ECSS E HB 32 20 - Part6A Fracture and Material

ECSS-E-HB-32-20 Part 6A
20 March 2011
Space engineering
Structural materials handbook -
Part 6: Fracture and material
modelling, case studies and design
and integrity control and inspection
NOTE:
Thispdffiledoesnotcontainautomaticcrossreferences.Tomakeuseof
thecrossreferencespleaseusetheMSWordversionofthisdocument.
ECSS Secretariat
ESA-ESTEC
Requirements & Standards Division
Noordwijk, The Netherlands
ECSSEHB3220Part6A
20March2011
Foreword
ThisHandbookisonedocumentoftheseriesofECSSDocumentsintendedtobeusedassupporting
materialforECSSStandardsinspaceprojectsandapplications.ECSSisacooperativeeffortofthe
European Space Agency, national space agencies and European industry associations for the
purposeofdevelopingandmaintainingcommonstandards.
ThishandbookhasbeenpreparedbytheECSSEHB3230WorkingGroup,reviewedbytheECSS
ExecutiveSecretariatandapprovedbytheECSSTechnicalAuthority.
Disclaimer
ECSS does not provide any warranty whatsoever, whether expressed, implied, or statutory,
including,butnotlimitedto,anywarrantyofmerchantabilityorfitnessforaparticularpurposeor
anywarrantythatthecontentsoftheitemareerrorfree.InnorespectshallECSSincuranyliability
for any damages, including, but not limited to, direct, indirect, special, or consequential damages
arisingoutof,resultingfrom,orinanywayconnectedtotheuseofthisdocument,whetherornot
baseduponwarranty,businessagreement,tort,orotherwise;whetherornotinjurywassustained
bypersonsorpropertyorotherwise;andwhetherornotlosswassustainedfrom,oraroseoutof,
theresultsof,theitem,oranyservicesthatmaybeprovidedbyECSS.
Publishedby: ESARequirementsandStandardsDivision
ESTEC,P.O.Box299,
2200AGNoordwijk
TheNetherlands
Copyright: 2011bytheEuropeanSpaceAgencyforthemembersofECSS
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Change log
ECSSEHB3220Part6A Firstissue
20March2011
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Table of contents
Change log .................................................................................................................3
Introduction..............................................................................................................27
64 Behaviour of advanced composites .................................................................28

64.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 28
64.2 Summary of material behaviour ............................................................................... 29
64.2.1 Metal matrix composites............................................................................. 29
64.2.2 Inorganic ceramic matrix composites ......................................................... 30
64.3 Significant behavioural characteristics ..................................................................... 30
64.3.1 General....................................................................................................... 30
64.3.2 Modulus mismatch...................................................................................... 30
64.3.3 Matrix-to-reinforcement interface................................................................ 31
64.3.4 In-situ fibre strength.................................................................................... 32
64.3.5 CTE mismatch ............................................................................................ 32
64.3.6 Thermal history and residual stresses........................................................ 33
64.3.7 Multiple cracking......................................................................................... 33
64.3.8 Thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF) ............................................................. 33
64.4 Basic fracture characteristics ................................................................................... 33
64.4.1 General....................................................................................................... 33
64.4.2 Particulate reinforced MMC ........................................................................ 34
64.4.3 Fibre reinforced MMC................................................................................. 35
64.4.4 Fibre reinforced CMC ................................................................................. 36
64.4.5 Defining design values ............................................................................... 37
64.5 Failure criteria for CMC ............................................................................................ 37
64.5.1 Introduction................................................................................................. 37
64.5.2 Design aspects ........................................................................................... 37
64.6 References ............................................................................................................... 40
64.6.1 General....................................................................................................... 40
65 Particulate reinforced metals ............................................................................41

65.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 41
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65.1.1 Materials ..................................................................................................... 41
65.1.2 Composites................................................................................................. 41
65.1.3 Particulate reinforcement............................................................................ 42
65.2 Damage mechanisms............................................................................................... 43
65.2.1 Unnotched specimen.................................................................................. 43
65.2.2 Notched specimen...................................................................................... 44
65.2.3 Influence of particles................................................................................... 44
65.2.4 Composite performance ............................................................................. 45
65.3 Failure modes and fracture behaviour...................................................................... 45
65.3.1 Matrix effects .............................................................................................. 45
65.3.2 Failure mode studies .................................................................................. 46
65.3.3 Particulate shape and aspect ratio ............................................................. 46
65.3.4 Particulate fracture ..................................................................................... 48
65.3.5 Void nucleation and growth ........................................................................ 48
65.3.6 Fracture toughness..................................................................................... 49
65.4 Thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF) and creep .......................................................... 50
65.4.1 Residual stresses ....................................................................................... 50
65.4.2 Temperature ............................................................................................... 50
65.4.3 Superplasticity ............................................................................................ 50
65.4.4 Applications ................................................................................................ 50
65.5 References ............................................................................................................... 50
65.5.1 General....................................................................................................... 50
66 Fibre reinforced metals ......................................................................................53

66.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 53
66.1.1 Materials ..................................................................................................... 53
66.2.1 General....................................................................................................... 54
66.2.2 Effect of lay-up............................................................................................ 54
66.3 Failure modes........................................................................................................... 55
66.3.1 General....................................................................................................... 55
66.3.2 Matrix dominated failure ............................................................................. 55
66.3.3 Fibre-dominated damage ........................................................................... 55
66.3.4 Self-similar damage growth ........................................................................ 55
66.3.5 Fibre-matrix interfacial failures ................................................................... 56
66.4 Thermo-mechanical and creep response ................................................................. 56
66.4.1 General....................................................................................................... 56
66.4.2 Application .................................................................................................. 57
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66.5 References ............................................................................................................... 57
66.5.1 General....................................................................................................... 57
67 Inorganic ceramic matrix composites ..............................................................59

67.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 59
67.1.1 General....................................................................................................... 59
67.1.2 Matrix.......................................................................................................... 60
67.1.3 Interface...................................................................................................... 60
67.1.4 Fibres.......................................................................................................... 60
67.2.1 Material effects ........................................................................................... 60
67.2.2 Microcracking ............................................................................................. 61
67.2.3 Porosity....................................................................................................... 62
67.2.4 Manufacturing and in-service effects.......................................................... 63
67.2.5 Crack propagation ...................................................................................... 63
67.3 Fracture behaviour ................................................................................................... 64
67.3.1 Toughness parameters............................................................................... 64
67.3.2 Test specimens .......................................................................................... 69
67.3.3 'R' curves .................................................................................................... 69
67.4 References ............................................................................................................... 71
68 Modelling advanced materials...........................................................................72

68.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 72
68.1.1 Polymer composites ................................................................................... 72
68.1.2 Metal matrix composites............................................................................. 72
68.1.3 Inorganic ceramic matrix materials............................................................. 72
68.1.4 Summary of models.................................................................................... 73
68.2 Particulate reinforced metals .................................................................................... 74
68.2.1 Use of models............................................................................................. 74
68.3 Fibre reinforced metals............................................................................................. 74
68.3.1 Use of models............................................................................................. 74
68.4 Inorganic ceramic matrix composites ....................................................................... 75
68.4.1 Use of models............................................................................................. 75
68.5 References ............................................................................................................... 78
68.5.1 General....................................................................................................... 78
69 High-temperature structures .............................................................................80

69.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 80
69.1.1 Applications ................................................................................................ 80
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69.1.2 Performance ............................................................................................... 80
69.1.3 High-temperature materials ........................................................................ 80
69.1.4 Development approach .............................................................................. 81
69.2 Functions.................................................................................................................. 81
69.2.1 General....................................................................................................... 81
69.2.2 Aerodynamic heating.................................................................................. 82
69.2.3 Propulsive power generation ...................................................................... 83
69.3 Operating environments ........................................................................................... 84
69.4 Integration ................................................................................................................ 84
69.5 Heat management.................................................................................................... 85
69.6 Life expectancy ........................................................................................................ 85
69.6.1 General....................................................................................................... 85
69.6.2 Launcher..................................................................................................... 85
69.6.3 Spaceplane................................................................................................. 85
69.6.4 Satellite....................................................................................................... 86
69.7 Materials selection.................................................................................................... 86
69.8 Manufacturing........................................................................................................... 86
69.9 Applications .............................................................................................................. 87
69.9.1 Future reusable launch vehicles................................................................. 87
69.9.2 Flight-vehicle dependent ............................................................................ 88
69.9.3 Non-vehicle dependent............................................................................... 92
69.9.4 Summary of European capabilities............................................................. 95
69.10 References ............................................................................................................... 96
69.10.1 General....................................................................................................... 96
70 Thermo-structural designs ................................................................................98

70.1 Introduction............................................................................................................... 98
70.1.1 General....................................................................................................... 98
70.1.2 Single mission ............................................................................................ 98
70.1.3 Reusable vehicles ...................................................................................... 99
70.2 Spaceplanes............................................................................................................. 99
70.2.1 Hermes ....................................................................................................... 99
70.2.2 HOPE ......................................................................................................... 99
70.2.3 Single- and two-stage-to-orbit .................................................................. 100
70.3 Hermes ................................................................................................................... 100
70.4 HOPE ..................................................................................................................... 101
70.5 HOTOL ................................................................................................................... 105
70.6 SNGER ................................................................................................................ 107
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70.7 National aerospace plane (NASP) ......................................................................... 108
70.8 Demonstrator panels .............................................................................................. 110
70.8.1 General..................................................................................................... 110
70.8.2 NASP........................................................................................................ 110
70.9 Nose cones ............................................................................................................ 110
70.9.1 General..................................................................................................... 110
70.9.2 Shuttle orbiter ........................................................................................... 110
70.9.3 Hermes ..................................................................................................... 112
70.9.4 HOPE ....................................................................................................... 114
70.9.5 NASP........................................................................................................ 114
70.9.6 HOTOL ..................................................................................................... 114
70.9.7 SNGER .................................................................................................. 115
70.9.8 X-38 .......................................................................................................... 115
70.10 Wing leading edges (WLE)..................................................................................... 116
70.10.1 General..................................................................................................... 116
70.10.2 Shuttle orbiter ........................................................................................... 116
70.10.3 Buran ........................................................................................................ 116
70.10.4 Hermes ..................................................................................................... 118
70.10.5 HOPE ....................................................................................................... 119
70.10.6 Others....................................................................................................... 119
70.11 Box sections ........................................................................................................... 120
70.11.1 NASP........................................................................................................ 120
70.11.2 Hermes ..................................................................................................... 120
70.12 Cryogenic tanks...................................................................................................... 121
70.13 Heat shield designs ................................................................................................ 121
70.14 Air inlet-intakes....................................................................................................... 124
70.15 Earth re-entry capsules .......................................................................................... 125
70.16 Manned re-entry vehicles ....................................................................................... 127
70.17 Deep space missions ............................................................................................. 128
70.17.1 CNSR ROSETTA: Earth return capsule ................................................... 128
70.18 Mars landers........................................................................................................... 129
70.18.1 General..................................................................................................... 129
70.18.2 NASA Pathfinder/MESUR network landers .............................................. 129
70.18.3 MARSNET ................................................................................................ 130
70.19 Cassini-Huygens .................................................................................................... 130
70.19.1 General..................................................................................................... 130
70.19.2 C-C aerobrake (heat shield) ..................................................................... 130
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70.19.3 Nose cap front shield with AQ60 .............................................................. 131
70.20 Planetary probes .................................................................................................... 131
70.21 Aerobrake designs ................................................................................................. 131
70.21.1 General..................................................................................................... 131
70.21.2 NASA/ESA Cassini-Huygens mission ...................................................... 131
70.22 PRORA: USV unmanned space vehicle ............................................................. 133
70.22.1 Background .............................................................................................. 133
70.22.2 USV programme....................................................................................... 135
70.22.3 USV systems and flight test beds............................................................. 136
70.22.4 External configuration of FTB_1 and FTB_2 ............................................ 137
70.22.5 External configuration of FTB_3 ............................................................... 138
70.23 X-38 Body flap........................................................................................................ 140
70.23.1 Background .............................................................................................. 140
70.23.2 Body flaps................................................................................................. 142
70.23.3 Mechanical fasteners................................................................................ 143
70.23.4 CMC to metal attachment......................................................................... 144
70.23.5 Ceramic bearings ..................................................................................... 145
70.23.6 Ceramic seals........................................................................................... 146
70.24 X-38 Nose cap........................................................................................................ 147
70.24.1 Background .............................................................................................. 147
70.24.2 Concept .................................................................................................... 148
70.24.3 Thermal profiles........................................................................................ 148
70.24.4 Flexible insulation design ......................................................................... 149
70.24.5 Integration and qualification testing .......................................................... 150
70.24.6 Summary .................................................................................................. 152
70.25 Aerobrake: Deployable CMC decelerator............................................................... 153
70.25.1 Background .............................................................................................. 153
70.25.2 Mars ISRU mission in-situ resource unit................................................. 154
70.25.3 Mars ISRU mission Concept ................................................................. 154
70.25.4 Mars ISRU mission Environmental aspects .......................................... 157
70.26 References ............................................................................................................. 158
70.26.1 General..................................................................................................... 158
71 Thermal protection systems............................................................................163

71.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 163
71.1.1 Application ................................................................................................ 163
71.1.2 European development programmes ....................................................... 164
71.1.3 Concepts .................................................................................................. 165
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71.1.4 Non load-carrying TPS ............................................................................. 167
71.1.5 Load-carrying TPS.................................................................................... 168
71.1.6 Reusable structures.................................................................................. 168
71.2 Cooling modes ....................................................................................................... 169
71.2.1 General..................................................................................................... 169
71.2.2 Passive TPS ............................................................................................. 170
71.2.3 Active cooling concepts ............................................................................ 170
71.3 Early re-entry capsules........................................................................................... 171
71.4 Ablative designs ..................................................................................................... 173
71.4.1 General..................................................................................................... 173
71.4.2 Programmes ............................................................................................. 174
71.4.3 Materials ................................................................................................... 174
71.5 Space Shuttle orbiter.............................................................................................. 177
71.5.1 General..................................................................................................... 177
71.5.2 Materials and configurations..................................................................... 178
71.5.3 In-Service TPS Performance.................................................................... 182
71.6 Buran...................................................................................................................... 182
71.6.1 General..................................................................................................... 182
71.6.2 Materials and configurations..................................................................... 184
71.7 Advanced carbon reinforced composites ............................................................... 184
71.7.1 Carbon-carbon composites ...................................................................... 184
71.7.2 ACC - Advanced carbon-carbon............................................................... 184
71.7.3 Aerospatiale - Aerotiss 2.5D .................................................................. 185
71.7.4 Carbon-silicon carbide composites........................................................... 186
71.8 Durable metallic TPS.............................................................................................. 188
71.8.1 General..................................................................................................... 188
71.8.2 Multiwall TPS............................................................................................ 189
71.8.3 Developments........................................................................................... 190
71.9 Titanium-based composites ................................................................................... 192
71.9.1 NASP........................................................................................................ 192
71.10 Internal multiscreen insulation (IMI) ....................................................................... 192
71.10.1 Concept .................................................................................................... 192
71.10.2 Development and characterisation ........................................................... 195
71.10.3 Potential applications................................................................................ 198
71.11 Flexible external insulation (FEI) ............................................................................ 198
71.11.1 General..................................................................................................... 198
71.11.2 Design concept......................................................................................... 198
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71.11.3 Key features ............................................................................................. 199
71.11.4 Product range ........................................................................................... 200
71.11.5 Hermes ..................................................................................................... 200
71.11.6 MSTP programme .................................................................................... 201
71.11.7 ARD programme....................................................................................... 204
71.11.8 Future reusable vehicles .......................................................................... 205
71.11.9 Verified performance ................................................................................ 205
71.11.10 IFI - Internal flexible insulation development .............................. 206
71.12 CMC shingles ......................................................................................................... 208
71.12.1 Hermes design concept............................................................................ 208
71.12.2 TETRA/X-38 programme panels .............................................................. 210
71.12.3 SPFI - Surface protected flexible insulation.............................................. 212
71.13 Heat pipes .............................................................................................................. 223
71.13.1 General..................................................................................................... 223
71.13.2 Shuttle-type heat pipe cooled wing leading edge ..................................... 225
71.13.3 Sodium-Hastelloy-X heat pipe for advanced space transportation
system ...................................................................................................... 225
71.13.4 Refractory metal-CMC heat pipe for NASP .............................................. 226
71.14 Cooled panels ........................................................................................................ 227
71.14.1 General..................................................................................................... 227
71.14.2 Demonstrator units ................................................................................... 228
71.14.3 Active cooling on NASP............................................................................ 229
71.15 Beryllium TPS......................................................................................................... 231
71.15.1 General..................................................................................................... 231
71.15.2 Cassini-Huygens heat shield: Phase A configuration............................... 231
71.16 Aerobrakes ............................................................................................................. 233
71.17 Heat shields............................................................................................................ 233
71.17.1 General..................................................................................................... 233
71.17.2 SEPCORE TPS concept........................................................................ 233
71.17.3 Ceramic heatshield assembly (CHA)........................................................ 234
71.17.4 MIRKA - Micro re-entry capsule ............................................................... 242
71.17.5 ALSCAP - Alternative low-cost, short-manufacturing-cycle ceramic
assessment programme ........................................................................... 244
71.18 Aeroshell ................................................................................................................ 247
71.18.1 General..................................................................................................... 247
71.18.2 Semi-integrated aeroshell TPS (S.I.A.T) .................................................. 247
71.18.3 Demonstrator aeroshell design................................................................. 247
71.19 Cryogenic tanks...................................................................................................... 254
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71.19.1 General..................................................................................................... 254
71.19.2 European programmes............................................................................. 254
71.19.3 Concepts: TPS panel array ...................................................................... 255
71.19.4 Concepts: LH tank cryogenic insulation ................................................... 256
71.20 TPS mass budgets ................................................................................................. 258
71.20.1 Allocation .................................................................................................. 258
71.20.2 Examples.................................................................................................. 258
71.21 TPS verification ...................................................................................................... 259
71.22 Polymer foam cryogenic insulation......................................................................... 259
71.22.1 General..................................................................................................... 259
71.22.2 Polymer foam characteristics ................................................................... 259
71.22.3 Properties ................................................................................................. 260
71.22.4 Materials ................................................................................................... 261
71.22.5 Ranking of polymer foam cryogenic insulation ......................................... 263
71.22.6 Further work ............................................................................................. 265
71.23 High temperature insulation (HTI) .......................................................................... 265
71.23.1 Background .............................................................................................. 265
71.23.2 Development factors................................................................................. 266
71.23.3 Development apoproach .......................................................................... 267
71.23.4 Materials ................................................................................................... 270
71.23.5 Testing...................................................................................................... 270
71.23.6 Summary .................................................................................................. 274
71.24 References ............................................................................................................. 274
72 SPF/DB titanium designs .................................................................................284

