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WATER INFRASTRUCTURE
Pumps
There are many types of pumps but the various types can be classed into one of two main
groups: positive and non-positive-displacement types.
Positive-displacement pumps These include piston pumps, gear pumps, gerotor pumps,
lobe pumps, vane pumps and screw pumps.
Rotodynamic or non-positive-displacement pumps These are axial-flow, radial-flow
(centrifugal) or mixed-flow types, depending on the direction of the fluid leaving the pump.
There is no essential difference between a fluid motor and a turbine except that the term motor
is usually used with positive-displacement types and the word turbine with the rotodynamic
types. Most fluid pumps will also operate as motors if the flow direction is reversed, so that
the fluid drives the motor or turbine in reverse. Other types e.g. the Pelton wheel (impulse)
turbine cannot. Turbines are also more efficient than pumps.
The cylinder is fitted with close-fitting piston driven by hydraulic or pneumatic pressure. A
rod attached to the piston transmits the force to a mechanism or machine. The piston may be
powered in both forward and return directions (two-way) or powered forward with a spring-
loaded return (one-way).
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p1 v12 p2 v22
h1 H P h2 H T H L
g 2 g g 2 g
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Rotodynamic pumps
There are three main types of rotodynamic pump: axial, radial (centrifugal) or mixed flow. These
types are classified according to the flow direction of the fluid leaving the impeller, and are
illustrated in Figure 2.
Although rotodynamic pumps are not able to generate such high pressures as can positive
displacement pumps, the advantages rotodynamic pumps have over positive displacement pumps
are;
They rely on the hydrodynamics of fluid flow to produce volumetric flow and pressure head,
since they do not entrain the fluid.
Axial-flow or propeller pump The flow direction at the outlet is parallel to the impeller
axis. That is, the fluid enters the impeller axially and leaves axially.
Radial-flow or centrifugal pump The flow direction at the outlet is radial (or
perpendicular) to the impeller axis. That is, the fluid enters the impeller axially and leaves
radially.
Mixed-flow pump The flow direction is at some angle intermediate between parallel and
perpendicular to the impeller axis. That is, fluid enters the impeller axially and leaves at some
angle intermediate between 0o and 90o.
A list of some of the features of the three types of rotodynamic pumps is shown below;
WATER INFRASTRUCTURE
This can also be seen from the graph of blade characteristics shown in Figure 4. The ideal head-
discharge curve for a centrifugal pump at constant speed is a straight line whose slope depends
upon the impeller exit blade angle.
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Actual head vs discharge curves
In practice, the slope of theoretical line is changed from a straight line by two factors, namely;
1. Shock loss which occurs at the impeller entrance and exit. At the design point this loss is
zero because entrance and exit should be shock free.
2. Frictional loss due to surface roughness and turbulence which virtually stirs the fluid and
increases its internal energy, thereby reducing the available head. This loss increases as
the square of the discharge.
Pumps are designed to be most efficient at particular flow rates. Operating at greater or smaller
flow rates results in greater head losses. The effect of these losses on the head-discharge curve
for a backward-inclined impeller is shown in Figure 6.
Fig. 6: Actual head-discharge curve for a centrifugal pump with backward-inclined blades
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The shape of the head-discharge curve may thus fall continually or rise to a peak and then fall,
depending upon the blade inclination and the relative magnitude of the shock and friction losses.
Fig. 7: Performance curves for a centrifugal pump, impeller diameter 336 mm,
speed 960 rpm, pumping fresh water
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The shape of these curves is typical for a backward-inclined impeller in that the head falls
continually with discharge, sometimes called a drooping curve.
The head developed by the pump is mainly pressure head hp since the change in velocity
head hv and elevation head he between inlet and outlet are negligible.
The power curve representing the input or shaft power in kW, rises continually with a
fluid power
slight s shape. The efficiency curve rises to a peak of 66%,
shaft power
corresponding to a flow of 11 L/s after which it falls again. Although efficiencies of up to
85% may sometimes be obtained, a peak efficiency in the range 60 75% is more typical
for commercial pumps.
The net positive suction head requirement (NPSHR) is based on a water temperature not
exceeding 30oC at sea level and rises continuously with discharge. It determines the
minimum head at the suction end to avoid cavitation and increases with increased
discharge. The relationship is non-linear since H L V 2 .
