Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 297307

www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Energy audit case studies IIair conditioning (cooling)

systems
M. Siddhartha Bhatt*
Central Power Research Institute, Energy Research Centre, Trivandrum, 695017, India
Received 10 June 1998; accepted 18 February 1999

Abstract

This paper discusses a novel methodology for determination of the eciencies of each segment in a
centralized air conditioning (A/C) plant. The methodology is useful analytical tool in energy audit where
it can be used for decision support for evolution of energy conservation measures and techno-economic
evaluation of the various options. The procedure is applied to three A/C plants of capacity range from
50 to 500 TR. Losses in chilled air ducts and cycling losses in the refrigerant circuit are identied to be
the major causes for decrease in the eciency and capacity under rating of the systems. Eective
controls and insulation of air ducts: have been shown to be the most cost eective solutions to improve
the energy eciency of the A/C plants. The generalized experimental data on overall performance of
sixteen A/C plants is also provided. # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Central air conditioning plant; Energy audit; Circuit eciency; Energy conservation

1. Introduction

The major utilities in industries are electrical distribution networks, steam systems, air
conditioning systems and compressed air systems. The utilities must operate at the highest
possible overall eciency for minimizing the industry's energy requirement. Ideally, the energy
consumption is minimum when the source (electrical energy in this case) perfectly tracks the
load (cooling eect). When there is mismatch between the source and the load, energy losses
will be higher. A novel tool for identifying the losses in a utility is to determine the circuit

* Tel./fax: +91-0471-418-687.
E-mail address: enrserch@md2.vsnl.net.in (M. Siddhartha Bhatt)

1359-4311/00/$ - see front matter # 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 3 5 9 - 4 3 1 1 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 2 1 - 6
298 M. Siddhartha Bhatt / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 297307

Nomenclature

A0,A1 Constants in curve ts

A/C Air conditioning
AHU Air handling unit
CL Cooling load (kW or TR)
COP Coecient of performance (dimensions)
PER Primary energy ratio (kW/kW)
P Electrical power input (kW)
Q Rate of thermal energy added/withdrawn (kW)
SEC Specic energy consumption (kW/TR)
TR Tonne of refrigeration (1 TR=3.5169 kW)
t Time (h)
W Rate of work done (kW)
X Independent variable in curve t
Y Dependent variable in curve t

Greek symbol
Z Eciency (dimensionless)

Subscripts
A Air handling unit
AUX Auxiliary
C Compressor
E Evaporator
I Input
L Cooling at the conditioned space
M Motor
o Compressors o but chiller pumps and AHU fans on
on Compressors and auxiliaries on
R Refrigerant
total Total operating period
U Useful cooling
W Chilled water

eciency as a product of the sub-system eciency. This will indicate the segments where
excessive losses are occurring and indicate where to eect energy conservation measures.
This paper discusses the application of the circuit eciency concept for the centralized air
conditioning (A/C) system. Air conditioning systems generally involve conditioning of air to
18248C and a relative humidity of 50% from ambient air which can be at 25408C and at a
relative humidity of 3095% [1].
Fig. 1 shows a typical schematic of an A/C plant. In a typical plant the refrigerant
compressor motors account for 6070% of the power input. The balance of power input is for
 M. Siddhartha Bhatt / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 297307 299

Fig. 1. Schematic of the centralised air-conditioning plant.

chiller pump motors (1015%), condenser pump motors (1015%), air handling unit (AHU)
motors (25%) and cooling tower fan motors (25%) [2].
Though the refrigerant circuits in themselves are quite ecient and have incorporated liquid
suction heat exchangers, de-superheaters, inter coolers, etc., considerable losses occur in the
transmission of cooling eect through chilled water lines and its nal distribution through the
chilled air lines. A complete circuit eciency evaluation will bring out the losses in the various
sub-systems in relation to the overall system.

2. Circuit eciency

Fig. 2 shows a view of the energy ow in an A/C plant. In most of the A/C plants, the
cooling load can be easily computed at the AHU by measurement of the change in
temperature and relative humidity of the air along with its ow rate. From this point
measurements are made both forwards (cold duct, conditioned space and return duct) and
backwards (chilled water line, chiller and refrigerant circuit). This is done because, many a
time, chilled water ow cannot be measured as the chilled water line is hermetically sealed. The
same is true of the refrigerant circuit. In such a situation the heat transfer/cooling eect is
estimated from mathematical models using validated transfer coecients. However, on the air
side, the temperature drops across the ducts and the ow can be easily measured to estimate
the cooling loads (CL).
300 M. Siddhartha Bhatt / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 297307

Fig. 2. Energy ow in an A/C plant.