72.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 284
72.1.1 General..................................................................................................... 284
72.1.2 Aircraft components.................................................................................. 284
72.1.3 Space applications ................................................................................... 284
72.2 Basic SPF/DB process ........................................................................................... 285
72.2.1 Superplastic forming................................................................................. 285
72.2.2 Diffusion bonding...................................................................................... 285
72.3 Process attributes................................................................................................... 287
72.4 Titanium alloys ....................................................................................................... 288
72.5 Aluminium alloys .................................................................................................... 289
72.6 Access doors and ducting ...................................................................................... 290
72.6.1 General..................................................................................................... 290
72.6.2 Slat track/jack cans................................................................................... 290
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72.6.3 Underwing access doors .......................................................................... 291
72.6.4 Other SPF/DB components ...................................................................... 292
72.7 Spars and stiffened panels ..................................................................................... 293
72.8 Struts and cylinders ................................................................................................ 293
72.9 Leading edges and lateral fins ............................................................................... 293
72.10 Firewalls ................................................................................................................. 294
72.11 Pressure vessels .................................................................................................... 294
72.12 Cost aspects........................................................................................................... 295
72.13 European facilities .................................................................................................. 295
72.14 References ............................................................................................................. 295
72.14.1 General..................................................................................................... 295
73 Propulsion technologies..................................................................................297
73.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 297
73.2 Propulsion unit requirements.................................................................................. 297
73.2.1 Launcher engines ..................................................................................... 297
73.2.2 Shuttle engines......................................................................................... 297
73.2.3 Spaceplane engines ................................................................................. 298
73.2.4 Thrusters .................................................................................................. 298
73.2.5 Nozzles..................................................................................................... 298
73.3 Fuels....................................................................................................................... 298
73.3.1 General..................................................................................................... 298
73.3.2 Solid propellants ....................................................................................... 298
73.3.3 LH/LOX..................................................................................................... 299
73.3.4 Monopropellants ....................................................................................... 299
73.3.5 Bipropellants............................................................................................. 299
73.4 Ariane 5 .................................................................................................................. 299
73.4.1 General..................................................................................................... 299
73.4.2 MPS solid rocket motor ............................................................................ 299
73.5 Vulcain engine........................................................................................................ 300
73.5.1 General..................................................................................................... 300
73.5.2 Specification ............................................................................................. 301
73.5.3 Materials ................................................................................................... 301
73.6 HM 7 engine ........................................................................................................... 302
73.6.1 General..................................................................................................... 302
73.6.2 Nozzle geometry....................................................................................... 303
73.7 Mage 2 motor ......................................................................................................... 303
73.8 Nozzles................................................................................................................... 303
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73.9 Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) ...................................................................... 304
73.10 Air breathing engines ............................................................................................. 304
73.10.1 General..................................................................................................... 304
73.10.2 NASP nozzle development....................................................................... 305
73.10.3 European ramjet technology..................................................................... 305
73.11 CMC rocket stator .................................................................................................. 305
73.12 Metal thrusters........................................................................................................ 307
73.13 CMC thrusters ........................................................................................................ 307
73.14 References ............................................................................................................. 307
73.14.1 General..................................................................................................... 307
74 Protective coatings ..........................................................................................310

74.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 310
74.2 Coating functions.................................................................................................... 311
74.2.1 General..................................................................................................... 311
74.2.2 Application requirements .......................................................................... 312
74.3 Passivation ............................................................................................................. 312
74.3.1 General..................................................................................................... 312
74.3.2 Materials ................................................................................................... 313
74.3.3 Coating adhesion...................................................................................... 313
74.4 Basic coating types ................................................................................................ 314
74.4.1 General..................................................................................................... 314
74.4.2 Diffusion coatings ..................................................................................... 314
74.4.3 Overlay coatings....................................................................................... 314
74.5 Coating processes.................................................................................................. 315
74.5.1 General..................................................................................................... 315
74.5.2 Slurry coating............................................................................................ 315
74.5.3 Physical vapour deposition (PVD) ............................................................ 315
74.5.4 Enhanced physical vapour deposition (PVD) ........................................... 316
74.5.5 Thermal spraying...................................................................................... 316
74.5.6 Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) .......................................................... 317
74.5.7 Enhanced chemical vapour deposition (CVD).......................................... 317
74.5.8 Other processes ....................................................................................... 317
74.6 Coatings: Titanium components ............................................................................. 318
74.6.1 NASP........................................................................................................ 318
74.7 Coatings: Superalloy components.......................................................................... 318
74.7.1 General..................................................................................................... 318
74.7.2 Aluminide diffusion coatings ..................................................................... 319
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74.7.3 MCrAlY overlay coatings .......................................................................... 319
74.8 Thermal barrier coatings (TBC) .............................................................................. 320
74.8.1 Ni-based superalloy components ............................................................. 320
74.8.2 Shuttle Main Engine HPFTP blades ......................................................... 320
74.8.3 Fibre-reinforced TBC's ............................................................................. 321
74.8.4 Coating technology................................................................................... 321
74.8.5 Seals......................................................................................................... 321
74.9 Carbon-Carbon: Oxidation protection..................................................................... 321
74.9.1 General..................................................................................................... 321
74.9.2 Applications .............................................................................................. 321
74.9.3 Coating systems ....................................................................................... 321
74.9.4 Basic problem........................................................................................... 322
74.10 Multiplex coatings................................................................................................... 322
74.10.1 General..................................................................................................... 322
74.10.2 Constituents.............................................................................................. 323
74.10.3 Application examples................................................................................ 324
74.11 Coatings: C-SiC and SiC-SiC ................................................................................. 325
74.11.1 General..................................................................................................... 325
74.11.2 C-SiC ........................................................................................................ 325
74.11.3 SiC-SiC..................................................................................................... 325
74.12 Carbon-Carbon: Surface coatings.......................................................................... 326
74.12.1 Dimensionally stable structures................................................................ 326
74.13 References ............................................................................................................. 330
74.13.1 General..................................................................................................... 330
75 Seal technology ................................................................................................334

75.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 334
75.1.1 Uses ......................................................................................................... 334
75.1.2 Structural assemblies ............................................................................... 334
75.1.3 Dynamic seals .......................................................................................... 335
75.1.4 Materials ................................................................................................... 335
75.2 Structural seals....................................................................................................... 335
75.3 Seal materials......................................................................................................... 336
75.3.1 General..................................................................................................... 336
75.3.2 Elastomers................................................................................................ 336
75.3.3 Types of elastomers ................................................................................. 339
75.3.4 Visoelasticity............................................................................................. 343
75.3.5 Physical properties ................................................................................... 344
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75.3.6 Chemical properties.................................................................................. 351
75.3.7 Rubber-to-metal bonding.......................................................................... 354
75.3.8 Engineering design with elastomers......................................................... 355
75.3.9 Finite element analysis ............................................................................. 358
75.3.10 Applications .............................................................................................. 360
75.3.11 Thermoplastic elastomers ........................................................................ 361
75.4 Energised metal seals ............................................................................................ 361
75.4.1 General..................................................................................................... 361
75.4.2 Materials ................................................................................................... 362
75.5 NASP engine developments .................................................................................. 363
75.5.1 General..................................................................................................... 363
75.5.2 Developments........................................................................................... 363
75.6 Fibrous seals .......................................................................................................... 364
75.7 Elastomeric seals ................................................................................................... 365
75.7.1 Materials ................................................................................................... 365
75.7.2 Design aspects ......................................................................................... 365
75.7.3 Causes of leakage.................................................................................... 366
75.7.4 Aerospace applications ............................................................................ 367
75.8 References ............................................................................................................. 368
75.8.1 General..................................................................................................... 368
75.8.2 ECSS standards ....................................................................................... 369
75.8.3 ASTM standards....................................................................................... 370
75.8.4 ISO standards........................................................................................... 370
76 Integrity control of high temperature structures ...........................................371

76.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 371
76.2 Materials................................................................................................................. 371
76.2.1 Integrity control ......................................................................................... 371
76.2.2 Fracture control ........................................................................................ 372
76.3 Failure characteristics ............................................................................................ 372
76.3.1 Advanced alloy systems ........................................................................... 372
76.3.2 Composite materials................................................................................. 372
76.4 High temperature.................................................................................................... 373
76.5 Coatings ................................................................................................................. 373
76.5.1 General..................................................................................................... 373
76.5.2 Manufacturing........................................................................................... 373
76.5.3 Inspection ................................................................................................. 373
76.6 Considerations ....................................................................................................... 374
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76.6.1 Mass optimisation..................................................................................... 374
76.6.2 Approach .................................................................................................. 374
76.7 Case study: Developments in integrity control ....................................................... 375
76.8 Case study: Phase 1 - Material characterisation .................................................... 377
76.8.1 General..................................................................................................... 377
76.8.2 Materials, manufacturing and NDT........................................................... 377
76.8.3 Defect detection by selected NDI methods .............................................. 378
76.8.4 Maximum applied stresses ....................................................................... 379
76.8.5 High-temperature tests ............................................................................. 380
76.8.6 Residual strengths.................................................................................... 381
76.8.7 Analysis .................................................................................................... 381
76.8.8 Conclusions .............................................................................................. 381
76.9 Case study: Phase 2 - Structural sub-component behaviour ................................. 382
76.10 References ............................................................................................................. 382
76.10.1 General..................................................................................................... 382
77 Defect types ......................................................................................................383

77.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 383
77.2 Advanced metal alloys ........................................................................................... 384
77.2.1 General..................................................................................................... 384
77.2.2 ODS alloys................................................................................................ 384
77.2.3 SPF alloys ................................................................................................ 384
77.3 Metal matrix composites......................................................................................... 384
77.3.1 General..................................................................................................... 384
77.3.2 Standard product forms ............................................................................ 384
77.3.3 Near-net shape manufacture.................................................................... 385
77.4 Ceramic matrix composites .................................................................................... 386
77.5 Coatings ................................................................................................................. 386
77.6 Joints ...................................................................................................................... 387
77.6.1 General..................................................................................................... 387
77.6.2 Uses ......................................................................................................... 387
77.6.3 Mechanical fastened joints ....................................................................... 388
77.6.4 Fusion joints ............................................................................................. 388
77.7 Structural parts ....................................................................................................... 389
77.7.1 General..................................................................................................... 389
77.7.2 Composite materials................................................................................. 389
77.8 In service ................................................................................................................ 389
77.9 References ............................................................................................................. 391
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77.9.1 General..................................................................................................... 391
78 Damage tolerance.............................................................................................392
78.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 392
78.1.1 Materials ................................................................................................... 392
78.1.2 Structure ................................................................................................... 392
78.1.3 Fracture mechanics .................................................................................. 392
78.1.4 Initial material quality (IMQ)...................................................................... 392
78.2 MMC: Particulate and whisker reinforced............................................................... 393
78.2.1 Fatigue behaviour..................................................................................... 393
78.2.2 Fracture mechanics .................................................................................. 394
78.3 CMC: Whisker reinforced ....................................................................................... 395
78.4 MMC: Continuous fibre reinforced.......................................................................... 395
78.4.1 Fatigue...................................................................................................... 395
78.5 CMC: Continuous fibre reinforced .......................................................................... 397
78.5.1 Failure characteristics............................................................................... 397
78.6 Coatings ................................................................................................................. 398
78.6.1 Coating performance ................................................................................ 398
78.6.2 Process and material selection................................................................. 399
78.6.3 Failure characteristics............................................................................... 399
78.7 References ............................................................................................................. 400
78.7.1 General..................................................................................................... 400
78.7.2 ECSS standards ....................................................................................... 400
79 Fracture control ................................................................................................401

79.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 401
79.1.1 Application ................................................................................................ 401
79.2 References ............................................................................................................. 401
79.2.1 General..................................................................................................... 401
79.2.2 ECSS standards ....................................................................................... 401
80 NDT techniques ................................................................................................402

80.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 402
80.2 Advanced metal alloys ........................................................................................... 403
80.2.1 General..................................................................................................... 403
80.2.2 Brittle materials......................................................................................... 403
80.2.3 Multi-phase microstructures ..................................................................... 403
80.3 Metal matrix composites......................................................................................... 403
80.4 Carbon-Carbon and ceramic matrix composites .................................................... 404
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80.5 Coatings ................................................................................................................. 407
80.6 Joints ...................................................................................................................... 407
80.6.1 General..................................................................................................... 407
80.6.2 Fused joints .............................................................................................. 407
80.6.3 Mechanically fastened and interlock joints ............................................... 408
80.7 Fusion joints ........................................................................................................... 408
80.7.1 General..................................................................................................... 408
80.7.2 Thin-walled seam welded tubes ............................................................... 409
80.7.3 Diffusion bonded joints ............................................................................. 409
80.8 References ............................................................................................................. 409
80.8.1 General..................................................................................................... 409
81 High-temperature testing .................................................................................412