The speed refers to the shaft speed N in RPM. For synchronous (squirrel cage) electric
motors working at 50 Hz common speeds are 960 RPM, 1450 RPM and 2900 RPM.
Fluid power
The general formula for fluid power P m gH can be used in all situations; one only needs to
take note of the type of head, H that is being affected e.g. pressure, velocity or elevation. Also, if
H = Hsys, we can use the formula to calculate the power provided by the pump; whereas if H =
HL, power losses can be evaluated. In other words, we dont need to memorise the formula for
each specific situation but simply use the general formula as the starting point.
Pump efficiency
When power is transferred to or from a real fluid, losses occur. These losses are due to
mechanical friction in bearings and glands, fluid friction, a delivery volume less than the volume
displaced by the pump etc. As a result of these losses, the power transferred to the fluid (fluid
power) is always less than input shaft power. For a turbine (which converts fluid power to shaft
power) the shaft power (output) is always less than the fluid power (input).
The quoted efficiency of a pump (or turbine) is generally the overall efficiency ; that is, the ratio
of fluid power to shaft power and given by;
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Example 1
Determine the input power to a pump that transfers 20 L/s of water from a reservoir at elevation
3 m to another at elevation 11 m if the overall efficiency of the system is 60%.
Solution
h = 11 3 m = 8 m
and 20 L s 1 kg L 20 L s
m
P m gH
20 9.81 8 W
1.57 kW
For a pump,
Example 2
Using the performance curves in Figure 7, determine the head, input power, efficiency and
NPSHR when the pump discharge is 10 L/s. Determine the fluid power and verify the efficiency
at this discharge.
Solution
Projecting from the horizontal axis at the 10 L/s mark to intersect each respective curve and then
projecting across to the vertical axis, we obtain;
Head = 16 m
Power = 2.5 kW (shaft power)
Efficiency = 63%
NPSHR = 1 m
Since the pump is pumping fresh water, the mass flow rate at a discharge of 10 L/s is 10 kg/s.
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Pout
Efficiency
Pin
fluid power
input power
1.57
2.5
62 .8% (which agrees with the value of 63% from the chart)
Examining the set of curves, we can also see that the maximum efficiency for each impeller size
occurs at a different flow rate. The input power and NPSHR can be read from separate inset
scales.
Fig. 8: Performance curves for a centrifugal pump with various impeller diameters,
at a speed of 1450 rpm, pumping fresh water
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Example 3
Solution
IMPELLER
248 mm 298 mm 336 mm
Peak efficiency () 48% 56.5% 61.5%
Head (m) 17 28.5 36.5
Flow rate (L/s) 9.3 12 14.1
NPSHR (m) 1.5 2 2.8
Power (kW) 2.9 5.5 8
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Where the pump must be placed above the liquid level, it is necessary to consider how the pump
is to be initially primed and how the prime will be maintained when the pump is turned off e.g.
by using a check valve to prevent liquid draining out of the pump. When the pressure of the
liquid drops sufficiently at the suction side of the pump, two effects can occur;
Dissolved gases in the liquid break free as bubbles of gas escape from the liquid surface.
The liquid vaporises, that is changes phase from a liquid to a gas. With further reduction
in pressure, a point can be reached where the vaporisation is rapid; in fact the liquid
boils. The pressure at which this occurs is known as the saturation vapour pressure.
At the high pressure region of the pump, the vapour pockets implode (suddenly collapse) creating
high stresses on the pump material that can quickly erode the working parts. The rapid formation
and collapse of vapour pockets in a liquid is known as cavitation. When this occurs near a solid
surface such as a pump impeller or casing, erosion and mechanical damage can occur. A
cavitating pump makes a distinctive grinding noise due to vibration, and there is a marked drop
in efficiency and flow rate due to vapour block.
Cavitation graphic
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100oC 100oC 20oC
(a) (b)
If the confining pressure is reduced, such as in the case of a location at a high altitude, water will
tend to boil off at a lower temperature. At a high altitude where atmospheric pressure may be as
low as 70 kPa, water will tend to boil at 90oC, so it is very difficult to cook a meal. The
function of pressure cookers and boilers is to allow water to reach a temperature above 100oC
before it boils. Examining the data in the Appendix, we can see that the vapour pressure for
water at 20oC is only about 2.3 kPa, which means that if the pressure on the suction side of a
pump reduces to 2.3 kPa (absolute), the water will tend to vaporise.
