always be easily shot
through a sample of very thin gold foil. The very few that were reflected back were
evidence of the structure of the atom. Rutherford developed the "nuclear model" of the
atom: an atom is composed of a very dense (positively) charged nucleus that contains
almost all the mass, and a very thinly spread collection of electrons containing all the
negative charge.

In the very early part of the twentieth century, Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons
were arranged in layers or shells around the nucleus. This idea explained many interesting
measurements and observations of changes of pure atoms, but no one could explain why
the negatively charged electrons were not pulled into the positively charged nucleus. In
the 1920's this problem was effectively solved with the development of quantum theory.

Quantum Mechanical Model of Atoms

The quantum mechanical model posits that electrons do not travel in defined
orbits but rather are localized in orbitals; an orbital is a region of space around the
nucleus defined by the probability of finding an electron in that region of space.
 The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to know both an
electrons position and its momentum exactly at the same time.

Quantum numbers.
A quantum number is a value that is used when describing the energy levels available to
atoms and molecules. An electron in an atom or ion has four quantum numbers to
describe its state and yield solutions to the Schrdinger wave equation for the hydrogen
atom.

There are four quantum numbers:

n - principal quantum number - describes the energy level

- azimuthal or angular momentum quantum number - describes the subshell
m or m - magnetic quantum number - describes the orbital of the subshell
ms or s - spin quantum number - describes the spin

QUANTUM NUMBER VALUES.

According to the Pauli exclusion principle, no two electrons in an atom can have the same
set of quantum numbers. Each quantum number is represented by either a half-integer or
integer value.

The principal quantum number is an integer that is the number of the electron's
shell. The value is 1 or higher (never 0 or negative).
The angular momentum quantum number is an integer that is the value of the
electron's orbital (e.g., s=0, p=1). is greater than or equal to zero and less than or
equal to n-1.
The magnetic quantum number is the orientation of the orbital with integer values
ranging from - to . So, for the p orbital, where =1, m could have values of -1, 0, 1.
The spin quantum number is a half-integer value that is either -1/2 (called "spin
down") or 1/2 (called "spin up").

QUANTUM NUMBER EXAMPLE.

For the outer valence electrons of a carbon atom, the electrons are found in the 2p orbital.
The four quantum numbers used to describe the electrons are n=2, =1, m=1, 0, or -1, and
s=1/2 (the electrons have parallel spins).

Structure of the Atom.

Atoms are divided into two reqions. In the center is the nucleus, containing just about all
the mass of the atom. Surrounding this is the electron cloud, which contains only
electrons. These electrons are not considered to follow an set path or orbit, so cloud is the
best description.

The nucleus is composed of two particles: protons and neutrons. These two particles have
roughly the same mass, but only the proton carries any charge. The neutron (true to its
name) carries no electrical charge.

Figure 1: Structure of the atom.

Periodic Table.
The periodic table of elements is one of the most important tools of chemistry. Through
its ingenious organization, the table provides concise and fundamental information not
only about every individual element, but also about general trends across all the elements.
Mastering the vagaries of the periodic table now will save you work later.

n 1789, building upon the work of precursors and contemporaries alike, the French
chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier first defined an element as a fundamental substance
that could not be broken down by any chemical means then known. In the same Treatise
on Chemical Elements, he compiled a list of 33 elements (a number of which were not
actually elements) and devised a naming system for the discovery of new elements.
A Little History.

Lavoisier's definition and list of elements helped spur an attempt by chemists to

systematize and understand the elements. In 1803, the English chemist John Dalton used
the general scientific recognition that elements combined with each other according to
different ratios by weight to create an atomic theory that claimed all elements were built
out of variable numbers of hydrogen atoms. As a part of this theory, Dalton created a
scale of atomic weight based on the hydrogen atom (the weight of hydrogen was set
equal to 1). In 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitry Mendeleyev organized the elements in a
table according to their atomic weights (the German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer
independently struck upon the same organization in 1870).

In the sixty-seven years from Dalton's formulation of atomic weight to Mendeleyev's

periodic table many scientists had tried to create a working organizational structure for
the elements. Mendeleyev succeeded where others failed because he realized that there
existed a number of as yet unknown elements with atomic weights between the weights
of already known elements. By leaving vacancies for those elements he believed were
undiscovered, he hit upon an organizational scheme that seemed to vertically group
elements with similar properties. Among elements with low atomic weights, he found that
similar chemical characteristics recurred every seven elements. Among heavier elements,
he found that characteristics resurfaced every seventeen elements. This phenomenon in
which physical and chemical characteristics of elements are periodic functions of their
atomic weight is called the periodic law (and gives the periodic table its name). In 1879,
Mendeleyev's periodic table received a powerful boost in general acceptance when it
predicted the existence of the elements gallium, germanium, and scandium.

Through time, Mendeleyev's periodic table has undergone some small changes. Many,
many new elements have been added. The discovery of the inert gases raised the number
of elements between similar elements to eight for the lighter elements and eighteen for
the darker elements. In a few instances, scientists have discovered that organization along
atomic weights does not coincide with vertical similarities. In such instances, as in the case
of tellurium (Te) and iodine (I), similarity wins out over atomic weight in determining
organization.