81.1 Introduction............................................................................................................. 412
81.2 Purpose of testing .................................................................................................. 412
81.3 Material behaviour.................................................................................................. 413
81.3.1 Basic fracture modes................................................................................ 413
81.3.2 Metal matrix composites........................................................................... 413
81.3.3 Inorganic and ceramic matrix composites ................................................ 413
81.4 Degradation mechanisms....................................................................................... 414
81.4.1 Materials ................................................................................................... 414
81.4.2 Degradation rate....................................................................................... 414
81.5 Coupon testing ....................................................................................................... 415
81.5.1 General..................................................................................................... 415
81.5.2 Single-fibre tests....................................................................................... 415
81.5.3 Fibre push through ................................................................................... 415
81.5.4 Net-shape components ............................................................................ 415
81.5.5 Flexural and ILSS testing ......................................................................... 415
81.5.6 Small coupon tests ................................................................................... 416
81.5.7 Machining ................................................................................................. 416
81.5.8 Extensometry............................................................................................ 416
81.5.9 End tabs ................................................................................................... 417
81.5.10 Coatings ................................................................................................... 417
81.5.11 Material gradation..................................................................................... 417
81.5.12 Specimen alignment ................................................................................. 418
81.5.13 Linear elasticity......................................................................................... 418
81.6 Mechanical properties ............................................................................................ 418
81.6.1 General..................................................................................................... 418
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81.6.2 Tensile ...................................................................................................... 419
81.6.3 Compression ............................................................................................ 420
81.6.4 Shear ........................................................................................................ 420
81.6.5 Open-hole tension .................................................................................... 421
81.6.6 Fatigue...................................................................................................... 421
81.7 Fracture toughness ................................................................................................ 421
81.8 Physical properties ................................................................................................. 422
81.8.1 General..................................................................................................... 422
81.8.2 Standards ................................................................................................. 422
81.9 Status of test standards.......................................................................................... 422
81.9.1 General..................................................................................................... 422
81.9.2 Metal matrix composites........................................................................... 423
81.9.3 Ceramic matrix composites ...................................................................... 423
81.10 Demonstrator testing .............................................................................................. 427
81.11 References ............................................................................................................. 428
81.11.1 General..................................................................................................... 428
Figures
Figure 64.4-1 - Representative stress-strain curve: Particulate reinforced MMC................... 34
Figure 64.4-2 - Representative stress-strain curves: Monofilament reinforced MMC ............ 35
Figure 64.4-3 - Representative stress-strain curves: Bidirectional SiC-SiC composite.......... 36
Figure 64.5-1 Failure criteria: Comparison between predicted failure curves for................ 38
Figure 64.5-2 Failure criteria: Hour-glass test specimen for C-C/SiC composites ............ 39
Figure 65.2-1 - Relative stress-strain behaviours of optimised (good) and non-
optimised (poor) MMCp composites .................................................................... 44
Figure 65.3-1 - Features of particles in MMCp materials ....................................................... 47
Figure 65.3-2 - Possible crack propagation paths in MMCp materials................................... 48
Figure 67.2-1 - Glass matrix composite material: Microcracking sequence........................... 62
Figure 67.2-2 - Bidirectional glass-ceramic matrix composite: Schematic of tunnelling
cracks in 90 layers.............................................................................................. 63
Figure 67.3-1 - Schematic representations of load-displacement (P/u) curves: (a)
Linear elastic behaviour....................................................................................... 65
Figure 67.3-2 - Schematic representations of load-displacement (P/u) curves: (b)
Linear non-elastic behaviour................................................................................ 65
Figure 67.3-3 - Schematic representations of load-displacement (P/u) curves: (c)
Non-linear elastic behaviour ................................................................................ 66
Figure 67.3-4 - Schematic representations of load-displacement (P/u) curves: (d)
Non-linear non-elastic behaviour ......................................................................... 66
Figure 67.3-5 - CMC materials: Possible fracture mechanisms ............................................. 67
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Figure 67.3-6 - SENB and delamination test specimens........................................................ 69
Figure 67.3-7 - Fracture energy (J, Rice) as a function of crack increment: Short
random fibre materials ......................................................................................... 70
Figure 67.3-8 - Fracture energy (J, Rice) as a function of crack increment:
Multidirectional materials ..................................................................................... 70
Figure 70.4-1 - HOPE: Distribution of surface temperatures................................................ 101
Figure 70.4-2 - HOPE: Distribution of TPS........................................................................... 102
Figure 70.4-3 - HOPE structural materials to be applied...................................................... 103
Figure 70.4-4 - OREX structure and TPS............................................................................. 104
Figure 70.4-5 - HYFLEX: Structural Configuration ............................................................... 104
Figure 70.5-1 - HOTOL: Configuration 'g'............................................................................. 105
Figure 70.5-2 - HOTOL: Rear Fuselage and Aft LOX Tank ................................................. 107
Figure 70.6-1 - SNGER: Surface temperatures at Mach 6.8 ............................................. 108
Figure 70.7-1 - NASP: Basic configuration........................................................................... 109
Figure 70.9-1 - Shuttle: Nose cap system components ....................................................... 111
Figure 70.9-2 - Shuttle: RCC chin panel system components ............................................. 112
Figure 70.9-3 - Hermes: C-C INOX nose cone (0.6 scale) ................................................ 113
Figure 70.9-4 - HOPE: Heat resistant structural configuration ............................................. 114
Figure 70.9-5 - HOTOL: Nose cone and nose shell ............................................................. 115
Figure 70.10-1 - Shuttle orbiter: Wing leading edge system components............................ 116
Figure 70.10-2 - Buran: Wing leading edge construction ..................................................... 117
Figure 70.10-3 - Buran: Temperature of wing leading edge with time ................................. 118
Figure 70.10-4 - Hermes: Hot structure leading edge .......................................................... 119
Figure 70.11-1 - Hermes: C-SiC box for thermal structure................................................... 120
Figure 70.13-1 - Double wall heat shield.............................................................................. 122
Figure 70.13-2 - Heat shield and stringer stiffened panels................................................... 123
Figure 70.13-3 - MARSNET: Heat shield for planetary entry probe ..................................... 124
Figure 70.14-1 - Air intake ramp in C-SiC ............................................................................ 125
Figure 70.15-1 - COMET recovery system........................................................................... 126
Figure 70.15-2 - MIRKA capsule: Exploded view of spherical heat shield ........................... 127
Figure 70.16-1 - ACRV flight vehicle: General layout........................................................... 128
Figure 70.17-1 - CNRS ROSETTA: Aerocapsule configuration ........................................... 129
Figure 70.19-1 - Huygens: C-C decelerator design.............................................................. 130
Figure 70.19-2 - Huygens: Nose cap front shield................................................................. 131
Figure 70.21-1 - Cassini-Huygens: Stretched carbon skin decelerator................................ 132
Figure 70.21-2 - Cassini-Huygens: Separation sequence.................................................... 133
Figure 70.22-1 - PRORA USV: FTB_2 external configuration .......................................... 138
Figure 70.22-2 VEGA launcher: Large fairing ................................................................... 139
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Figure 70.22-3 - PRORA USV: FTB_3 external configuration .......................................... 140
Figure 70.23-1 X-38: Test vehicle ..................................................................................... 141
Figure 70.23-2 X-38 body flap: Construction..................................................................... 142
Figure 70.23-3 X-38 body flap: Mechanical fasteners....................................................... 143
Figure 70.23-4 X-38 body flap: CMC to metal attachment ................................................ 145
Figure 70.23-5 X-38 body flap: Ceramic bearing .............................................................. 146
Figure 70.23-6 X-38 body flap: Ceramic dynamic seal ..................................................... 147
Figure 70.24-1 X-38 Nose assembly................................................................................. 148
Figure 70.24-2 - X-38 Nose assembly: Thermal profiles...................................................... 149
Figure 70.24-3 X-38 Nose assembly: Flexible insulation distribution................................ 150
Figure 70.24-4 X-38 Nose assembly: Flexible insulation assembly .................................. 151
Figure 70.24-5 X-38 Nose cap with insulation mounted on vehicle nose structure........... 153
Figure 70.25-1 Deployable CMC hot structures - Mars ISRU mission .............................. 156
Figure 71.2-1 - TPS concepts .............................................................................................. 169
Figure 71.2-2 - Principal passive thermal control architectures ........................................... 170
Figure 71.3-1 - Galileo entry probe ...................................................................................... 172
Figure 71.4-1 - Ablatives: Basic decomposition mechanisms .............................................. 173
Figure 71.4-2 - CARINA: General layout.............................................................................. 175
Figure 71.5-1 - Orbiter: Design surface temperatures (C) in ascent and re-entry
trajectories ......................................................................................................... 177
Figure 71.5-2 - Orbiter: TPS - Thermal protection systems ................................................. 178
Figure 71.5-3 - Orbiter: RSI system configuration................................................................ 181
Figure 71.6-1 - BURAN: External thermal protection ........................................................... 183
Figure 71.7-1 - TPS: ACC multi-post stand-off concept ....................................................... 185
Figure 71.8-1 - TPS: Multiwall panel scheme....................................................................... 189
Figure 71.10-1 - TPS: IMI design concept............................................................................ 194
Figure 71.11-1 - TPS: Schematic of FEI blanket.................................................................. 198
Figure 71.11-2 - TPS: IFI internal flexible insulation blanket................................................ 207
Figure 71.11-3 - TPS: IFI blanket configuration in X-38 nose cap ....................................... 208
Figure 71.12-1 - TPS: Hermes CMC shingle support cross-section .................................... 209
Figure 71.12-2 SPFI surface protected flexible insulation panel ....................................... 213
Figure 71.12-3 SPFI Surface protected flexible insulation: Design ................................... 214
Figure 71.12-4 SPFI: Summary of thermal performance .................................................. 216
Figure 71.12-5 SPFI: Thermal performance during vehicle re-entry and landing ............. 217
Figure 71.12-6 SPFI: Structural performance - Shaker test .............................................. 219
Figure 71.12-7 SPFI: Structural performance spectral distribution and OASPL ............ 220
Figure 71.12-8 SPFI: SHEFEX TPS demonstrator ........................................................... 223
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Figure 71.13-1 - Heat pipe: Operation principle for leading edge cooling ............................ 224
Figure 71.13-2 - Heat pipe: Wing leading edge design for advanced space
transportation system ........................................................................................ 226
Figure 71.13-3 - Heat pipe: NASP wing leading edge.......................................................... 227
Figure 71.14-1 - Convective cooling systems ...................................................................... 228
Figure 71.14-2 - Cooled structure: Design concepts............................................................ 229
Figure 71.14-3 - NASP: SiC-Ti-Titanium aluminide D-groove panel .................................... 230
Figure 71.15-1 - Cassini-Huygens: Exploded view .............................................................. 232
Figure 71.15-2 - Cassini-Huygens: Beryllium TPS design solution...................................... 232
Figure 71.17-1 - CHA - Ceramic heatshield assembly ......................................................... 236
Figure 71.17-2 CHA: Insulation and bolt assembly ........................................................... 237
Figure 71.17-3 CHA-element: Temperature profiles during full mission testing................ 241
Figure 71.17-4 MIRKA/FOTON: Configuration.................................................................. 243
Figure 71.18-1 Aeroshell: Design concept ........................................................................ 247
Figure 71.18-2 Aeroshell: SIAT test model assembled cross-section............................... 248
Figure 71.18-3 Aeroshell: Down-scaled demonstrator design features ............................ 249
Figure 71.19-1 TPS panel array concept: Cryogenic tanks............................................... 256
Figure 71.19-2 Cryogenic insulation: LH tank concepts.................................................... 257
Figure 71.23-1 - TPS: Flow diagram of HTI development testing for X-38 nose cap
assembly............................................................................................................ 269
Figure 71.23-2 - TPS: HTI temperature gradient test set-up, parameters and sample
configuration ...................................................................................................... 273
Figure 72.2-1 - SPF/DB: Two sheet configuration................................................................ 285
Figure 72.2-2 - SPF/DB: Three sheet configuration ............................................................. 286
Figure 72.2-3 - SPF/DB: Four sheet configuration ............................................................... 287
Figure 72.4-1 - Superplastic forming: Strain rate sensitivity in formability trials on Ti
alloy IMI 834 ...................................................................................................... 289
Figure 72.6-1 - SPF/DB titanium alloy: Slat track and jack for Airbus A310......................... 291
Figure 72.6-2 - SPF/DB Ti: A310 underwing access door locations .................................... 292
Figure 72.9-1 - SPF/DB: Principle of four-sheet technique for leading edge ....................... 294
Figure 73.5-1 - Vulcain engine: Schematic diagram ............................................................ 300
Figure 73.6-1 - Ariane 4 HM 7 engine: Thrust chamber....................................................... 302
Figure 73.10-1 - NASP: Modified government baseline engine configuration...................... 305
Figure 73.11-1 - Rocket stator CMC components................................................................ 306
Figure 74.3-1 - Coatings: Properties of coating, substrate and interface ............................. 313
Figure 74.10-1 - Multiplex coatings: Basic configuration...................................................... 323
Figure 74.10-2 - C-C multiplex coatings: Crack and sealing mechanisms ........................... 324
Figure 74.12-1 Coatings: Dimensionally stable carbon-carbon concept ........................ 327
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Figure 74.12-2 Coatings: Dimensionally stable carbon-carbon Potential materials ....... 328
Figure 74.12-3 Coatings: Dimensionally stable carbon-carbon Manufacturing
method............................................................................................................... 330
Figure 75.3-1 Elastomers: Schematic of crosslinked rubber molecular network............... 337
Figure 75.3-2 Elastomers: Typical tensile strength at 23................................................. 340
Figure 75.3-3 Elastomers: Typical tensile strength at 100C ............................................ 341
Figure 75.3-4 Elastomers: Viscoelasticity hysteresis effect ........................................... 344
Figure 75.3-5 Elastomers: Creep of a weighted rubber strip............................................. 350
Figure 75.3-6 Elastomers: Creep of a weighted rubber strip (logarithmic time) ................ 350
Figure 75.3-7 Elastomers: Effect of sample thickness on oxidation rate at 110C............ 351
Figure 75.3-8 Elastomers: Arrhenius plot example ........................................................... 354
Figure 75.3-9 Elastomers: Simple rubber block in shear .................................................. 355
Figure 75.3-10 Elastomers: Increasing compression stiffness by lamination.................... 357
Figure 75.3-11 Elastomers: Elastomeric torsion disc ........................................................ 358
Figure 75.4-1 - Metal seals: 'C' profile and serpentine ......................................................... 362
Figure 75.5-1 - NASP: Ceramic wafer seal .......................................................................... 363
Figure 75.5-2 - NASP: Braided rope seal............................................................................. 364
Figure 76.7-1 - Integrity control for high-temperature applications: Study logic ................... 376
Figure 76.7-2 - Integrity control for high temperature applications: Approach ..................... 376
Figure 78.2-1 - Whisker and particle reinforced MMC: Fatigue response............................ 394
Figure 78.4-1 - MMC potential failure mechanisms under cyclic loading ............................. 395
Figure 78.4-2 - Failure modes of MMC ................................................................................ 396
Figure 78.4-3 - MMC: Fatigue response showing matrix failure........................................... 397
Figure 81.5-1 - Coupon testing: Scanning laser extensometry system................................ 417
Figure 81.6-1 - CMC high temperature tensile testing: CEN recommended sample
types .................................................................................................................. 420
Tables
Table 64.3-1 - Modulus mismatch in composites: Examples ................................................. 31
Table 64.3-2 - CTE mismatch in composites: Examples........................................................ 32
Table 65.1-1 - Particulate reinforced MMCs........................................................................... 41
Table 66.1-1 - Fibre reinforced MMC ..................................................................................... 53
Table 66.3-1 - Ti/SiC MMC: Calculated stresses ................................................................... 56
Table 67.1-1 - Inorganic/ceramic matrix composites.............................................................. 59
Table 69.9-1 Summary of high temperature materials technologies: Flight-vehicle
dependent............................................................................................................ 90
Table 69.9-2 Summary of high temperature materials technologies: Non-flight
vehicle dependent................................................................................................ 93
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Table 69.9-3 Summary of high temperature materials technologies: European
expertise .............................................................................................................. 95
Table 70.23-1 X-38 body flap: Mechanical fasteners properties .................................... 144
Table 71.1-1 - TPS: Summary of candidate characteristics ................................................. 166
Table 71.1-2 - TPS and Thermo-structural designs: Material classes ................................. 167
Table 71.3-1 Early re-entry capsules: TPS mass fractions ............................................... 171
Table 71.4-1 Ablative TPS: ALS051 properties................................................................. 176
Table 71.5-1 - Orbiter: TPS material temperature limits....................................................... 179
Table 71.5-2 - TPS: RSI Typical Properties ......................................................................... 180
Table 71.7-1 Aerotiss 2.5D coated carbon-carbon: Properties........................................ 186
Table 71.7-2 CMC carbon-silicon carbide: Various TPS programmes and
applications........................................................................................................ 187
Table 71.7-3 CMC TPS: MAN carbon-silicon carbide - Properties ................................... 188
Table 71.10-1 - TPS: IMI material candidates for different applications............................... 194
Table 71.10-2 TPS: Summary - IMI characterisation test results...................................... 197
Table 71.11-1 - TPS: Mechanical loads and sources on FEI components .......................... 199
Table 71.11-2 FEI-TPS product range .............................................................................. 200
Table 71.11-3 TPS: FEI nominal flutter test envelopes..................................................... 204
Table 71.11-4 FEI-TPS: Summary of verified performances ............................................ 206
Table 71.12-1 Hermes TPS REI-shingle mass breakdown............................................... 210
Table 71.12-2 TETRA/X-38 TPS: C-SiC panel qualification test matrix............................ 211
Table 71.12-3 - TETRA/X-38 TPS: Shingle qualification test matrix .................................... 212
Table 71.12-4 - SPFI: Thermal property evaluation ............................................................. 221
Table 71.17-1 CHA: Subcomponents mass breakdown ................................................... 238
Table 71.17-2 - SEPCARB-INOX 272-01: Properties .......................................................... 239
Table 71.17-3 CHA: Functional test matrix ....................................................................... 240
Table 71.17-4 ALSCAP: Thermo-physical data for C/SiC................................................. 246
Table 71.18-1 - Aeroshell demonstrator: Predicted and actual temperatures...................... 250
Table 71.19-1 Cryogenic insulation: Technical considerations for LH tank concepts ....... 257
Table 71.22-1 - Cryogenic insulation: Polymer foam candidate materials ........................... 261
Table 71.22-2 - Cryogenic insulation: Polymer foam mechanical properties ....................... 263
Table 71.22-3 Cryogenic insulation: Ranking criteria and values ..................................... 264
Table 71.23-1 - TPS: HTI development tests for X-38 nose cap assembly ......................... 268
Table 71.23-2 - TPS: HTI candidate materials ..................................................................... 270
Table 71.23-3 - TPS: HTI thermal stability test results......................................................... 271
Table 72.4-1 - Titanium alloys: Superplastic characteristics ................................................ 288
Table 75.3-1 Elastomers: Typical glass transition temperatures....................................... 338
Table 75.3-2 Elastomers: Summary of common materials and characteristics ................ 340
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Table 76.6-1 - Integrity control parameters for new materials.............................................. 375
Table 77.3-1 - MMC: Typical material defects...................................................................... 385
Table 77.4-1 - CMC: Typical material defects ...................................................................... 386
Table 77.5-1 - Coating materials: Typical defects ................................................................ 387
Table 77.6-1 - Fusion joints: Example of techniques and use.............................................. 388
Table 77.6-2 - Fused joints: Defects .................................................................................... 388
Table 77.7-1 - Defects in composite materials after further processing ............................... 389
Table 77.8-1 - Typical in-service defects.............................................................................. 390
Table 78.2-1 - MMC: Effect of particle size on fatigue and fracture toughness.................... 394
Table 78.6-1 - Coatings: Damage tolerance aspects ........................................................... 398
Table 80.3-1 - NDI techniques for MMCs............................................................................. 404
Table 80.4-1 - NDI techniques for defect detection and measurement of C-C and
CMC materials ................................................................................................... 405
Table 80.4-2 - Technical and economical aspects of NDI techniques ................................. 406
Table 80.5-1 - Coatings: Inspection techniques ................................................................... 407
Table 80.7-1 - Fused joints: Inspection techniques.............................................................. 408
Table 80.7-2 - Standards for inspection of welded tubes ..................................................... 409
Table 81.9-1 - Test methods: CEN standards for advanced technical ceramic
composites......................................................................................................... 425
Table 81.9-2 - Test methods: CEN standards for advanced technical ceramics -
monolithic........................................................................................................... 426
Table 81.9-3 - Test methods: CEN standards for advanced technical ceramics -
coatings ............................................................................................................. 427
Table 81.9-4 - Test methods: CEN standards for advanced technical ceramics
others................................................................................................................. 427
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Introduction
TheStructuralmaterialshandbook,ECSSEHB3220,ispublishedin8Parts.
Aglossaryofterms,definitionsandabbreviatedtermsforthesehandbooksiscontainedinPart8.
Thepartsareasfollows:
Part1 Overviewandmaterialpropertiesandapplications Clauses19
Part2 Designcalculationmethodsandgeneraldesignaspects Clauses1022
Part3 Loadtransferanddesignofjointsanddesignofstructures Clauses2332
Part4 Integritycontrol,verificationguidelinesandmanufacturing Clauses3345
Part5 Newadvancedmaterials,advancedmetallicmaterials, Clauses4663
generaldesignaspectsandloadtransferanddesignofjoints
Part6 Fractureandmaterialmodelling,casestudiesanddesignand Clauses6481
integritycontrolandinspection
Part7 Thermalandenvironmentalintegrity,manufacturingaspects, Clauses82107
inorbitandhealthmonitoring,softmaterials,hybrid
materialsandnanotechnoligies
Part8 Glossary
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64
Behaviour of advanced composites
64.1 Introduction
The fracture behaviour of metallic and ceramic matrix composites is more complex than that of
unreinforced alloys or monolithic ceramics. The fracture characteristics of the more isotropic
variants are now well understood and predictive models are widely accepted, e.g. Linear Elastic
FractureMechanics(LEFM),[Seealso:ECSSE3201Fracturecontrol].
Fornewercompositematerials,attemptshavebeenmadetodescribeandpredicttheirbehaviourby
extending the models for their more isotropic counterparts. Success has been limited by the
anisotropy of the composites, especially for those with continuous fibres. In reality, anisotropic
metallic and ceramic composites need to be considered as new classes of materials. Some CMC
materials, destined for use in TPS on reusable vehicles, have been investigated for appropriate
selectionanduseoffailurecriteria,[See:64.5].
Metal matrix composites are particularly difficult as they show elasticplastic deformation
characteristics,wherethedegreeofplasticdeformationisinfluencedbymanyfactors.
Ceramiccompositesareelasticinbehaviour,althoughaccumulatedmatrixmicrocrackinggivesnon
lineardeformationcharacteristics.Thesecompositesaredesirablebecauseoftheirhightemperature
operatingcapabilities.
Thischaptercoversthreediscretegroupsofcomposites:
Particulatereinforcedmetals(MMCp).
Fibrereinforcedmetals(MMCf).
Inorganicceramicmatrixcomposites(ICMCf).
Whiskerreinforcedmetalsorceramicsarenotexplicitlycoveredbecausetheyareprimarilyofnon
EuropeanoriginandinsomeEuropeancountrieswhiskersarethoughttopresenthealthhazards.
The different fracture behaviours of each are described. In particular, the interrelation between
residual stresses and thermomechanical fatigue effects is highlighted. As materials are pushed
towardstheirphysicalandchemicallimits,theshortertheperiodthattheycansustainthecombined
effectsofthermalcycling,mechanicalandthermalstressesandoxidation.
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64.2 Summary of material behaviour
64.2.1 Metal matrix composites
64.2.1.1 Particulate reinforced (MMCp)