The overall performance index of an A/C plant is the primary energy ratio (PER) which, for
continuous operation, is dened as,
PER QU =PI,C PI,AUX 1

where QU (kW) is the useful CL utilized at the condition space, PI,C (kW) is the electrical input
to the compressor motors and PI,AUX (kW) is the electrical input to the auxiliary motors such
as chiller motors, condenser cooling water motors, cooling tower fans, AHU motors, etc. The
PER represents the overall transfer function of the A/C system relating the useful cooling load
to the electric power input.
The PER is also given by,
PER ZO ZR 2
where the overall circuit eciency (ZO) is given by,
ZO ZU ZA ZW ZCH ZE ZC ZM ZAUX =Zoff 3
Eq. (3) represents the case of intermittent operation, where
ZU QU =QL 4
where ZU is the useful eciency and QU (kW) is the useful cooling load. The useful eciency
determines what fraction of the cooling eect delivered to the cooling space is actually utilized
to provide useful sensible and latent cooling. The dierence between QU and QL is the cooling
 M. Siddhartha Bhatt / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 297307 301

eect wasted in arresting the controllable heat gain from solar radiation, building walls,
heaters, electric motors, excessive un-utilized room space, air inltration and escape of
conditioned air through exhaust fans and door openings, etc.

ZA QL =QA 5

where ZA is the AHU energy eciency and QA (kW) is the cooling load delivered at the AHU.
The AHU refers to a coil type heat exchanger with air blowing over it in forced convection.
The chilled water is circulated through the inside of the coil. The air is transferred through a
duct (called a cold duct) into the conditioning space which is pressurized slightly above the
atmospheric pressure. The circuit is completed by a return duct from the conditioned space
back to the AHU room. The air from the return duct is discharged into the AHU room where
it mixes with fresh air before cycling into the cold duct.
The AHU eciency is the ratio of the cooling eect delivered to the room to the cooling
eect required at the AHU. The losses (represented by the dierence between QL and QA) are
accounted by losses in the cold duct, return duct and the dispersive loss of cooling eect in the
AHU room when it mixes with the ambient air.

ZW QA =QW 6

where ZW is the energy eciency of the chilled water circuit and QW (kW) is the cooling load
delivered to the chilled water circuit. The chilled water line eciency determines what fraction
of the cooling eect available at the chiller outlet is actually delivered to the AHUs. In other
words, if all the AHUs in the chilled water line are de-energized and the chilled water pumps
are energized, the gain in temperature of chilled water (during its transit from the chiller exit
back to its entrance) represents the loss in the chilled water line (QWQA).

ZCH QW =QCH 7

where ZCH is the energy eciency of the chiller and QCH (kW) is the cooling load delivered at
the chiller outlet. The chiller, in this context refers to a shell and tube heat exchanger with
refrigerant ow on the shell side (called an evaporator) and chilled water ow on the tube side.
All cooling eect generated by the evaporator is not passed onto the chilled water because of
ice formation and surface heat inltration on the chilled surface exposed to the atmosphere.
The chilling eciency determines what fraction of the cooling eect provided by the refrigerant
is passed onto the chilled water. The dierence between QW and QCH represents the surface
heat gain from the heat exchanger and its associated valves. This frequently causes ice
formation on the chiller surface due to inadequate or damaged insulation.

ZE QCH =QE 8

where ZE is the energy eciency of the evaporator (shell side of the chiller) and QE (kW) is the
cooling load delivered at the evaporator. The evaporator eciency determines what fraction of
the theoretical cooling eect is actually delivered by the refrigerant. The dierence between
QCH and QE represents the losses due to cycling of incondensible components, decreased
evaporator pressure, decreased degree of superheat, etc.
302 M. Siddhartha Bhatt / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 297307

ZR QE =W 9
where ZR is the COP of the refrigerant circuit and W (kW) is the work of compression to the
refrigerant. This is an energy ratio.
ZC W=WI,C 10
where ZC is the compressor eciency and WI,C (kW) is the work input to the compressors.
ZM WI,C =PI,C 11
where ZM is the compressor motor eciency.
ZAUX PI,C =PI,C PI,AUX 12
where ZAUX is the auxiliary eciency. The auxiliary eciency determines what fraction of the
total power input to the system is drawn by the compressor.
In most cases, A/C plants are operated intermittently for 820 h/day. One of the measures
to save energy is to put o the refrigerant circuit but continue running the chilled water pumps
and AHUs thereby recouping the residual cooling eect in the chilled water. This is especially
prominent where the compressor controls are inoperational. In this context, a cut-o time ratio
(Zo) is dened as follows,
Zoff ttotal toff =ttotal 13
where ttotal is the total operating time (h) (time period with entire plant in service plus time
period of recuperative operation with only chiller pumps and AHUs in service) and to is the