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Fig. 11: Head requirement for a pump located above the suction reservoir
For the situation shown in Figure 11, the energy equation relating and is;
p1 v2 p v2
1 h1 H SYS 2 2 h2 H L
g 2g g 2g
p1 = p2 = atmospheric pressure
v1 v2 0 since the rate of rise and fall of the surfaces will be relatively low
H SYS h2 h1 H L
hs hd H L
p1 p v2
0 h1 3 3 h3 H L
g g 2g
hs h3 h1
p3 p1 v32
hs HL
g g 2g
Since p1 = atmospheric pressure, p3 will be below atmospheric pressure and may drop to a value
where cavitation will occur (e.g. water at 20oC will boil if the pressure drops to 2.3 kPa).
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p3 p v
NPSHA
g
e
p1 pa vs i
hs
(p1 + pa)abs
hi
v1
h1
Fig. 12: NPSHA General case with suction reservoir within a pressure vessel
For the situation shown in Figure 12, the energy equation relating and i ;
The absolute pressure at = p1 + pa but if the pressure vessel was open to the atmosphere, p1 =
0 and pressure at = pa (absolute).
p1 pa v2 p v2
1 h1 i s hi H L
g 2g g 2g
HL = head losses in the suction line
vs = fluid velocity in the suction line
v1 0
p1 p a p v2
h1 i s hi H L
g g 2g
p1 p a v s2
hi h1 H L
pi
g g 2g
p1 p a v s2
hs H L
g 2g
The margin ABOVE the vapour pressure at that particular temperature is the NPSHA.
pi p v p pa pv v2
NPSHA 1 s hs H L
g g 2g
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Hence we require the location of the pump to be such that NPSHA > NPSHR. Examining the
p p p
diagram in the Appendix, this means pe > pv. Hence e i NPSHR v .
g g g
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System head
Pump selection involves matching the head delivered by the pump and the system head
requirements. The system head is the total head in a system for any given flow rate. The total
head has two components namely the static head and the dynamic head.
Static head
The static head of the system is that part of the system head which does not change with flow rate
V . It comprises;
Dynamic head
The dynamic head of the system is that part of the system head which changes with flow rate V
and reduces to zero when there is no flow rate. It comprises;
v22 v12
a) Velocity head change as a result of change in fluid velocity, hv . Apart from
2g
fluid leaving a system through a nozzle, the change in velocity head is negligible.
b) Head loss as a result of friction and turbulence through pipes and fittings,
l v
2
HL f K
d 2g
Usually flow is turbulent, in which case the dynamic head increases approximately as the square
of the velocity (parabolic). It is usual to represent the system head by a curve, which is a plot of
the system head on the vertical, y axis against the volumetric flow rate on the horizontal, x axis.
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A typical system head curve is shown in the figure below;
head (m)
hdyn HL
hp Hsys
hstat
h
The system head, Hsys may be thought of as the head required to deliver fluid through the system
at a particular flow rate, V .
p2 p1 v22 v12
H sys h2 h1 HL
g 2g
Examining the equation for the system head, we can see that it has the form of a constant and a
variable that depends on the square of the velocity and therefore the square of the flow rate;
v22 v12 l v
2
H sys h p h f K
2g d 2g
A CV 2
If the pipe diameter remains the same, from points to , the change is due only to head loss.
Hsys
HL4
HL3
HL1 HL2
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In theory, the friction factor f should be computed for each value of V since the Reynolds
number Re will vary with the velocity v. In practice f can be based on a mean flow rate V with
sufficient accuracy. For fully developed turbulent flow, the curves in the Moody diagram are
approximately horizontal meaning that the friction factor f may be assumed constant.
L v
2
HL f K
d 2g
The interrelationship between the capabilities of the pump and the requirements of the system is
a fundamental issue. The essence of the relationship is simply that the pump must supply what
the system requires. In a steady-state situation, there must be equilibrium between the pump
head-flow rate performance and the system head-flow rate characteristic. This equilibrium point
is termed the duty point. The balance point or duty point can be located by superimposing the
system head curve on the pump performance curve.