Thisgroupconsistsmainlyofaluminiummatrixcomposites.Thelevelsofparticulateadditionare
normally in the range of 10 vol.% to 20 vol.% in order to retain the metallic characteristics of
ductility,fracturetoughnessandformability.
Featuresinclude:
10vol.%to20vol.%particulatereinforcement
Basicallyisotropicinmacrocompositionandcanbecomparedwithconventionalalloys,e.g.
LEFM
Initially elastic materials at low strains, then elasticplastic to plastic, with limited ductility
(4%to8%maximum).
Failure determined by particulatetomatrix adhesion and matrix microstructure plus heat
treatment.
Highparticulatecontents(>20%)showverypoorfracturetoughness
64.2.1.2 Fibre reinforced (MMCf)

Compositesaremainlybasedonaluminiumandtitanium,althoughcopper,nickel(superalloy)and
magnesiumvariantshavesomespaceapplications.
ThefracturebehaviourofcontinuousfibreMMCfmaterialsisverydifferenttothoseofMMCpand
conventionalalloys.Theyarehighlyanisotropic,withverylowfailurestrains.Inthisrespectthey
aremorecloselyalignedtoCFRPmaterials,butthematrixdoesdisplayelasticplasticcharacteristics
as opposed to elastic. High processing temperatures result in high residual stresses within the
composite.
Featuresinclude:
35vol.%to50vol.%fibrereinforcement.
Nodirectcomparisonwiththefracturebehaviourofconventionalalloyscanbemade.
Highlyanisotropic,lowstraintofailurematerials.
Fullyelastictoverylowstrains,thencomplexelasticplasticbehaviour.
FailurecharacteristicsclosertoCFRPthanalloys.
Propertiesdeterminedbyinsitufibrestrengthandmodesttransversestrengthsbetweenfibre
andmatrix.
Bothmatrixmicrostructureandheattreatmentareimportant.
The presence of reinforcement can change the microstructure of the matrix and alter the
matrixyieldstrength.
Fibretomatrixadhesionisveryimportant.
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64.2.2 Inorganic ceramic matrix composites
64.2.2.1 Fibre reinforced (ICMCf)

Thegroupofmaterialsincludes:
GMC,
GCMC,
CMC,and
CC.
These materials do not display the classic brittle, low straintofailure and catastrophic fracture
behaviour of monolithic ceramics. Instead they rely on multiple crack stoppers at the fibrematrix
interfaces to avoid catastrophic failure. Such materials can function with high levels of
microcrackinginthermostructuralroles,i.e.wherethermalshockresistanceandmodeststrengths
arerequired.
Featuresinclude:
30vol.%to50vol.%fibrereinforcement.
Nodirectcomparisonwithmonolithicceramicscanbemade.
Highlyanisotropicwithmodeststrengthcharacteristics.
Possesshightemperature,insulative,thermalshockandthermocycliccapabilities.
Benignfracturecharacteristicsexhibiteddespitelowoverallstraintofailure.
Fibre to matrix interface is very important as poor bonding is essential and provides a de
couplingmechanism.
[Seealso:64.4;64.5]
64.3 Significant behavioural characteristics
64.3.1 General
Inordertounderstandthebehaviourofmetalandceramiccomposites,thesignificanceofsomeof
theirbasiccharacteristicshastobeconsidered.
64.3.2 Modulus mismatch

In most composites, the matrix and reinforcement (particulate or fibre) have different moduli (E).
Table64.3.1showssomerepresentativeexamples.
Whenexternalloadisapplied,thestressessustainedbythematrixandreinforcementrespectively
aredeterminedbytheratiooftheirmoduliandtheirrespectivevolumefractions.
Thestressstrainresponseofcompositesisdependentonthecombinedcontributionsofthematrix
andreinforcement.TheLawofMixturesappliestotheinitialmodulusofthecompositeprovided
thatalltheconstituentsbehaveelastically.
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With MMC and CMC materials, true linear elasticity exists only at very low strain levels. As the
strainincreases,oneormoreeffectscanoccur:
Plasticdeformationofthematrix(MMC).
Matrixfailure,i.e.microcracking(CMC).
Accumulationofmicrocrackswithorwithoutmatrixtoreinforcementinterfacefailure(MMC
andCMC).
Particulatefractureandplasticflowofmatrix(MMCp).
Ultimatefibrefailure(MMCfandCMC).
With CMC materials, accumulated matrix microcracking can give apparent nonlinear and non
elasticbehaviour,eventhoughtheconstituentmaterialsarethemselvesbehavingelastically.
Table64.31Modulusmismatchincomposites:Examples
Composite
Em Mismatchratio
Matrix Vm Reinforceme Ef Vf
(GPa (EmVm/EfVf)
type (%) nt type (GPa) (%)
)
Al 72 80 SiCp 400 20 0.72
Al 72 60 Cf 240 40 0.45
Ti 110 60 SiCf 390 40 0.42
SiC 400 60 SiCf 193 40 3.1
Glass 75 60 SiCf 193 40 0.58
Key Thelowerthevalue,thegreaterthecontributionbythereinforcementinsustainingstresses
underelasticconditions.
Also,thelowerthevalue,thegreaterthecompressivestressesretainedinthereinforcement
oncooling.This,inturn,increasestheresidualstressesinthematrixwhenthereisaCTE
mismatchbetweenreinforcementandmatrix.
TheSiCSiCcompositeisunliketheothersinhavingamatrixwithamodulussignificantly
greaterthanthereinforcement.
64.3.3 Matrix-to-reinforcement interface

Theeffectivestrengthoftheinterfacebondbetweenmatrixandreinforcementisacriticalfactorin
determiningtheoverallcompositefracturebehaviour,Ref.[641].
Conflictingrequirementsexistbetweentheneedforgood,strongandpoor,weakbonding.
Good bonding in theory enables the maximum strength of the reinforcement to be utilised.
However,inMMCandCMCmaterials,goodbondingisalsosynonymouswithfibresurface
degradation through chemical diffusion mechanisms with the matrix. This causes a loss in
fibrestrength.
Poor bonding is essential in CMC materials to promote decoupling between the fibre and
matrixinordertoachievebenignfracturebehaviour,i.e.acceptablefracturetoughness.
AcompromiseShouldbesoughttomeetthespecificfeaturesofeachcomposite.
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64.3.4 In-situ fibre strength

All reinforcing fibres have attractive tensile strengths before being incorporated into composites
(2000MPato7000MPa).Inreality,itisextremelydifficulttofullyutilisethispotentialinMMCand
CMCcomposites.Theactualinsitustrengthcontributionmadebythefibresisinfluencedby:
Fibretomatrixadhesion(interface).
Fibredegradationcausedby:
compositemanufacturing,
chemicaldiffusion,or
attackbyaggressiveenvironmentalexposure,e.g.oxidation.
The fibres insitu tensile strength can be reduced to20% to 70%of theoretical strength. This level
can be even lower in poorly constituted composites (poor materials selection) or composites with
severeenvironmentaldegradation,e.g.thermooxidative.
64.3.5 CTE mismatch

Thecoefficientofthermalexpansion(CTE)formatrixandreinforcementaredifferent.Forametallic
matrix with a ceramic reinforcement the difference is considerable. The matrix usually has the
higherexpansion,asshowninTable64.3.2.
ReinforcementfibrespossesshigherCTEsinthetransversethaninthelongitudinaldirection.
The significance of the CTE mismatch centres on the residual stresses induced on cooling because
the matrix is contracting more than the reinforcement. The matrix experiences retained tensile
stresses whilst the reinforcement is under compression. Composites with significant mismatches
between their constituents CTE and moduli are particularly susceptible to high residual tensile
stressesinthematrixphase.
Table64.32CTEmismatchincomposites:Examples
Composite CTEmismatch Process
Matrix CTEm Reinforceme CTEr (CTEmCTEr) temperature
type (10-6C-1) nt type (10-6C-1) (C)
Al 23 SiCp 5 18 650
Al 23 Cf -1 24 650
Ti 9 SiCf 3.5 5.5 900
C (PG) 2 Cf -1 3 1100 - 2000
SiC 5 SiCf 3.1 2.9 1200
Glass 8 SiCf 3.1 4.9 800
Key IdeallytheCTEmismatchshouldbeassmallaspossible.
AluminiumalloyshaveveryhighCTEvaluesandcombiningthemwithcarbonfibrescreatesa
significantCTEmismatch.Theresidualtensilestressesinthealuminiumoncooling
arecompoundedbythisandthelowEmVm/EfVfvalue,[See:Table64.3.1].
WhereCTEmismatchissmaller,e.g.SiC/SiCandC/C,thiscompensatesforthelarge
temperaturerangebetweenprocessingtoambient.
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64.3.6 Thermal history and residual stresses

Thethermalhistoryofacompositeisimportantindeterminingfracturebehaviour,Ref.[641].The
processingorformingtemperatureestablishesthelevelofresidualstresseswhencooledtoambient.
Subambienttemperaturesinducegreaterresidualstresses.Exceedingtheprocessingtemperatureof
ceramic composites reverses the stressing to compression in the matrix and tension in the
reinforcement.
With metals, the use of heat treatments can alter the matrix microstructure and alleviate residual
stressing.ResidualstressescaninfluencethecreepbehaviourofMMCmaterials.Excessivethermal
shock, persistent thermal cyclinganduneven heating are furthermechanismsof relievinginternal
stressesthroughtheformationofmicrocracking,matrixyieldinganddelaminations.
64.3.7 Multiple cracking
64.3.7.1 Fibre reinforced materials

The majority of MMC and CMC materials experience multiple cracking phenomena during
progressive fracture in the unnotched condition. Matrix microcracks, ply cracking, voidage and
delaminationcanreachhighpopulationdensitieswiththecompositestillsustainingusefulapplied
loads.
64.3.7.2 Particulate reinforced materials

Only particulate MMC materials show fracture behaviours close to the single crack mechanism of
alloys conforming to the LEFM philosophy. Where notched specimens are used to characterise
toughness,crackingbecomesmorelocalisedatthepointofmaximumstress.
64.3.8 Thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF)

ForMMCandCMCmaterials,potentialusesareapplicationsexperiencingbothmechanicalloading
andthermalcycling.
As temperature excursions affect residual stresses within the composite, they can have a
compounding effect when coupled with external mechanical loads, Ref. [642], [643], [644].
Materialbehaviourcanbestronglyinfluenceddependingonwhetherthermalstressesandapplied
stressesareinphaseoroutofphasewitheachother,[See:47.9foranexampleofTMFoftitanium
matrixcomposites].
64.4 Basic fracture characteristics
64.4.1 General
Anexamplefromeachgroupofcompositesdemonstratestheirbasicfracturecharacteristicsbecause
theyaffecttensilestressstrainbehaviour.Thestressstraincurvesareidealisedrepresentationsand
cannotbeusedfordesigndata.
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64.4.2 Particulate reinforced MMC

Figure64.4.1representsthestressstrainbehaviourofaparticulatereinforcedaluminiumalloy,with
17vol.%siliconcarbideparticles.
Figure64.41Representativestressstraincurve:ParticulatereinforcedMMC
Thematerialiselasticatverylowstrainlevelswithbothmatrixandparticleselasticallydeforming
inunison.Overalllinearelasticityisonlyexhibitedtostrainlevelsaslowas0.2%to0.4%,whereas
anunreinforcedalloycanbeexpectedtobeelastictoapproximately0.5%.Abovetheelasticlimit,
permanent deformation and plastic behaviour of some form is shown. The initial deformation
process can be difficult to establish. As strain levels exceed 0.5%, a massive accumulation of
deformationfeaturesmakesthepictureveryconfusing.However,importantfeaturesare:
Theparticlesthemselveshaveanindividualstraintofailurelessthanapproximately0.2%.It
is therefore impossible for them to continue straining elastically beyond this level.
Consequentlytheyeitherfractureordebondfromthematrixenablingthematrixtocontinue
deforming.
ThematrixretainsresidualstressesduetoCTEmismatchbeforeanyexternalloadisapplied.
Thematrixcanthereforebeexpectedtostartyielding(plasticallydeforming)atloweroverall
appliedstrain,i.e.lessthanthe0.5%ofunreinforcedalloys.Matrixbehaviourisdominantin
MMCpmaterials.
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Thisbehaviourisimportantwhenstatingmechanicalproperties:
Tensilemodulus:quotedastheinitial,secantortangentialvalue.
Yieldstrength.Forconventionalalloys,the0.2%offsetyieldvalueisusedagainsttheinitial
linearelasticportionofthestressstraincurve.
[See:Chapter65forfurtherdetailsofMMCpmaterials]
64.4.3 Fibre reinforced MMC

Figure 64.4.2 uses continuous silicon carbide monofilament reinforced titanium as the example to
representtheMMCfgroup.
Figure64.42Representativestressstraincurves:Monofilamentreinforced
MMC
Theoverallcompositefailurestrainsarelowbecausetheyarefibredominated.Bothunidirectional
and bidirectional materials exhibit initial linear elastic behaviour. The UD composite shows a
gradual reduction in modulus as the overall failure point is approached. This modulus reduction
can be explained by the onset of matrix yielding and low level individual fibre failure. The 0/90
compositeshowsareductioninmodulusatamuchlowerstrainlevel.Itcorrespondstotransverse
plyfailurethroughdebondingofthefibrematrixinterface.Thisequatestothefirstplyfailure(FPF)
phenomenonseeninCFRPmaterialswherethe90pliesfailfirst.
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For Ti/SiC materials, the FPF weakness is particularly sensitive to the residualmatrix stresses and
brittlenatureofthefibrematrixinterface.
64.4.4 Fibre reinforced CMC