Table 1
Circuit eciency of three air-conditioning systems

Sl. No. Particular Unit Plant No. 1 Plant No. 2 Plant No. 3

01 Loss in chilled water line kW 59.36 45.98 12.96

02 Loss in chilled surface kW 00.56 01.68 0.54
03 Loss in evaporator cycling kW 16.80 12.09 5.03
04 Evaporator load kW 939.40 525.76 127.26
05 Condenser load kW 1238.10 815.76 171.24
06 Eciency: useful % 87.89 88.48 86.35
07 Eciency: AHU % 40.87 42.11 49.49
08 Eciency: chilled water line % 93.56 91.01 90.76
09 Eciency: chiller % 99.93 99.67 99.62
10 Eciency: evaporator % 98.21 97.72 96.57
11 COP 3.14 1.81 4.53
12 Eciency: auxiliary power % 46.58 56.25 41.09
13 Eciency: compressor motora % 80.00 80.00 78.00
14 Eciency: compressora % 48.00 48.00 48.00
15 Eciency: on time to total time % 83.33 79.16 91.67
16 Eciency: overall circuit % 22.23 16.31 28.36
a
As per manufacturer's data.
 M. Siddhartha Bhatt / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 297307 303

total o time (h) (time period for which only chiller pumps and AHUs are in service). If the
system operates all the time to is zero and hence Zo is 1.0. If the unit is cut-o for 50% of
the time, then ZOFF is 0.5.
The PER, considering intermittent operation, can be written as a product of the component
eciencies as,
PER QU =QL QL =QA QA =QW QW =QCH QCH =QE QE =W W=WI,C WI,C =PI,C

 PI,C =PI,C PI,AUX ttotal =ttotal toff 14

Eq. (14) is a proof of the equality of Eqs. (1) and (2). The cut-o time ratio accounts for the
dierence in operating time of the compressor motors and the cooling loads.
The specic energy consumption (SEC ) (kW/TR), an index popular in the industry because
of its ease of computation, is dened as
SEC PI,C PI,AUX =QL 15

3. Results and discussion

Table 1 gives the overall circuit eciency and component eciency for three A/C plants
based on experimental measurements. Table 2 gives the corresponding power inputs and
overall performance indices of the three A/C plants. These operate on refrigerant R22 using
reciprocating compressors with solid coupling with the electric motors.
Some of the broad trends observed from the present studies are as follows:
1. The conditioned air temperature is being maintained in most plants studied. Only in a few
cases it is lower by 238C [1].

Table 2
Electric power input and overall performance of three centralized air conditioning systemsa

Sl. No. Particular Unit Plant No. 1 Plant No. 2 Plant No. 3

I/O D O I/O D O I/O D O

01 Compressors kW 1/1 447 298.7 3/1 447 290.0 4/1 56.25 43.98
02 Chiller pumps kW 2/1 55.0 48.0 3/1 45.0 44.20 3/2 11.25 14.80
03 Condenser pumps kW 2/1 55.0 47.8 3/2 59.0 63.8 3/2 11.25 14.81
04 Cooling tower fans kW 2/1 18.0 13.5 3/2 18.0 35.15 2/1 5.63 4.48
05 AHU motors total kW 28/26 345.0 233.21 27/22 193.0 84.39 7/7 38.63 29.97
06 Total power input kW 920.0 641.21 762.0 517.54 123.02 107.04
07 Cooling load TR 500.0 266.87 500.0 149.36 50.00 41.41
08 COP 3.94 3.14 3.94 1.81 4.81 4.53
09 SEC kW/TR 1.84 2.40 1.52 3.46 2.46 2.58
10 PER kW/kW 1.43 0.70 1.73 0.29 1.76 1.28
a
I: installed; O: operating; D: Design.
304 M. Siddhartha Bhatt / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 297307