The duty point is not necessarily the point of maximum efficiency and will shift as the system
requirements change e.g. by changing the flow rate or changing a fitting. Once the duty point has
been found, the flow rate, pumping head, efficiency, power and NPSHR can be found from the
pump performance curves. The duty point can either be found graphically or algebraically. Since
the system requirements can be expressed by;
H = A + Bv2
or H A CV 2
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If we also know the equation representing the pump characteristic curve, the duty point can be
found algebraically by equating the H value for the two.
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For this worked example from the text Applied Fluid Mechanics, we find that;
v2 v2
H L 18 .975 27 .7
2g 2g
2.38 v 2
The total system head requirements for the given flow rates are shown in the table below;
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Determine the duty point for each impeller size for the system whose head requirements are
shown in the table above. Hence determine the power, efficiency and NPSHR in each case.
Solution
Superimpose the system resistance curve on the pump head curves shown below;
Fig. 15: Performance curves for a centrifugal pump with various impeller diameters,
at a speed of 1450 rpm, pumping fresh water
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By superimposing the system resistance curve on the pump head curves we verify the following;
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Example 5
The 125 x 80 pump whose performance curves are shown below is used in the system whose
requirements are plotted on the pump performance curves. From this we can determine the duty
point and for the respective duty point; the flow rate, head, power, efficiency and NPSHR for
each impeller size. These are summarised in the table below.
Fig. 17: Performance curves for a centrifugal pump with various impeller diameters
For each impeller, check the tabulated value of the efficiency by calculating;
Pout
Pout = Pfluid = m gH and
Pin
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It should be borne in mind that the system curve may change with changes in operating
conditions or the passage of time. Generally pipe and fittings tend to scale and become rougher
with age thereby increasing the friction factor and the total system head. Also, pipes and fittings
(particularly strainers) tend to accumulate scale and sedimentation which has the same effect as
valve closure to increase the head loss across the fitting and therefore the total system head.
The use of a valve is a common and effective way of achieving flow control. Usually a larger
pump or impeller larger than required is specified and the flow adjusted by closing (throttling) a
control valve. This method provides maximum versatility and gives a safeguard against reduction
in future flow due to filter clogging, sedimentation, corrosion etc. However, there is also an
increase in energy costs because energy is dissipated in friction and turbulence when the valve is
closed.
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Figure 19 represents the change in the system resistance curve as a result of partly closing a globe
valve in order to achieve the desired flow rate of 11.9 L/s. At the original duty point, the
efficiency = 76.5% whereas at the new duty point = 75.6%. These values can be found by
projecting across to the inset scale from the intersection of the efficiency curve and the vertical
line representing the two flow rates. The reduction in efficiency is due to the fact that the original
duty point is slightly to the left of the peak efficiency. Hence, it is best to choose a pump whose
duty point falls to the right of its peak efficiency rather than to the left, so that there is a margin
for increase in system head (with ageing) without reduction in efficiency.
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Examining Figure 20, we see that the duty points for the 230 and 260 impellers are initially to
the right of the peak efficiency so that closing the control valve or with ageing, we get an
improvement in efficiency for the new duty point. So, when the designer has a choice of impeller
sizes to achieve the desired H , V combination, they should choose an impeller whose initial
duty point is to the right of peak efficiency, to maintain efficiency by adjustment of a control
valve and even after the effects of ageing.
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Range charts
To select a stock pump, it is necessary to refer to manufacturers catalogues. These outline the
dimensions and materials used in the range of pumps they produce. Rotodynamic pumps are
often denoted by their inlet and outlet diameters and nominal impeller diameter. For example a
100 x 80 160 pump would have a 100 mm inlet diameter, an 80 mm outlet diameter and a
nominal impeller diameter of 160 mm. Gradual expansion or contractions can be then fitted to
the pump to suit the system requirements. Initial selection of the appropriate pump is often
assisted by use of a range chart which shows the operating range of various sizes and pumps
available. When using a range chart it is necessary to decide on the approximate flow rate and
head in the system.
For example if the system required a flow rate of 20 L/s with a head of 14 m, it can be seen from
Figure 20 that a 125 x 80 250 centrifugal pump running at four-pole speed is suitable for this
application. Unfortunately this range chart will only provide the pump model or series because
each pump is manufactured with three standard impeller diameters: 260, 230 and 204 mm. It is
necessary to select which of these impellers is best, aiming to obtain a duty point to the right of
peak efficiency.
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Appendix