With ICMCf materials, the generic grouping covers brittle elastic matrices combined with brittle
elasticfibres.ThestressstraincurveinFigure64.4.3depictsamultidirectionalSiCSiCmaterial.The
composite modulus is therefore very high. If a glass or carbon matrix were used, an appreciably
lowercompositemoduliresults.
Figure64.43Representativestressstraincurves:BidirectionalSiCSiC
composite
This group of composites are always used in with multidirectional (3D or nD) reinforcements
becausetransversetensilestrengthsareverylow.
Thecompositetensilestrengthisverymuchdependentontheinsitufibrestrengthandtheability
todecouplefibreandmatrix.Thetrulylinearelasticregionofthesecompositesisverysmall.The
majorityofthestressstraincurvedepictstheaccumulationofamassivemicrocrackingpopulation
withthemoduluscontributionbythematrixdiminishingasultimatefailureisapproached.
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64.4.5 Defining design values
64.4.5.1 General
Withallthemetalandceramicmatrixcomposites,theissueofdefiningdesignvaluesformodulus,
strengthandpermissiblestrainneedscloseexamination.
A compromise is applied between attainable modulus and strength demands. Stiffness realisation
against strength retention is an important issue as significant overall stiffness loss can be
experienced at higher stress levels. The loss of stiffness results from some form of permanent
deformationordamageinthematrixphase.
64.4.5.2 Failure criteria

Comparedwithpolymerbasedcomposites,confidenceinestablishingandtheuseoffailurecriteria
formetalandceramicbasedcompositesislower.
The problem arises because the MMCs and CMCs are not as widelyused in space structures as
fibrereinforcedpolymercomposites.Consequently,theknowledgebaseismuchreducedandtends
to be limited to a small number of organisations. The material applications usually have more
hostileconditionsthanforfibrereinforcedplastics,e.g.hotstructuresmadeofCMCs.Thematerials
themselvesarecomplexandtheiroverallcharacteristicsarehighlyprocessingdependent,Ref.[64
5].
Design guidelines have been established for the appropriate use of failure criteria during space
structure design as part of an ESTECfunded study on failure criteria for nonmetallic materials,
conductedinGermanybyHPSandDLR,Ref.[647].
TheESTECstudycoveredFRP,[See:11.8]andCMC,[See:64.5].
64.5 Failure criteria for CMC
64.5.1 Introduction
As part of an ESTECfunded study on failure criteria for nonmetallic materials, conducted in
Germany by HPS and DLR, design guidelines have been established for the appropriate use of
failurecriteriaduringthedesignphasesofspacestructures,Ref.[645],[646],[647].
64.5.2 Design aspects
64.5.2.1 General
Design guidelines have been established based on structural configuration examples from the
TETRA/X38nosecapdesigndevelopment.ThisusedCC/SiCgradesofCMCmaterialdeveloped
byDLR,Ref.[647].
[Seealso:70.24]
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64.5.2.2 Materials
The CC/SiC composite materials investigated are produced by DLR using the LSI (liquid silicon
infiltration)process.Gradesofmaterial,withdifferentcharacteristics,areproducedbyvaryingthe
fibre preconditioning and processing parameters. For TPStype applications, the main grades are
designatedasXBorXT.AfurthergradeofXTisusedformechanicalfasteners(bolts),Ref.[647].
64.5.2.3 Failure loads

Although some specificallyderived failure criteria for CMCs exist, the criteria applied to polymer
compositesarealsoused.Ofthese,eithermaximumstressormaximumstraintendstobethefirst
choice.ClassicalcriteriabasedoncontiniummechanicsarenotalwaysappropriateforCMCs,Ref.
[646].
VariousfailurecriteriausedforpolymercompositeswereappliedtoCMCmaterials.Ofthese,some
performed better than others, e.g. ZTLhypothesis provides more realistic values than TsaiWu.
PuckappearsinappropriateforCMCsbecauseofthedifferenceinfailuremodesexhibitedbyCMCs
comparedwithFRPs,Ref.[646].Anexampleofacomparativefailurecurve,withhightemperature
experimentaldataisshowninFigure64.5.1,Ref.[646].
Figure64.51Failurecriteria:Comparisonbetweenpredictedfailurecurvesfor
CC/SiCcompositeswithexperimentaldata
SinceCMCmaterialpropertiestendtoimprovewithtemperature,theuseofRTgenerateddatacan
provideaconservativeestimateoftheperformanceofhotstructures,Ref.[646].
Based on the evaluation of DLRs materials, a practical approach to estimate the failure loads
appears to be the maximum stress criterion, whichis similar to that usedformonolithic ceramics.
The significant difference is that the Weibull modulus is completely different. This means that
designersneedreliablestrengthvaluesratherthanthestatisticallyderivedprobabilityvaluesused
formonolithicceramics,Ref.[646],[647].
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64.5.2.4 Test and analysis
A new test approach was developed and evaluated to confirm the assumption about failure load
data,Ref.[646],[647].
Theoutcomeofthisphaseoftheworkwasanhourglassshapedtestspecimen,asshowninFigure
64.5.2, Ref. [646]. The results using this showed reasonable consistency with the maximum stress
criterion and enabled combinations of tension and shear load interaction, such as the conditions
foundatloadintroductionpoints.Hence,itenablesafullsetoftestdatatobegeneratedwithinthe
range(+1/+12),Ref.[646],[647].
FEM model of hour-glass Fractured hour-glass test specimen

test specimen in high-temperature test rig

Figure64.52Failurecriteria:HourglasstestspecimenforCC/SiCcomposites
64.5.2.5 Load introduction points

TomeettheNASAstipulationofavoidingdamagetotheX38CMCshell,jointrelateddesignswere
studiedindetail.Thisenabledaseriesofdesignguidelinestobeestablished,Ref.[647]:
Permanentjoints:
castable,whichisacombinationofanadhesivelybondedandpottedconnection,using
a hightemperature ceramicbased compound; an approach used in the CETEX
programme.
bolted joints, where the component parts of the mechanical fasteners were made of
CMC.
Nonpermanent joints, i.e. ceramic rivettype, which enable inspection, maintenance and
repairoftheTPSonRLVs.
Elastic joints, e.g. CMC standoff concept developed under the FESTIP programme. These
connectionsretainsomeflexibilityinordertocopewiththermalmismatchbetweentheCMC
TPSandtheproposedCFRPorAlLialloycryotankstructures.
Kinematicjoints,e.g.X38nosecapattachment,whichneededtocopewiththermalmismatch
betweentheTPSandthealuminiumalloysubstructure,butwhichwasnotfeasibleusingthe
FESTIPelasticjoint(standoff)configuration.
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Inthedesignofelasticandkinematicjoints,theaimistoobtainasuitablecompromisebetweenthe
thermalexpansionpropertiesoftheCMCsandthesupportstructure,usuallymadefromlightalloy
(flexibility),whilstretainingsufficientmechanicalperformance(stiffness)undermechanicalloading.
64.6 References
64.6.1 General
[641] M.Taya&R.J.Arsenault
MetalMatrixComposites:ThermomechanicalBehaviour
PergamonPress,1989,ISBN0080369839
[642] T.Fujitaetal
TemperatureDependentTensileandShearResponseofP100/6061
GraphiteAluminium
ASTMSTP1080,1990,p165182
[643] J.J.Schubbe&ShankarMall
DamageMechanismsinaCrossPlyMetalMatrixCompositeunder
ThermalMechanicalCycling;ICCM8,p20/B/19,1991
[644] H.Sehitoglu&M.Karayaka
ThermoMechanicalFatigueofAlSiCpComposites
Proceedingsofthe4thInternationalConferenceonFatigueandFatigue
Thresholds,July1990,Vol.3,p16931698
[645] C.Kaiseretal:HPS/DLR/KayserThrede/ESTEC
FailurecriteriaforFRPandCMC:Theory,Experimentsand
Guidelines
ProceedingsoftheEuropeanConferenceonSpacecraftStructures,
MaterialsandMechanicalTesting,ESTEC,Noordwijk,NL1012May
2005,ESASP581CDROM
[646] C.Kaiseretal:HPS/DLR/InventGmbH/ESTEC
FailurecriteriaforNonmetallicmaterials:PartIICeramicMatrix
Composites
ProceedingsofECCMIII,Rhodes,Greece,MayJune2004
[647] C.Kaiser&H.Weihs:HPS/DLR(D)
FailureCriteriaforNonmetallicMaterials:CMCFailureCriteria
Guidelines
ContractorReportNo.FAILDLRTN001(Issue1),March2005
ESTECContractNo.16162/02/NL/CP
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65
Particulate reinforced metals
65.1 Introduction
65.1.1 Materials
65.1.1.1 General
ThemostcommonmaterialsareshowninTable65.1.1.
Table65.11ParticulatereinforcedMMCs
Matrix Particulate Sources
A217 and A817 (BP Composites)
Al SiC
Duralcan (Alcan)
[See:46.13formaterialproperties]
65.1.1.2 Microstructure
Theacceptedmicrostructuralfeatureswhichcaninfluencefracturebehaviourare:
Insitu matrix yield strength (for solution heattreatable alloys with precipitation hardening
mechanisms)
Dispersionstrengthening,e.g.ODSwithparticlessubmicroninsize,0.01mto0.1m.
Smallparticulatesinthe2mto3mrange.
Largeparticulatesintherange10mto20mrange.
65.1.2 Composites
65.1.2.1 Matrix
Matrixselectioncanaffectthecompositebehaviour.Compositescanbepreparedthatoutperform
thebasealloy,providingthatsomebasicguidelinesarefollowed.
Thecompositemodulus,yieldstrengthandUTSreflectthatatleast80%byvolumeofthecomposite
ismatrix.
Analuminiummatrixislikelytobea2XXX,7XXXseries,aluminiumlithium,ODS,wroughtorcast
alloy,[See:Chapter46].Heattreatmentsandmechanicalworkingarealsoinfluential.
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Thematrixoptionsareequallyconsiderableforcopperormagnesium.
[See:Chapter45forcopper,Chapter44formagnesium].
Thematrixmetaloritsalloyingelementscanreactchemicallywiththeparticulate,e.g.aluminium
reactswithSiCbutnotwithAl2O3.
The microstructure and hence properties of an alloy in a selected heattreated and mechanically
workedconditioncanbedisruptedbythepresenceofparticulatesactingasnucleatingagents,Ref.
[651].
65.1.3 Particulate reinforcement
65.1.3.1 Types
Typesofparticulatematerialsinvestigatedinclude:
Alumina(Al2O3),Ref.[652],[653],
Siliconcarbide(SiC),Ref.[654]to[6510],
Titaniumdiboride(TiB2),and
Boroncarbide(B4C).
SiC is the most widely used particulate reinforcement with aluminium, not least because good
bondingcanbeachievedbetweenmatrixandparticlebychemicalinteraction.
65.1.3.2 Size
The size of particulate reinforcement is important, Ref. [6511]. Very small particles are the most
efficient for achieving high strengths. This is reflected in oxide dispersion strengthened alloys,
where oxide phases are 0.01m to 0.1m but their volumetric percentage is small. The deliberate
addition of significant volumetric quantities of discrete particles has the effect of raising both
modulusandstrength.Again,smallersizesarepreferablegivencostandotherpracticalconstraints.
An evenly distributed dispersion is desirable for reproducible behaviour. Particulate sizes in the
range 2m to 3m are preferable for high strengths, but expensive powdermetallurgy routes are
used.Larger,15m+,particlesarelessefficient,givinglowerstrength,butarecheapertoincorporate
usingcastingprocesses.
Someofthefactorsinfluencingparticlereinforcedcompositefracturebehaviourare,Ref.[655],[65
6],[659],[6510]:
Aspectratio,
Sizedistribution,and
Particleshape.Particlescanbeslightly:
elongated,
rounded,
angular,
faceted,and
precracked.
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Allparticlesareceramic,whichhavehighmodulibutwithlowstraintofailuresofapproximately
0.2%.
ParticulateMMCmaterialsalwayshaveaninitial,lowstraintensilemoduluswhichishigherthan
the base alloy. The strength characteristics, i.e. 0.2% YS, UTS, fracture toughness and ultimate
elongationarenotalwaysasgoodbecauseparticleshavebeenadded.
It is possible to prepare good, indifferent or even poor composites from similar constituents.
Only composites which are better in performance than their unreinforced counterparts are used
where strength requirements prevail, because of the additional cost. If stiffness is the prime
requirement,thenMMCpmaterialscanbeattractive.
65.2 Damage mechanisms
65.2.1 Unnotched specimen

For particulate MMC, the overall fracture behaviour can be closely related to that of the
unreinforcedbasealloywithsomeadditionalfeatures.Thebasealloyundergoeselasticdeformation
totheelasticlimit,afterwhichirreversibleplasticdeformationaccumulates.Theplasticdeformation
isaresultofdislocationgrowthandgrainboundaryslippage.Ultimately,thecombinedelasticand
plasticdeformationgivesrisetoexcessiveyielding,neckingandfailure.Thisbroadlydescribesthe
behaviourofanunnotchedalloyandistranslatedtothestressstraincurveinFigure65.2.1.
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Figure65.21Relativestressstrainbehavioursofoptimised(good)andnon
optimised(poor)MMCpcomposites
65.2.2 Notched specimen

Asinglecrackformswiththeplasticdeformationoccurringaheadofthecrackasitpropagatesuntil
the critical size is reached. Whereupon the energy stored in the loaded specimen is sufficient to
causerapidcrackgrowthandcatastrophicfailure.
65.2.3 Influence of particles

Theinclusionofalargepopulationofparticles,whilstofsmallsize,eachinfluencesthelocalmatrix
volume.Theirpresencedoesnotaffectthegrossmodeoffailureforloadedunnotchedornotched
material. This is ultimately a single propagating crack. However, the accumulated local events
aroundeachparticlefashionstheoverallcompositebehaviourbothbeforeandaftertheelasticlimit,
Ref.[6512].
Theparticlesaretheretoprovidereinforcement,i.e.sustainloadthatwouldotherwisebecarriedby
thematrix.However,thestraincapacityoftheparticlesismuchlowerthanthatofthesurrounding
matrix. The matrix can deform to 5%, 10% or 20% extension, whilst the particle can only manage
approximately0.2%.Apointisthereforereachedataverylowstrainwhenthetwocannolonger
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strainelasticallytogetherandrelativemovementbetweenthetwooccurs.Theidealbehaviourisfor
theadjacentmatrixtoremainadheringtotheparticle,whilsttheremainderplasticallydeformsand
ultimatelybeginstoflowuntiltheoverallstrainsareinthe4%to8%region.Whilstthisisoccurring,
theparticleisstillperformingafunctionbecauseitiselasticallydeformedbutitsultimatestrength
and strain to failure have not been reached. Something close to this can be achieved in optimised
composites.
Otherbehaviourcanalsooccurinvaryingdegrees,whichlowerstheoverallcompositestrengthand
straintofailure:
Particlesareoverstressedandfracture,Ref.[651].Thetwopartsnolongeractinunisonand
have a gap between them which can grow as a crack in response to plastic deformation
aroundit.
The particle separates from the matrix through lack of adhesion. Again, an interface forms
which can grow into a crack. The particle loses some of its ability to sustain elastic
deformationandbecomeslessefficientasareinforcingmedium.Intheworstcase,theparticle
actsasasolidinclusionwhichisahindranceratherthanabenefit.
65.2.4 Composite performance

Aperformanceenvelopeexists[See:Figure65.2.1],whichdescribesthatexhibitedbyacomposite
incomparisonwiththeunreinforcedalloy.
The top portion, designated Good, represents an optimised composite whilst the lower portion,
occupied by MMC (b) and MMC (c), represent a composite that does not achieve the baseline
performanceoftheunreinforcedalloy.
TheGoodposition,MMC(a),isachievedbyhaving:
Goodparticledispersion
Goodparticletomatrixadhesion
Optimumparticleshapeandsizedistribution
Matrix microstructure and heat treatment optimised for the presence of particles in the
composite.
The composite matrix microstructure or heattreatment processes used can vary from those of an
unreinforcedalloy.
65.3 Failure modes and fracture behaviour
65.3.1 Matrix effects
65.3.1.1 General
MMCp composites cannot be viewed simply as an accepted alloy containing solid phases whose
additionisaimedatachievingsomeformofreinforcement.
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The presence of the particles alters the accepted microstructure of the isotropic alloy before any
external load is applied. In effect, the accumulation of dislocations in the matrix is modified. The
basicstrengtheningmechanismsprevailinginthecompositeareanaccumulationof,Ref.[6513]:
High dislocation densities in the matrix, due to dislocation generation as a result of
differencesincoefficientofthermalexpansion.
Smallsubgrainsize,asaresultofthegenerationofhighdislocationdensity.
Residualelasticstresses.
Differencesintexture.
Dispersion strengthening in the matrix, by the formation of intermetallic particles that
otherwisedonotformintheunreinforcedalloy.
Classicalcompositestrengthening,throughloadtransfertotheparticles.
As such the matrix cannot be viewed as truly isotropic. The macroyielding of the composite is
controlled by the inhomogeneous matrix which is a mixture of high and low dislocation regions.
This accounts for the difficulties experienced in modelling MMCp materials beyond their initial,
verylowstrainelasticity.
65.3.1.2 Duplex microstructures

Understanding MMCp behaviour is further complicated by deliberately produced duplex
microstructuresasameansofimprovingfracturetoughnessby:
Largerparticleswhich,providedtheydonotexceedanuppercriticalsize,giveresistanceto
unstablecrackpropagation.
Finerparticles,equivalenttodispersionsoflessthanalowercriticalsize(nolongerclassified
asparticleadditions),whichprovidematrixstrengtheningandcrackinitiationtoughness.
65.3.2 Failure mode studies

ForMMCpmaterials,differencesarerecognisedbetween:
straightforwardmacrobehaviourofsimpletensiletestsonunnotchedspecimens,and
localised microbehaviour more prevalent in single crack (notched) propagation studies
whicharedefiningfracturetoughness.
Moststudiesattempttoexplaincompositebehaviourbyfollowingtheslowprogressionofasingle
crackandidentifyingdeformationoffracturefeaturesinandaroundthecracktip.
65.3.3 Particulate shape and aspect ratio