Reading The Periodic Table.

As stated last section, the periodic table organizes the elements according to general
patterns of similarity. Below is a very small image of the periodic table. It is basically
unreadable in terms of specific information, but it allows us to easily look at the periodic
tables structure general trends.
The vertical columns of the periodic table (marked by yellow stripes in the figure) are
called groups. The horizontal rows are called periods. There are 18 groups and 7 periods.
In discussing the periodic table from here on out we will use the terms group and period.
Down a group means moving from top to bottom; across a period means moving from left
to right.

Figure 2: Periodic Table.

Reading the Periodic Table: Carbon

To describe the information contained within each individual box we will use a specific
example: carbon.

Figure 3: Description of Carbon on the Periodic Table.

 Element Name

The purpose of the element name is obvious. However, many Periodic Tables do not
include element names. For those situations you must memorize the symbols that accord
to each element name.

Element Symbol

Each element has a specific one or two letter symbol that is used interchangeably with its
name. These should be memorized. Most of the time, symbols quite clearly accord to the
name of the element they represent, as C accords to carbon. Occasional, however, an
element's name and symbol have little relation. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg.

Atomic Number

As you move across a period the atomic number increases. Similarly, as you move down a
group the atomic number increases. In this way, the atomic number represents exactly
where in the periodic table an element stands.

More importantly, and the reason why the ordering of the elements according to atomic
number yields elements in groups with similar chemical and physical properties, the
atomic number is the same as the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an
element, and also the same as the number of electrons surrounding the nucleus in a
neutral state. Carbon, for example, has six protons and six electrons. (Protons and
electrons will be discussed in more detail in the Atomic Structure SparkNote)

Atomic Mass

Along with protons, an atom also contains neutrons in its nucleus. The atomic mass (also
called atomic weight) of an element is the combined number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus. Atoms of particular elements generally have different "versions," meaning
that elements have atoms with different numbers of neutrons in their nucleus. These
different versions are called isotopes. The atomic weight displayed is actually the
weighted average of the mass numbers of the various isotopes. The atomic weight for
Carbon is 12.01 because around 99% of all carbon is the carbon-12 isotope.

Atomic Weight

Weight The atomic weight of the elements generally increases as you move down a group
and across a period. Hydrogen, at the top left of the table, is the lightest element. The
unnamed element 112 is the heaviest. There are some instances when this rule does not
hold true, however. For instance, because it has a high percentage of isotopes with many
neutrons, the atomic weight of tellurium (Te) is higher than that for iodine (I), even
though iodine has a higher atomic number.

Types of Elements: Elements can be organized by group or period, but they also can be
placed into three distinct groups: metals, semi-metals, and non-metals.

Metals: Metals are the pink section on the left side of . Metals are generally
lustrous solids, often deformable (though mercury (Hg) is a liquid at room
temperature). Metals are highly conducive to both heat and electricity.
Nonmetals: Nonmetals are the blue boxes on the upper right hand of the
periodic table. More than half of the non-metals are gaseous at normal
temperatures.
Semimetals: Semimetals are the green boxes on the periodic table. As their
transitory name and placement on the periodic table suggest, they exist in
between the distinctions of metals and nonmetals.
Metals and Nonmetals: Most chemical compounds are formed by the
interactions between metals and non- metals.

Further Periodic Trends

Beyond those trends described here, there are a number of further periodic trends such
as atomic size, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity. We will discuss
these trends in the atomic structure SparkNote, since we must have a better
understanding of atomic structure before getting into their specifics.

Uses.
The main use is to know the basic properties of each of the chemical elements (state of
matter, atomic mass, valencies, metallic or non-metallic). If you have a more elaborate
table, you can have on hand other more interesting properties such as electronic
configuration, crystal arrangement, atomic radius. It is a useful tool, not only for the study
of chemistry but has many applications and utilities in any engineering or branch of
research.
 Conclusions.
We have described the characteristics and behavior of the three subatomic particles: the
proton, neutron, and electron. In addition, it compared and contrasted two models of the
atom. The Bohr model is adequate for describing the structure of one-electron systems,
such as the hydrogen atom or the helium ion, but fails to describe adequately the
structure of more complex atoms.

The quantum mechanical model theorizes that electrons are found not in discrete orbits,
but in clouds of probability, or orbitals, by which we can predict the likelihood of finding
electrons within given regions of space surrounding the nucleus. Both theories tell us that
the energy levels available to electrons are not infinite but discrete and that the energy
difference between levels is a precise amount called a quantum.

The four quantum numbers completely describe the position and energy of any electron
within a given atom. Finally, we learned two simple recall methods for the order in which
electrons fill the shells and subshells of an atom and that the valence electrons are the
reactive electrons in an atom.

And finally, the periodic table is one of the most important achievements in the field of
chemistry. It is full of patterns that enable us to better understand the world around us.
Without it, we would not have many of the products and medicine that we have today.
The information gained from the periodic table can open up numerous windows of
knowledge about the entire universe we live in. From this activity you should have a much
more in depth understanding of the periodic table.