2. AHUs are major losers of cooling eect and call for improved technology of ducting,
sealing, application of insulation and recuperation of cooling eect. The chilled air ducts are
neither well insulated nor leak proof and result in temperature gain of 248C. The
temperature gain in the return duct and AHU room is 128C. The temperature drop across
the chiller generally varies between 7108C. Thus, it is seen that only 4060% of the cooling
eect is really delivered to the conditioned space.
3. The chilled air returning from the conditioned space is stagnated into the AHU room (to
ensure mixing with fresh air for air change) resulting in the undesired chilling of the AHU
room itself rather than the conditioned space. This is universally observed in all A/C plants
studied to date. Though the technologies of the heat wheel (enthalpy wheel) and heat pipes
are well established and available o-the-shelf over a wide range of capacities, they are
seldom used in A/C plants because of their high capital cost.
4. There is no feedback loop between operation of the AHU fans and the chilled water pumps.
Even if the return air temperature is the same as the chilled air temperature, the AHUs are
in operation, thereby under cooling the conditioned air. Introduction of controls on bypass
of chilled water based on the temperature of the air returning to the AHU can result in
considerable saving in cooling eect.
5. Functional failure, drift and inconsistency of thermostatic controls provided in the chilled
water lines are very high [1]. These are the causes of major energy losses in the system due
to lowering of the COP of the refrigerant circuit on account of o-design refrigerant cycling.
The quality, accuracy and reliability of primary sensors (RTDs) and thermostats need to be
improved.
6. Control of reciprocating compressors by cylinder unloading leads to 1530% higher energy
consumption as compared to on-o control of motors. Variable speed drives can result in
energy consumption only slightly higher than the theoretical minimum for a given ow rate.
7. Another eect of the failure of controls is the accumulation of the cooling eect in the
chilled water. One of the methods of energy conservation followed by many users is to put
o the compressors about 23 h before the termination of the cooling demand but run the
chiller pumps and the AHU fans. By doing this, cooling eect is utilized better. But this
system leads to a low cut-o time ratio beside osetting the refrigerant conditions. If the
controls are in operation for the same cooling eect, a much higher cut-o time ratio can be
obtained.
8. The low COPs also show that there is capacity reduction in the plant. The operating capacities
are at best only around 6065% of the designed cooling capacity. Low capacities could also be
attributed to capacity constraints imposed by undersized condenser and chiller pumps.
9. In cases of low capacity utilization of the plant, installation of an additional package of 15
30% of the larger plant capacity can help in better load management.
Based on studies in sixteen A/C plants, [1] data on eciency of various segments have been
evolved. The plants range in design capacity from 50 to 1200 TR and use refrigerant R22 in
the refrigerant circuit. Systems of 500 TR and below operate on a reciprocating compressor,
while those of 1000 and 1200 TR have centrifugal compressors. Compressors are directly
coupled to electric motors and provided with star-delta starters. Control of compressors is by
cylinder unloading using solenoid valves.
 M. Siddhartha Bhatt / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 297307 305

Table 3
Constants in curve ts for generalized data from 16 A/C plants

Sl. No. Variable Y A0 A1

Variable X: Design CL at AHU outlet, TR (range of X: 40800 TR)

01 Design SEC (kW/TR) 2.16335 0.0009

02 Capacity factor of CL, % of design CL 62.16870 0.0060
03 Increase in operating SEC over design SEC (%) 26.14150 +0.0332
04 Monthly energy consumption per design (TR) (MWh/month per TR) 0.37989 0.0001
05 Monthly energy saving estimated per design (TR) (MWh/month per TR) 0.08534 0.0001
06 Energy conservation potential, % of design SEC 23.53850 0.0043
07 Operating SEC (kW/TR) 2.59203 0.0011

The A/C plants are for buildings of 24 storeys with double brick walls (200 mm width) and
no other thermal insulation. During operation, windows are closed. To conserve electric power,
the plants are intermittently operated for 820 h a day. Most systems use de-mineralized water
in closed circuit in the chiller circuit. Condenser cooling is through soft water or tap water.
The overall energy and specic energy data for the above plants are tted in the form of a
curve as
Y A0 A1 X 16
The variables X and Y and constants A0 and A1 are given in Table 3.
Based on the experimental studies, the range of various performance indices and values of
best practice are shown in Table 4. It is seen that there is considerable potential for energy
saving in AHUs, the refrigerant circuit and through increased cut-o time ratio of

Table 4
Ranges of performance indices and best practice guides

Sl. No. Particular Unit Range of values Best practice guide

01 Specic energy consumption (SEC ) kW/TR 2.59 1.50

02 Primary energy ratio (PER ) kW/kW 0.131.31 5.0
03 Eciency: useful % 86.090.0 94.0
04 Eciency: AHU % 40.060.0 90.0
05 Eciency: chilled water line % 90.094.0 98.0
06 Eciency: chiller % 99.699.9 99.9
07 Eciency: evaporator % 96.098.0 99.0
08 COP 1.84.6 7.0
09 Eciency: auxiliary power % 40.070.0 80.0
10 Eciency: compressor motor % 78.082.0 85.0
11 Eciency: compressor % 48.060.0 65.0
12 Eciency: on time to total time % 60.070.0 50.0
13 Eciency: overall circuit % 7.3928.5 72.5
306 M. Siddhartha Bhatt / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 297307