No introduced particles are truly spheroid in shape nor elliptical as hypothesised by models, e.g.
Eshelby. In reality they are of variable size distribution, usually angular and possess some aspect
ratioexceedingunity.
Aspectratio>3:Alignmentthroughmechanicalworkinginfluencesthedirectionalproperties.
Aspectratio>10:Impliesthatthereinforcementisawhiskerorveryshortdiscontinuousfibre.
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Figure65.3.1showsaschematicrepresentationofthefeaturesfoundinMMCpmaterials.
Figure65.31FeaturesofparticlesinMMCpmaterials
As a single crack propagates, the crack tip can follow a path which is influenced by the features
aroundit,e.g.
An even particulate distribution is essential for reproducible material behaviour and is an
assumptionforallmodels.
Larger particles ( >15m) do not hinder crack progress in the same way as a population of
smallerparticlesofthesamevolumetriccontribution.
The angularity of particles influences the presence of stress concentrations in the adjacent
matrix. Endeffects of sharp tips and whisker or fibre ends influence crack propagation
dependingontheirorientation.
Figure 65.3.2 shows the effect of weak interfaces and cracked particles on crack propagation. The
randomfracturepathisindicativeofagoodMMCpmaterialwherenoapparentpointsofweakness
haveinfluencedthepropagationofthecrack.
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Figure65.32PossiblecrackpropagationpathsinMMCpmaterials
65.3.4 Particulate fracture

Aparticlesfracturebehaviourisinfluencedby:
Shape,particularlyifitssurfaceisrecessed.
Theinherentfracturetoughnessoftheparticleitself,wheretheparticlecanbeweakenedor
crackedduringmechanicalworkingofthecomposite.
[See:Figure65.3.2forcrackpropagationthroughfracturedparticles]
65.3.5 Void nucleation and growth

Whenasinglecrackpropagates,evidencesuggeststhatthecrackpathisattractedtowardsparticles
adjacenttothefractureplane.Theductilefractureofthematrixischaracterisedbyvoidnucleation
andgrowth(VNG).Thespacingbetweenthevoidnucleatingparticlesisgenerallyconsideredtobe
a critical microstructural parameter that, taken together with the tensile properties, controls the
toughnessofagivencomposite.
ThetoughnessofAl/SiCcompositescanbeimprovedwhenthesizeoftheSiCparticlesisincreased,
providedthatatleastoneoftheassumptionsismet:
VoidsarenucleatedbySiCparticles.
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TheresponseoftheAl/SiCsystemtothechangeincentretocentreparticlespacingremains
thesameregardlessofwhetherthischangeiscausedbyvaryingthevolumefractionorsizeof
particles.
65.3.6 Fracture toughness
65.3.6.1 General
Toughness tests are governed by the principles of LEFM or elasticplastic fracture mechanics
(EPFM).
LEFM:Theplasticzoneassociatedwiththedevelopingcrackisrestrictedtoasmallregionat
thecracktip.
EPFM:Grossyieldingcanoccuracrossthewholeoftheuncrackedportionofthespecimen.
The implication being that initial crack growth comes under LEFM whereas EPFM is applicable
whenthecrackhasgrownappreciably,Ref.[6514].
65.3.6.2 Common terms

ThetestingofMMCpmaterialsiscomplicatedbythedifficultiesinobtainingstablecrackgrowth.It
is generally accepted that these composites have lower fracture toughness values than their
unreinforcedcounterparts.
KIC Plane strain fracture toughness, a measure of a

material's resistance to unstable crack extension when
the stress state at the crack tip is plane strain and the
opening mode (I) load is applied. The opening mode
corresponds to a load applied perpendicular to the crack
plane.
KQ A provisional value of KIC, not confirmed until checks

made on Pmax/PQ, thickness B, and ligament width W-a,
are compared with validity criteria in standards.
KR Measure of resistance to stable crack growth.
Rcurve Continuous record of toughness, KR, plotted against

stable crack extension.
Kc Plane stress fracture toughness. The value of Kc, is an

instability condition determined by the tangent between
the R-curve and the applied K-curve of the specimen.
G c Critical strain energy release rate : for plane stress

Gc = Kc2/E.
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EPFM In EPFM there are terms analogous to those used in

LEFM, such as J or JR for EPFM energy release rate
and R-curves are also measured (known as J/R-curves).
However other terms such as T, tearing modulus, are
also given.
65.4 Thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF) and creep
65.4.1 Residual stresses

Residualtensilestressesareretainedinthematrixandcanbeashighas100MPato150MPaatroom
temperature.Suchlevelsrepresentaconsiderableportionoftheyieldstrengthofaluminiumalloys,
forexample.
65.4.2 Temperature
The presence of residual stresses provides a motivating force for relaxation if the right conditions
prevail.Anincreaseintemperatureissuchanimpetus.ForaluminiumMMCpmaterial,amodest
temperatureof200Candamodestexternalloadprovideanincentiveforcreep.
Thecreepcharacteristicsofanyparticularcompositearedependentontheheattreatedcondition.
65.4.3 Superplasticity
If a very ductile matrix is used, e.g. pure aluminium, the composite can exhibit superplastic
tendenciesgivingrisetophenomenasuchas,Ref.[6515]:
Enhanceddeformation:asuperplasticityeffectatlowstress.
Internalstresssuperplasticity(ISS),Ref.[6515].
Mismatchinducedsuperplasticity(MISP),Ref.[6515].
65.4.4 Applications
Theuseofparticulatereinforcementisusefulforincreasingroomtemperaturemodulusandyield
strength. However, dimensional changes can occur at elevated temperatures or with repeated
thermalcycling.
65.5 References
65.5.1 General
[651] N.Bourgeoisetal
ModelizationofMicrostructureInfluenceontheMacroscopic
PropertiesofDiscontinuouslyReinforcedMMCs
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ProceedingsoftheMicrostructureandPropertiesofMetalMatrix
CompositesConference,Roskilde,Denmark
26Sep1991,p235240
[652] S.V.Kamatetal
MechanicalPropertiesofParticulateReinforcedAluminiumMatrix
Composites
Actametall.Vol.37,No9,p23952402,1989
[653] A.F.Whitehouse&T.W.Clyne
EffectsofReinforcementContentandShapeonCavitationandFailure
inMetalmatrixComposites
Composites24No.3(1993)p256261Part2
[654] K.Schmidtetal
MechanicalandThermalPropertiesofSiliconCarbideParticle
ReinforcedAluminium
ASTMSTP1080,1990,p155164
[655] C.P.Youetal
ProposedFailureMechanisminaDiscontinuouslyReinforced
AluminiumAlloy
ScriptaMETALLURGICA,Vol.21,p181185,1987
[656] J.K.Shang&R.O.Ritchie
OntheParticleSizeDependenceofFatigueCrackPropagation
ThresholdsinSiCParticulateReinforcedAluminiumAlloy
Composites:RoleofCrackClosureandCrackTrapping
[657] M.Manoharan&J.J.Lewandowski
MicrostructuralEffectsontheToughnessofAluminiumAlloyBased
MetalMatrixComposites
FundamentalRelationshipsBetweenMicrostructure&Mechanical
PropertiesofMetalMatrixComposites.EditedbyP.K.Liawand
M.N.Gungor.TheMinerals,Metals&Materials,1990
[658] D.M.Knowles&J.E.King
RoleofReinforcement/MatrixInterfacialStrengthinFatigueCrack
PropagationinParticulateSiCReinforcedAluminiumAlloy8090
MaterialsScienceandTechnology,June1992,Vol.8,p500509
[659] T.J.A.Doeletal
MechanicalPropertiesofAluminiumbasedParticulateMetalmatrix
Composites
[6510] T.J.Downes&J.E.King
TheEffectofMicrostructureontheFractureToughnessofaMetal
matrixComposite
[6511] Y.Flom&R.J.Arsenault
EffectofParticleSizeonFractureToughnessofSiC/AlComposite
Material
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[6512] D.L.Davidson
FatigueandFractureToughnessofAluminiumAlloysReinforcedwith
SiCandAluminaParticles
Book.PergamonPress,1989,ISBN0080369839
[6514] B.Roebuck&J.D.Lord
FractureToughnessTestingforMetalMatrixComposites
IOPShortMeetingsSeriesNo28,1990
ISBN0854985301,p110128
[6515] S.M.Pickard&B.Derby
TheDeformationofParticleReinforcedMetalMatrixComposites
DuringTemperatureCycling
ActaMetall.mater.Vol.38,No.12,p25372552
[6516] YongChingChen&G.S.Daehn
TheThermalCyclingDeformationofaParticleReinforcedMetal
MatrixComposite:ComparisonbetweenaModelandExperimental
Observations
ScriptaMetallurgicaetMaterialia,Vol.25,p15431548,1991
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66
Fibre reinforced metals
66.1 Introduction
66.1.1 Materials
66.1.1.1 General
Table66.11FibrereinforcedMMC
Matrix Fibre Comments
SiC Nicalon fibre
Al C Any carbon fibre
B Filament
Ti SiC Sigma or AVCO
monofilaments.
[See:46.14and46.15fordetailsofmaterialsandproperties]
Microstructuralfeatureswhichcaninfluencefracturebehaviourare:
Insitumatrixyieldstrength
Fibretomatrixinterfaceadhesion
Transversefibrematrixstrength
Insitufibretensilestrength
Composite fracture behaviour and strength are fibre dominated because the full yielding
characteristicsofthematrixcannotbeused.
66.1.1.2 Matrix
Matrixselectiondeterminesthestressandstrainlevelsattheelasticlimit.
To minimise residual stresses within the composite, the composite process temperature are
keptaslowaspossible.
Contact between molten alloy and fibres is avoided if possible, to restrict chemical
interactions.
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66.1.1.3 Fibre reinforcement
Between35vol.%and40vol.%ofreinforcementusuallyenablesanevendispersionoffibres
thatarenottouching.
Fibresurfacetreatmentsandcoatingsarebeneficialtocontroltheinterfacecharacteristicsand
maximisethefibreinsitustrength.
66.2.1 General
The use of continuous fibres excludes a single crack failure mode for the composite. The fibre
behaviourdominates,withthematrixnotexperiencingstrainsmuchbeyond1%,butwithyielding.
66.2.2 Effect of lay-up
66.2.2.1 General
In a simple tensile test, some loss of modulus is experienced as the matrix yields. If 90 plies are
present,theircontributiondiminishesquicklyduetofibrematrixinterfacefailure.Moststudieson
damagemechanismshaveconcentratedontheresponsetonotchedconditionsandtheapplication
ofmechanicalloadandthermalcycling.Therearedifferencesinresponsebetweenaluminium,Ref.
[661],[662]andtitaniummatrixcomposites,Ref.[663]to[6613].
Damage in the form of localisedfracture or cracking is predominantly initiated in offaxis, i.e.90
and 45, plies. With sufficient strain, the cracks propagate to give transverse ply cracking. The
accumulation of multiple transverse cracks results in complete separation of transverse plies from
axial, 0 plies causing delaminating. Where good fibrematrix bonding exists, as with Ti/SiC, the
transverse cracks begin (under fatigue conditions) to penetrate the axial plies. This can lead to a
singlecrackpropagationthroughthe0fibresandacatastrophicfailure.
Crackinitiationislikelywherefibresareverycloseortouching;henceexcludingthematrix.Thisis
more common with boron and SiC monofilament reinforced metals. An even fibre spacing is
essential. During fatigue cycling, voids are generated in the fibrematrix interface that eventually
developtofulldebondingoftheinterface.
66.2.2.2 Boron reinforced aluminium

Innotchedboronfibrereinforcedaluminium,flawsinitiateatlocationsofhighestshearstressinthe
matrix.Initially,theflawsgrowouttothefirstunflawedfibre,thenparalleltothefibreuntilfailure
occursacrossthenetsection.
66.2.2.3 Titanium matrix composites

Intitaniumbasedmaterials,theflawsinitiateatthemaximumstrainlocation.Theygrowirregularly
across and along the fibres until the energy is great enough to crack through the fibres out to the
specimenedgeinamannersimilartothatinunreinforcedmetals.
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66.3 Failure modes
66.3.1 General
Based on the relative strain to fatigue failure of the fibre and matrix, as well as the interface
properties,thepossiblefailuremechanismscanbegroupedintofourcategories:
Matrixdominated,
Fibredominated,
Selfsimilardamagegrowth,and
Fibrematrixinterfacefailure,Ref.[6614].
66.3.2 Matrix dominated failure

InAl/Bcomposites,theboronfibresarenotverysensitivetofatigue.Thematrixbeginsyieldingat
0.1% to 0.2% strain which is far below the failure strain of the fibre at 0.85%. Therefore, fatigue
damagesthematrixbutdoesnotaffectthefibres.
Localplasticstrainingcanbepermittedinthecompositeduringthefirstfewloadcycles,provided
the composite shakesdown during thesefew cycles,Ref.[662], [6614]. The shakedownstressis
reached if the matrix cyclically hardens to a cyclic yield stress such that only elastic deformation
occurs under subsequent load cycles. The stress relates to the onset of fatigue damage but not to
laminatefailure,i.e.failureoftheloadcarrying0fibres.
ForAl/B,70%ofUTScanbeconsideredasasafedesignloadforalifewithoutasignificantlossof
stiffness.
Ifalloftheinitialstiffnessneedstoberetainedfora2x106cyclelifetime,thenthecyclicstressrange
cannotexceed35%ofUTS.Herethemaximumpermissibleappliedstrainisabout0.3%withoutthe
effectofnotches,Ref.[6614].
66.3.3 Fibre-dominated damage

To predict composite fatigue life, the stress level in the 0 fibres is the governing factor. Initial
modulus is lost, particularly through fibrematrix interface failures in the case of Ti/SiC. Once the
stiffness has stabilised, the laminate does not fail until the 0 fibres fail. The insitu fibre strength
determinesthemaximumpermissiblefatiguestresses.
66.3.4 Self-similar damage growth

Insomecomposites,e.g.Ti153/SCS6,thefibreandmatrixcanhavesimilarfatigueendurancestrain
ranges,i.e.0.33%to0.36%atR=0.1fortheseparticularconstituents.Damagecaninitiateandgrow
as a selfsimilar crack. Although these composites have rather weak fibrematrix interfaces, a
combination of the residual radial compressive matrix stresses around the fibre and the Poisson
effect(whenpullingaUDlaminateintension),resultsininterfacestrengthssufficienttoenableself
similarcrackgrowthinthecomposite.
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66.3.5 Fibre-matrix interfacial failures

The strength expectations are greater for titanium materials (690MPa to 1350MPa) than for
aluminiummaterials(350MPato700MPa).Thissuggeststhattitaniummatrixcompositesdemand
muchmorestrengthfromthefibrematrixinterfacethandoaluminiummatrixcomposites.
Where fatigue endurance limits are being established, in many instances titanium composites are
limitedbytheinterface,whereasaluminiumcompositesarerestrictedbyfatigueofthematrix.
ForthesimplecaseofaSiCfibreembeddedinatitaniumalloy,thecalculatedstressesinthematrix
nearthefibrematrixinterfacearegiveninTable66.3.1,Ref.[667].
Table66.31Ti/SiCMMC:Calculatedstresses
Stress Value
Radial stress -138 MPa (compressive)
Tangential hoop stress +276 MPa (tensile)
Axial stress (fibre direction) +207 MPa (tensile)
The high reactivity of hot titanium with silicon carbide and hot aluminium with carbon produces
composites where fibre degradation can be acute unless a fibre coating is applied which is also
optimisedforthedesiredinterfacecharacteristics.
The maximum permissible strain under fatigue conditions ultimately determines the viability of
MMCf materials over their unreinforced alloy counterparts. If full stiffness retention is essential,
then the insitu elastic limit of the matrix or fibrematrix interface is the limiting factor. For
multidirectionalMMCfmaterials,themarginofsuperiorityisprovenbytestratherthanassumed.
66.4 Thermo-mechanical and creep response
66.4.1 General
In continuous fibre MMC materials, the fibres are assumed to be elastic under all conditions. The
matrixhaselasticplasticcharacteristicswhereplasticdeformationbecomesmoreprobableas:
temperatureincreases,and
appliedstrainincreasesabove0.2%.
Thecompositesareassumedtobepowerlawcreepmaterialsatelevatedtemperatures,Ref.[6615].
Creepoccurswhentheappliedloadatagiventemperaturecausesapermanentdimensionalchange
overaselectedtime.Creeprupturecharacteristicsarestudiedforisotropicmetalalloystoassessthe
maximumpermissibleapplicationtemperatureunderapredeterminedloadingcondition.
ParticulateMMCmaterialsexhibitsignificantmatrixdominatedcreep.
Continuous fibre MMC materials are less susceptible to creep, due to the dominance of the fibre
elasticity.TheanisotropyofMMCfisalsogreatersothatfor:
UDplies:Theamountofpermanentyieldingpossibleisextremelysmall.Thematrixcanyield
slightlyunderanappliedstrainbuttheelasticityofthefibreslargelyrestoresthecomposite
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oncetheloadisremoved.Thismechanismcancontributetoaratchetingphenomenonwhere
thermalcyclingcancompoundsmalldimensionalchangesoneachcycle,Ref.[662].
Transverse plies: Their matrix domination enables considerable capacity for yielding and
creep.
Bidirectional composites: Whilst fibredominated, they exhibit creep even at modest strain
levels. The residual stresses in the matrix are significant to the onset of permanent
deformation.
66.4.2 Application
Forlonglifestructuresundergoingthermomechanicalloadingtheonsetofsignificantcreeplimits
themaximumpermissiblestrainlevels.
66.5 References
66.5.1 General
[661] T.Fujitaetal
TemperatureDependentTensileandShearResponseofP100/6061
GraphiteAluminium
ASTMSTP1080,1990,p165182
[662] A.C.F.Cocksetal
EffectofCyclicThermalLoadingonthePropertiesofMetalMatrix
Composites
JournalofThermalStresses,15:p175184,1992
[663] W.S.Johnsonetal
MechanicalCharacterisationofUnnotchedSCS6/Ti153MetalMatrix
CompositesatRoomTemperature
ASTMSTP1080,1990,p193218
[664] G.M.Nemezetal
ThermalCyclingResponseofQuasiIsotropicMetalMatrix
Composites
JournalofEngineeringMaterialsandTechnology,
Vol.114,p156191,1992
[665] J.J.Schubbe&ShankarMall
DamageMechanismsinaCrossPlyMetalMatrixCompositeunder
ThermalMechanicalCycling
ICCM8,p20/B/19,1991
[666] P.G.Ermer&S.Mall
DamageMechanismsinaUnidirectionalMetalMatrixComposite
duringThermalCycling
Proceedingsofthe5thTechnicalConferenceonCompositeMaterialsin
Transition,p528536,1990
[667] W.S.Johnson
DamageDevelopmentinTitaniumMetalmatrixComposites
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[668] P.J.Cotterill&P.Bowen
FatigueCrackGrowthinaFibrereinforcedTitaniumMMCat
AmbientandElevatedTemperatures
[669] C.Barneyetal
FatigueCrackPropagationinSiCContinuousFibrereinforced
Ti6Al4ValloyMetalmatrixComposites
[6610] I.Greavesetal
TheBendingFatigueBehaviourofUnidirectionalReinforcedSCS6/Ti
153
[6611] A.R.Ibbotsonetal
DamageAssessmentandLifingofContinuousFibrereinforcedMetal
matrixComposites
[6612] D.M.Harmon&C.R.Saff
DamageInitiationandGrowthinFiberReinforcedMetalMatrix
Composites
ASTMSTP1032,1989,p237250
[6613] L.Molliexetal
TemperatureDependencePredictionofSiC/TitaniumComposites
TensilePropertiesfromaMicromechanicalApproach
ProceedingsoftheInterfacialPhenomenainCompositeMaterialsSept.
1991,p183186
[6614] C.R.Saffetal
DamageInitiationandGrowthinFiberReinforcedMMCs
JournalofMetals,November1988,p5863
[6615] G.S.Daehn
EffectsofEnvironmentalandMicrostructuralVariablesonthePlastic
DeformationofMetalMatrixCompositesunderchangingtemperature
conditions
ASTMSTP1080,1990,p7086
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67
Inorganic ceramic matrix composites
67.1 Introduction
67.1.1 General
Table67.11Inorganic/ceramicmatrixcomposites
Matrix Fibre
Glassmatrix(GMC)
C
Borosilicate
SiC
Glassceramicmatrix(GCMC)
LAS
MAS Silicon fibres
CAS
Ceramicmatrix(CMC)
C
SiC
SiC
CarbonCarbon(CC)
Carbon
C
Graphite
Key: 2D,3DornDfibreorientation
[See:Chapters52,53and54fordetailsofmaterials]
Microstructuralfeaturesinfluencingcompositefracturebehaviourare:
Matrixmodulusandfailurestraindeterminedbygrainsize.
Matrixporosityanddistribution.
Interfacethicknessandconsistency.
Insitufibrecondition(tensilestrength).
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Compositefracturebehaviourisinfluencedsignificantlyby:
Matrix.
Interface.
Fibres.
Theultimatestrengthcomessolelyfromtheinsitufibreperformance,Ref.[671],[672].
67.1.2 Matrix
Themodulusandstraintofailureofthematrixdeterminethelinearelasticlimitofthecomposite.
Residualstressesinthematrixareinfluencedbytheprocessingtemperature.
Mostmatricescontainresidualporosityofunevensizedistributioncausedbythepyrolysisprocess.
Upto10vol.%porosityisacceptable.
The differences in moduli for the respective matrices are significant, e.g. <100GPa for glass and
carbonand>400GPaforsiliconcarbide.
67.1.3 Interface
To decouplebrittle matrix and fibre,an interface material isusually introduced asa fibre coating.
Thisisusuallyasoftmaterialsuchascarbonorpyrolyticboronnitrideataround0.1mto0.5m
thick.Notonlydoestheinterfaceactasadecouplant,butitalsoprovidessurfaceprotectiontothe
fibrefromchemicaldegradation.
67.1.4 Fibres
Silicon carbide (Nicalon and Tyranno) and carbon fibres are predominantly used because of their
high strength retention to 1200C (minimum). Alumina fibres and aluminosilicate fibres are less
strong.Multidirectionalfibrereinforcementisessentialforcompositeintegrity.
67.2.1 Material effects

The main difference between CMC and MMC materials is that the constituents of CMCs are all
elasticinnatureandnoplasticdeformationispossible.Anonlinearelasticbehaviouroccurswith
gradualfibrepulloutandincompletecrackclosure.
Owing to the brittle nature of constituents in CMC materials, there is an incentive to use three
dimensional reinforcement (3D, nD) to avoid interlaminar planes of weakness. The fracture
behaviourofsuchcompositesismorecomplex,Ref.[673],[674],[675].
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67.2.2 Microcracking
InMMCs,stressreliefoccursbyplasticdeformationofthematrix;inCMCmaterialsitisbymatrix
microcracking.Asstrainincreasesthepopulationofmicrocracksgrowsenormouslyandthedamage
areaisverylarge.
Figure 67.2.1 shows the crack accumulation in a glassceramic composite, but is representative of
CMCmaterialsasawhole.
Transversepliesbegintocrackatverylowstresslevels.Atlaterstagesthecrackspenetratethe0
layers.Thecrackspropagatearoundthefibresandthefibrematrixinterfacedecouples.Thefibres
remainintactbridgingthecrack.
The material appears to be simultaneously elastic, plastic (irreversible dimensional changes) and
damageable, whilst retaining integrity. Such composites are used with the knowledge that they
containsomelevelofdamage.Themaximumpermissiblemicrocrackpopulationdensityhastobe
determined.Thisiscomplicatedbyaggressive,corrosivespeciesenteringcracksanddegradingthe
fibres.
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Figure67.21Glassmatrixcompositematerial:Microcrackingsequence
67.2.3 Porosity
Most ceramic matrix composites have retained porosity resulting from the manufacturing route,
usually precursor pyrolysis. Retained porosity levels of 5% to 10% by volume are unavoidable.
Evenlydistributedfineporosityispreferabletolargerdiscretepores.
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ForGMCandGCMCmaterialsporositycanbeminimisedduringhotpressing,withthematrixina
nearmoltenstate.Matrixcrackingcanoccurwhereadefect,e.g.porosity,ispresentincombination
withlocalresidualstresses.
67.2.4 Manufacturing and in-service effects

Aswithallhightemperaturecomposites,loweringtheprocess(manufacturing)temperatureassists
inreducingresidualtensilestressesinthematrix.
ICMC materials tend to experience acute thermal shock and cycling coupled with applied
mechanicalloads,hencelocalconditionsconducivetocrackformationexistmuchofthetime.
67.2.5 Crack propagation

To demonstrate the threedimensional aspects of crack orientation, Figure 67.2.2 describes the
tunnelling growth that can be expected froma crack spanning the 90 layer.Such crackshave the
capacity to run the entire length of the ply and provide a crack tip front to penetrate the
unidirectional plies. This type of behaviour is likely to occur in wellconsolidated, lowporosity
GMCandGCMCmaterialsbasedonunidirectionalplies.
Withmoreirregularmicrostructures,asinmultipledepositionCVIcomposites,crackpropagationis
less planar and more readily terminated or deflected. The use of 2D fabrics and 3D constructions
severelyinhibitsplanarcrackgrowth.
Figure67.22Bidirectionalglassceramicmatrixcomposite:Schematicof
tunnellingcracksin90layers
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Cracksformlocallytorelievestress.Onceacrackhasoccurreditismorelikelythat,withincreasing
load,furthercracksformratherthanpropagationoftheoriginalone.
Propagation is a result of gross overstressing or elastic energy input under fatigue loading. Fibre
pulloutbecomescriticalastheappliedstrainandstressreachtheultimatecapacityofthematerial,
whichisdeterminedbytheinterfaceandinsitufibrestrength.
ForICMCmaterials,thepresenceofporosity(<10%)andmatrixmicrocrackingisunavoidablebutis
notconsideredasanunacceptabledefectlevel.Thesecompositesarelikelybeappliedtostructures
in a linear nonelastic state, but possibly as nonlinear, nonelastic materials, depending on the
intendedlifeofthestructure.
67.3 Fracture behaviour
67.3.1 Toughness parameters
67.3.1.1 General
Theuseofuniquetoughnessparameters,suchasKIC,GIC,JICarenotappropriateforICMCmaterials
astheydonotbehaveasperfectlyelasticorbrittlematerials.Insteadacrackgrowthresistance(R
curve) can be used which describes the energy needed for crack extension as a function of crack
increment.Theoristsprefertoworkwiththeassumptionthatstablecrackgrowthprevails,butthis
israreinpractice.
67.3.1.2 Testing
Fracturebehaviourhasbeenstudiedwithnotchedandunnotchedspecimens,whichfailindifferent
modes. The single edge notched beam (SENB) is popular for studying crack growth, [See: Test
specimens].
Withcommercialmaterials,thecrackgrowthmechanismsdifferbetweenGMC,GCMC,CMCand
CC.Significantcharacteristicsare:
interfaceproperties,
fibrepullout,
reinforcementgeometries,orientationandbundlesize,and
crackdebris.
Once cracking occurs, the original lowstrain, linear elastic modulus of the composite is lost. To
quantify the toughness of the material, the crack propagation from length a to a+a is described.
Fourmodesthatcandescribealoaddisplacementresponseare,Ref.[678]:
Linear elastic: where the process is reversible, i.e. the specimen returns to zero strain on
removaloftheload,[See:Figure67.3.1].
Linear nonelastic: incremental permanent strains result after each increasing load
application,[See:Figure67.3.2].
Nonlinearelastic:changeinresidualmoduluswithdisplacementbutnoresidualstrain,[See:
Figure67.3.3].
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Nonlinearnonelastic:permanentstrainandnonlinearelasticity,[See:Figure67.3.4].
Figure67.31Schematicrepresentationsofloaddisplacement(P/u)curves:(a)
Linearelasticbehaviour
Figure67.32Schematicrepresentationsofloaddisplacement(P/u)curves:(b)
Linearnonelasticbehaviour
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Figure67.33Schematicrepresentationsofloaddisplacement(P/u)curves:(c)
Nonlinearelasticbehaviour
Figure67.34Schematicrepresentationsofloaddisplacement(P/u)curves:(d)
Nonlinearnonelasticbehaviour
The reasons for a nonelastic response centre on the strained material being unable to return to its
originalvolume,i.e.cracksdonotfullycloseup.Thiscanbeexplainedbydebrisjammingthecracks
orfibrepullthrough.Thenonlinearitysuggeststhefibrecontributiontomodulusisbeingreduced
by applied load, presumably through fibres pulling through the matrix. Nonelasticity becomes
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increasinglyobviousasthecompositestrainnearsitslimitandmorefibrepullthroughandpullout
occurs.
Figure67.35CMCmaterials:Possiblefracturemechanisms
DetailsoflocalisedfailureareshowninFigure67.3.5andthesequenceofeventsisdescribed.
Under applied load, composite (a) experiences a matrix crack, as in (b). The critical stress in the
interfaceisgivenby,Ref.[677]:
4E f G IIC 2
[67.31]
f
Where:
Ef = Young's modulus of fibres
GIIC = Mode II toughness of the fibre-matrix interface
r = radius of the fibres
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Where the critical stress is greater than the fibre strength, a mode (c) failure occurs, which is
undesirableinICMCmaterials.
D R
If
f f (fibre stress), then fibrematrix debonding occurs before fibre fracture. As loading
continuesthedebondingextendsandthefibreselongatewhiledissipatingenergybyfrictiononthe
matrix(d).Ifthefibrestrengthisnotdistributed(Weibullsmodulus,m,high)thefibresbreakatthe
lineofthematrixcrack,asinmode(e).
Thefractureenergy,Risthen:
V f
r Rf 3
R R [67.32]
3E
2 1
f
and:
R1 2 V f f V m f [67.33]
Where:
= surface energy
V = volume fraction
* = shear friction stress at the interface
IftheWeibullmodulusofthefibresissmall,thefibreshaveanonnegligibleprobabilityofbreaking
ononesideortheotherofthematrixcrack,asinmode(f).Separationthenrequiresthepulloutof
thefibres,whichleadstoanotherimportantdissipationofsupplementaryenergy,mode(g).Here:
V f Lp
R3 R 2 3r [67.34]
Where:
Lp = is pull-out length.
R
Thepulloutlengthincreaseswith f andr,andwithdecreasingmandG IIC or*
Modes(h),(i)and(j)arefurtherspecialcases.
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67.3.2 Test specimens
67.3.2.1 Single edge notched beam (SENB) specimens

TheSENBspecimenisapopularmeansofobtainingdataforRcurves,Ref.[677].Thesimplicityof
abendtestdoesconcealthattruetensilestressesdonotoccurinthenotchedface.Thereareshear
stressespresentwhichinfluencethedetailsofcrackpropagationmechanisms.
AtypicalSENBspecimenisshowninFigure67.3.6.Theseareausefulqualitativewayofcomparing
materials.Anyquantitativeresultsareconsideredwithcare.
Figure67.36SENBanddelaminationtestspecimens
67.3.3 'R' curves

AnRcurvepresentsacalculatedfractureenergyforthematerialagainstthechangeincracklength,
Ref. [678], [679]. A plateau is usually reached once the crack length has reached a certain value,
usually1mm.
This is true for 2D and 3D continuous fibre composites. Short fibre, random composites show a
differentbehaviour.
TheRvaluefortheplateauisusuallyintherange2000J/m2to6000J/m2.ExamplesofRcurvesare
given in Figure 67.3.7 for short random fibre materials and Figure 67.3.8 for multidirectional
materials.
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Figure67.37Fractureenergy(J,Rice)asafunctionofcrackincrement:Short
randomfibrematerials
Figure67.38Fractureenergy(J,Rice)asafunctionofcrackincrement:
Multidirectionalmaterials
A rigorous comparison of different SiCSiC and CSiC composites, using the same specimen
geometry,hasyettobeconducted.
VariousmeansofdeterminingRandJvaluesareavailable.WorkundertakeninFranceisthemost
detailedtodate,Ref.[677],[6710],[6711].
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67.4 References
[671] I.M.Danieletal
FailureMechanismsinCeramicMatrixComposites
ConferenceonExperimentalMechanics,1989,p832838
[672] S.Mall&R.Y.Kim
FailureMechanismsinLaminatesofSiliconCarbide/Calcium
AluminosilicateCeramicComposite
Composites.Vol.23.No4.July1992.p215222
[673] A.Chulyaetal
DamageMechanismsinThreeDimensionalWovenReinforced
CeramicMatrixCompositesunderTensileandFlexuralLoadingat
RoomandElevatedTemperatures
AIAA922492CP
[674] A.Chulyaetal
FailureMechanismsof3DWovenSiC/SiCCompositesunderTensile
andFlexuralLoadingatRoomandElevatedTemperatures
Ceram.Eng.Sci.Proc.13[78],p420432,1992
[675] E.P.Butleretal
InteractionsofMatrixCrackswithInclinedFibers
[676] D.S.Beyerleetal
DamageMechanismsandtheMechanicalPropertiesofaLaminated
0/90Ceramic/MatrixComposite
J.Am.Ceram.Soc.,75[12]p33213330(1992)
[677] H.Osmanietal
Toughness,MicrostructureandInterfaceCharacteristicsforCeramic
MatrixComposites
CompositesScienceandTechnology37(1990)p191206
[678] J.Llorca&M.Elices
FractureResistanceofFiberReinforcedCeramicMatrixComposites
Acta.metall.mater,Vol.38,No.12,p24852492,1990
[679] K.R.Stull&A.ParviziMajidi
FractureToughnessofFiberReinforcedGlassCeramicMatrix
Composites
[6710] M.RMilietal
EnergyToughnessParametersfora2DCarbonFibreReinforced
CarbonComposite
[6711] M.Bouquotetal
ToughnessAssessmentofCeramicMatrixComposites
[6712] FatigueandFractureofInorganicComposites
Composites24No2(1993)p65184Part1
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68
Modelling advanced materials
68.1 Introduction
68.1.1 Polymer composites

Themodellingofpolymercompositefracturebehaviourisnotaprecisesciencedespitemanyyears
of research. The elastic behaviour can be described, i.e. prediction of modulus (stiffness), but
strength values vary depending on the failure criteria applied, of which there are many, [See:
Chapter11].
68.1.2.1 General
ThebehaviourofMMCmaterialsisevenmoredifficulttopredictthanthatofCFRP.MMCmaterials
show true elasticity only to very low strain levels before plasticity in the matrix shows in the
composite behaviour, Ref. [681]. The contribution of the metal matrix is significant because its
modulus is similar to that of the reinforcement. Models therefore cannot ignore or minimise the
matrixcontribution,asisthecaseforpolymermatrixcomposites.
68.1.2.2 Fibre reinforced MMC