Table 5
Solutions for improvement in air conditioning system component eciencies

Sl. No. Particular

01 Compressor eciency
Operation at the maximum eciency point
Overhaul of compressors to prevent internal leakage, inadequate lubrication, etc.
02 Compressor motor eciency
Variable speed drives for compressors
Operation at the optimal load point
03 Auxiliary power eciency
Control of scaling, debris, biological growth and corrosion in the condenser, condenser
cooling water line and cooling tower
Cleaning of air lters of AHU fans
Hydrodynamic matching of pumps and their corresponding ducts to obtain maximum ow
and hence minimum specic electric power for a given heat transfer rate
Minimizing unsymmetric voltage and current proles, resistive drops and phase misalignment
Review and relocation of pumps and fans with eroded/corroded impellers and casings.
Restoration of cleanliness and surface nish in these
Use of variable speed drives for control of condenser pumps,
chiller pumps, AHU fans and on-o control for cooling tower fans
04 COP of refrigerant circuit
Tuning of the system to restore decrease in evaporator pressure, increase in
condensing pressure, decrease in condensate sub-cooling and decrease in vapor super heating to normal
Use of integrally nned tubes and spiral tubing to minimize upliftment of
condenser pressure
05 Evaporator eciency
Improving thermal quality and thickness of insulation and quality of workmanship to
eliminate water ingress, moisture condensation, etc.
06 Chiller eciency
Improvement in thermal insulation of chiller
07 Chilled water line eciency
Improvement in thermal insulation of the lines
08 Air handling unit (AHU) eciency
Ensuring that the cold and return ducts are proof against heat ingress
and cold air leaks
Use of heat recovery wheels to recuperate cooling eect from return line
09 Useful cooling eect
Review of redundant heat gains in the system through solar latent heat
loads, building structures, appliances, latent heat loads, inltration and their control
Ensuring that the range of comfort conditions are maintained and there is
not excessive cooling or increase in air velocity
Installation of false roong, automatic door closers, sun control lm for window
panes, etc.
10 Overall system
Automation of plant by logic based controls
Improvement in quality, accuracy and reliability of primary temperature sensors (RTDs) and thermostats
 M. Siddhartha Bhatt / Applied Thermal Engineering 20 (2000) 297307 307

compressors. The SEC can be brought down to as low as 1.5 kW/TR from the present 2.59
kW/TR.
A number of energy conserving techniques have been suggested by Stoecker and Jones [3].
The energy conservation strategies are a tripod of choice, matching and renovation. At the
conceptual blue print stage, choice of the appropriate technical solution is required. At the
design and implementation stage, choice of good equipment and their matching is essential.
Equipment in use for some years calls for performance evaluation, preventive maintenance,
renovation and revamping. The solutions for improving the various sub-systems are presented
in Table 5.

4. Conclusions

The main conclusions of the study are as follows:

1. This technique of computation of the component eciency of the A/C plant is an eective
tool in energy audit for identifying and quantifying the losses. The eciencies can be the
basis for decision support on where to incorporate energy conservation measures.
2. Lower eciency of the AHUs indicates that considerable cooling eect is wasted in the cold
and return ducts. Remedial action is to insulate the ducts and plug air leakage.
3. Lower eciency of AHUs also indicates that considerations of air change and energy
eciency are in conict. This can only be resolved by control of air change and heat
recuperation through heat wheels.
4. Eective control and instrumentation of the A/C plants is the best and most cost-eective
method of energy conservation. Rendering the existing ono controls eective can itself
pay rich dividends. Other control strategies which will bring about a signicant reduction in
energy consumption include programmable logic controllers, direct digital control or fuzzy
logic controllers. A reduction in the cut-o time ratio results in good saving in compressor
power.

References

[1] M. Siddhartha Bhatt, Energy conservation in refrigeration and air conditioning systems through system simu-
lation, Technical Report No. 292, Central Power Research Institute, Bangalore-560094, India, (1996), pp. 40
102.
[2] M. Siddhartha Bhatt, Energy conservation in refrigeration and air conditioning systems through system simu-
lation, CPRI News 58 (1996) 24 Central Power Research Institute, Bangalore-560094, India.
[3] W.F. Stoecker, J.W. Jones, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, McGrawHill, Singapore, 1984.