The fibre reinforced MMC materials are close to CFRP in overall failure strain and models can be
modifiedaccordingly.
68.1.2.3 Particulate MMC

TheMMCpmaterialsconformtoelasticmodelsasfarasinitialstiffnesspredictionsareconcerned
but accurate strength predictions can prove elusive. This primarily stems from the composite
propertiesbeingmatrixdependent.Themicrostructureandpropertiesofthematrixareinfluenced
bymanyparameters.
68.1.3 Inorganic ceramic matrix materials

ICMCfmaterialscontainonlyelasticphases,suggestingthatgoodpredictionofelasticconstantsis
feasible. However, calculating ultimate strength is difficult because nonlinear and nonelastic
behaviourisapparentoncesignificantmicrocrackingandfibrepulloutoccurs.
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68.1.4 Summary of models
68.1.4.1 General
Somegenericmodelsarehighlighted,Ref.[681].
68.1.4.2 Law of mixtures

The basic assumption of the law of mixtures is that the externally applied strain (in tension,
compressionorshear)isequaltothestrainsinallthephasespresent,i.e.reinforcementandmatrix.
The contribution of each phase is therefore directly dependent on its volume fraction within the
composite.Thissimplemethodofmodellingreliesonallphasesbeingelastic.Itisthereforerealistic
tousethismodeltopredictstiffnessvaluesofMMCandCMCmaterialsbutonlytoverylowstrain
levels. The model can also provide reasonably accurate tensile strength values for unidirectional
compositesprovidedthatfibredegradationhasnotoccurred.FormultidirectionalMMCandCMC
materials,thelawofmixturesisinappropriateandgiveshigh,inaccuratestrengthvalues.
68.1.4.3 Shear lag model

This is best suited to aligned short fibre reinforced composites; preferably with an even fibre
distribution and with fibre alignment in the loading direction, Ref. [681]. It can be used in
conjunction with the law of mixtures, but it is based on some simpler assumptions and gives a
poorerapproximationthanmorerigorousmodels.IthasbeenappliedtoMMCmaterialstopredict
theflowstressduringtheplasticdeformationseeninthestressstraincurve.
68.1.4.4 Laminated plate model

For laminate composites, i.e. most CFRP constructions, the basic element is a lamina of
unidirectionalcompositewithcontinuousfibresalignedinonedirection.Theoverallbehaviourofa
laminate depends strongly on the stacking sequence of laminae which have different fibre
orientations.
Thelaminateplatemodelprovidesananalyticaltoolwithwhichtopredicttheoverallmechanicalor
physicalpropertiesofthelaminate.Themostpopularlaminatedplatemodelisbasedonaspecial
lamina, an orthotropic plate under plane stress conditions. Such models are widely applied to
polymer matrix composites and can predict strength reasonably accurately by summing the
contributionsofeachlamina.SuchmodelshavebeenappliedtoMMCfmaterials,butprincipallyfor
thephysicalproperties,thermalconductivityandthermalexpansion.
68.1.4.5 Eshelby's models

Eshelbys models provide a more rigorous mathematical treatment of composites from a three
dimensional perspective, Ref. [681]. They are applicable to short fibre reinforced composites and
canbemodifiedtoaddressparticulateandcontinuousfibreMMCs.ThesemodelscontainEshelbys
tensorwhichisafunctionofthereinforcementgeometryandthematrixPoissonsratiowhenthe
matrixisisotropic.EigenstrainscanbeincorporatedforCTEmismatchstrainsandplasticstrainin
thematrix.
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68.1.4.6 Other models
Severalotherrigorousmodelshavebeenproposed.Amongthese,selfconsistentmodelsandthose
based on variational principles are the most popular. These are grouped by their applicability to
variousmaterialtypesanddescribedfurther.
[See:68.2forparticulatereinforcedMMCs;68.3forfibrereinforcedMMCs;68.4forICMCs]
68.2 Particulate reinforced metals
68.2.1 Use of models

The law of mixtures and shear lag approaches to material modelling have limited uses for
describingparticulatemetalmatrixcomposites,Ref.[681].
There is no consensus on which models are appropriate and various approaches are being put
forwardinvolving:
Eshelbysmodelsandequivalentinclusionmethod,Ref.[681],[682].
LevyVonMisesrulesandequations,Ref.[683].
Selfconsistentphilosophies,Ref.[681].
MoriandTanakasaveragestrainapproach,Ref.[682].
Thelackofconsensusstemsfromaconfusioncreatedbythe:
Manydifferentmaterialsassessed,i.e.matrixandparticulatecombinations.
Variationsinfracturecharacteristicsbetweencomposites.
Highproportionofplasticdeformationintheyieldingandfractureprocess.
68.3 Fibre reinforced metals

Themodelsappliedinclude:
Lawofmixtures,Ref.[681],[684].
Laminated plate, e.g. micromechanics with METCAN (Metal Matrix Composite Analyser),
Ref.[681],[685],[686],[687].
Gokhfeldshakedowntheoryofcontinua,Ref.[688].
Powerlawcreepmodels,Ref.[689],[6810].
Vanishingfibrediameter(VFD)model,Ref.[6811],[6812],[6813].
Thermoviscositytheorybasedonoverstress(TVBO),Ref.[6812].
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The plastic element of MMCf behaviour is the problematical feature. The models are largely
theoretical and have yet to be rigorously proven. Most are in the form of inhouse software
programs.
68.4 Inorganic ceramic matrix composites
68.4.1.1 General
The Law of Mixtures approach is appropriate for predicting the very low strain elastic constants
beforetheonsetofmicrocracking.
Anymodelsforpredictingstrengthrequiremeasurementofsomefundamentalmaterialparameters,
mostnotably:
Insitufibrestrength
Shearfrictionstressattheinterface()
ModeIItoughnessofthefibrematrixinterface
Surfaceenergies
ModellingofICMCbehaviourisatthetentativelevel.Bothelasticityandenergytheoriesarebeing
usedtodescribetheprogressivefailuremodesthatproducenonlineareffects,Ref.[684]to[689].
68.4.1.2 On-set of matrix cracking

1/ 3
m 12dm
2
V f 1 2 E f
[68.41]

Vm E 2 E
m c
where:
m = matrix strain
m = fracture energy of matrix
= shear stress
d = fibre diameter
V = volume fraction
= Poisson's ratio
suffixes:
m = matrix
f = fibre
c = composite
ThisrelationshipisthebasisoftheACKanalysis(AvestonCooperKelly).Thecrackinitiationstrain
isincreasedbyraisingfibrevolumefractionandreducingfibrediameter,Ref.[6818].
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68.4.1.3 Distance between cracks
Uptothesaturationdensity:

d m E f Em
2 E f

1V f
Vf
[68.42]
Where:
= matrix crack distance
ThecorrespondingstressistheSaturationStress,(s).
68.4.1.4 Crack closure effect

Separationofthesurfacesofacrackisrestrainedbyfibrereinforcement.Thisclosureeffectinhibits
furthercrackgrowth.Iffibresarebrokenorpulledthroughthematrix,theclosureeffectisrelevant
withintheimmediatevicinityofthecracktip.Accordingly,crackinitiationiscontrolledbyacritical
fracturetoughnessparameterofthematrixandfrictionforcesattheinterfacebetweenthefibreand
matrix,Ref.[6818].
12 1 2 K c 2E f V f 2 1 2 1 2
1/ 3

m [68.43]
Em d
where:
E fVf

Em (1 V f )
Small fibre diameters and high volume fractions both inhibit matrix cracking. However, high
valuesareinappropriateandfibrebreakageispromotedbystrongmatrixtofibrebonding.
68.4.1.5 Crack growth parameters

Thecrackgrowthparametersdescribedare,Ref.[6820]:
~ Potentialenergyreleaserate(crackextensionforce)forelastic
G behaviour.
G* Potentialenergyreleaseinnonelasticbehaviour.
Crackpropagationresistance.WhenG = R,thereisstablecrack
R
growth.
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ir Irreversibledeformation.
GeneralrelationofenergyreleaserateusedinsteadofGparticularly
J
fornonlinearelasticbehaviour.
Js Energyreleasedincrackextensionfromatoa
ParameterbasedonmethodsproposedbyRiceetalfornonlinear
JR
behaviour.
Relationshipfornonelasticnonlinearbehaviourdevelopedby
JG
Garwood.
Thisgivesthreetypesofdistinguishableparameters:
Elasticcontribution:G,JRandJs
Nonelasticcontribution: ir
Totalresistance: J
G*
, R J s ir
WhereJisusuallyofthesamemagnitudeasR.
Itisclaimedthatthefractureparameters J R , ir and R donotdependoneither:
specimenshapeandsize,or
initialnotchlength.
Therefore,theycanbeconsideredasintrinsicfractureparameterswithwhichtodescribecomposite
behaviour.
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68.5 References
68.5.1 General
Book.PergamonPress,1989,ISBN0080369839
[682] N.Bourgeoisetal
ModelizationofMicrostructureInfluenceontheMacroscopic
PropertiesofDiscontinuouslyReinforcedMMCs
ProceedingsoftheMicrostructureandPropertiesofMetalMatrix
CompositesConference,Roskilde,Denmark,26Sept.1991p235240
[683] S.M.Pickard&B.Derby
TheDeformationofParticleReinforcedMetalMatrixComposites
DuringTemperatureCycling
ActaMetall.mater.Vol.38,No.12,p25372552
[684] D.M.Harmonetal
StrengthPredictionsforMetalMatrixComposites
ASTMSTP1032,1989,p222236
[685] G.M.Nemezetal
ThermalCyclingResponseofQuasiIsotropicMetalMatrix
Composites
JournalofEngineeringMaterialsandTechnology,Vol.114
p156191,1992
[686] C.C.Chamis&C.A.Ginty
FundamentalAspectsandFailureModesinHightemperature
Composites
SAMPEQuarterly,July1990,p2026.Also35thSAMPESymposium,
1990,p492503
[687] C.C.Chamisetal
ComputationalSimulationofHighTemperatureMetalMatrix
CompositesCyclicBehaviour
ASTMSTP1080,1990,p5669
[688] A.C.F.Cocksetal
EffectofCyclicThermalLoadingonthePropertiesofMetalMatrix
Composites
JournalofThermalStresses,15:p175184,1992
[689] G.S.Daehn
EffectsofEnvironmentalandMicrostructuralVariablesonthePlastic
DeformationofMetalMatrixCompositesunderchangingTemperature
Conditions
ASTMSTP1080,1990,p7086
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[6810] Y.S.Leeetal
ModellingofTransverseMechanicalBehaviourofContinuousFiber
ReinforcedMetalMatrixComposites
JournalofCompositeMaterials,Vol.25,May1991,p536555
[6811] W.S.Johnsonetal
MechanicalCharacterisationofUnnotchedSCS6/Ti153MetalMatrix
CompositesatRoomTemperature
ASTMSTP1080,1990,p193218
[6812] NanMingYeh&E.Krempl
ANumericalSimulationoftheEffectsofVolumeFraction,Creepand
ThermalCyclingontheBehaviourofFibrousMetalMatrix
Composites
JournalofCompositeMaterials,Vol.26,No.6,1992,p900915
[6813] W.S.Johnson
DamagedevelopmentinTitaniumMetalmatrixComposites
[6814] J.Llorca&M.Elices
FractureResistanceofFiberReinforcedCeramicMatrixComposites
Acta.metall.mater,Vol.38,No.12,p24852492,1990
[6815] D.S.Beyerleetal
DamageMechanismsandtheMechanicalPropertiesofaLaminated
0/90Ceramic/MatrixComposite
J.Am.Ceram.Soc.,75[12]p33213330(1992)
[6816] WenShyongKuo&TsuWeiChou
ModellingoftheThermomechanicalBehaviourofGlassMatrix
Composites
Metal&CeramicMatrixComposites:Processing,Modelling&
MechanicalBehaviour.EditedbyR.B.Bhagatetal,1990
p311318
[6817] L.R.Dharani
AnalysisofaCeramicMatrixCompositeFlexureSpecimen
ASTMSTP1080,1990,p8797
[6818] D.Sygullaetal
IntegratedApproachinModelling,TestingandDesignofGradient
CVIDerivedCMCComponents
AGARDWorkshopIntroductionofCeramicsintoAerospace
StructuralComponents,21/22April1993,Antalya,Turkey
[6819] FatigueandFractureofInorganicComposites
[6820] M.RMilietal
EnergyToughnessParametersfora2DCarbonFibreReinforced
CarbonComposite
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69
High-temperature structures
69.1 Introduction
69.1.1 Applications
Spaceapplicationsforhightemperaturematerialsarenormallyassociatedwith:
Launcherpropulsionsystems,
Reentryvehicles,
Hypervelocitytransport(spaceplanes),
Planetaryexplorationspacecraft.
[Seealso:69.9]
69.1.2 Performance
Each application has a range of different performance criteria. All have combined thermal and
mechanicalrequirementsthatcanpushmaterialsclosetotheirlimitsofphysicalstability.Thekey
issuestoberesolvedinclude:
Structuralfunctions[See:69.2],
Operatingenvironments[See:69.3],
Structuralintegration[See:69.4],
Heatmanagement[See:69.5],
Lifeexpectancy[See:69.6],
Massbudgets,
Materialsselection[See:69.7],
Manufacturing[See:69.8].
69.1.3 High-temperature materials

Theexternaltemperaturesexperiencedonreentrycanrangefrom400Ctoalmost2000Cforsome
regionsofRLVconcepts.
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Mostapplicationsfarexceedthethermalcapabilitiesoffibrereinforcedpolymercomposites(FRP)
orconventionalaluminiumbasedmaterials(250Cto350C),sometal,carbonandceramicbased
materialsareused,oftenascombinationsofalloys,compositesandfibrousinsulation.
[Seealso:Chapter42]
69.1.4 Development approach

As space programmes evolve there is a continuing pressure to improve the mass efficiency of
structures,Ref.[691],[692],[693],[694].Thisisgenerallyachievedbyuseofimprovedmaterials
anddesignconcepts.Oftenmorethanonesolutioncansatisfyastructuralrequirement.
Within Europe, hightemperature material development programmes have tended to be flight
vehicle biased, e.g. materials technology developed for thermo structures or thermal protection
systemswithinaparticularvehicleconcept.Thetechnologycanthenbeapplied,ifappropriate,to
futureprogrammes.
A NASA review (2007) of European hotmaterial capabilities for thermo structures and TPS
concluded,Ref.[697]:
AlotofgooddevelopmentworkisbeingdoneinEurope.
Strong emphasis is placed on CMC and metallic TPS, with CMC tile TPS having a higher
technologyreadinesslevelthanmetallic(whereasthesituationisreversedintheUSA).
Companiestendtohavenichetechnologieswithlittlecompetitioninthatarea,
Companiescollaborateagreatdeal.
Many of the companies have both the fabrication and design expertise within the same
organisation.
Europe appears focused on developing technology for flight experiments, but understands
thatflightexperimentssometimesfailandmoveson.
[See:69.9]
69.2 Functions
69.2.1 General
Heatenergyandhightemperaturesaregeneratedby:
aerodynamiceffectsathighspeed.
combustionoffuelsforpropulsion.
Bothgiveawidespectrumoftemperatures,originatingatlocalisedregionsofextremelyhighheat
flux.Surroundingareasexperienceadiminishingtemperaturegradientawayfromthefocalpoint.
Thedurationofheatingdefinestheoverallheatmanagementproblem.
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69.2.2 Aerodynamic heating
69.2.2.1 Heat flux

The external surfaces of spaceplanes, reentry vehicles and capsules experience heating when
passing through gaseous environments at extremely high velocities. The heat flux experienced is
structuredependentbuttypicallyvariesbetween0.5MW/mand15MW/m.Higherlocalisedfluxes
can be experienced for some SSTO vehicles or planetary capsules. In spaceplane designs, this can
resultinsurfacetemperaturesupto1700C.
Towithstandthepeaktemperatures,ceramicsshouldbeintheformof:
Rigidcomposites(CSiC,SiCSiC),
Fibrefeltsandcloths,or
Rigidfoams.
Lowertemperaturescanbetoleratedbymetallicsystemsbasedonnickelsuperalloysortitanium.
Theexternalsurfaceofspaceplanescanthereforebemadefromarangeofmaterialsdependingon
the temperature distribution. The aerodynamic surfaces perform a thermalbarrier function in
conjunctionwithaloadcarryingrole.
Theycanbeclassifiedaseither,Ref.[695],[696]:
thermostructuraldesigns,[See:Chapter70],or
thermalprotectionsystems(TPS),[See:Chapter71].
69.2.2.2 Other factors

Thedesignandmaterialselectionisinfluencedby:
Surfacecatalicity,
Oxidisingspecies,
Materialthermalconductivity,
Liferequirements(singleormultiplemission),
Acousticresponse,
Provenexperience.
Ablative materials are an option for missions with only a single reentry [See: 71.4 Ablative
designs].
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69.2.3 Propulsive power generation
69.2.3.1 Fuels
Arangeoffuelscanbeburnt,including:
Solidfuelsforboosters,
LiquidH2/O2,
Monopropellantsforthrusters,
Bipropellantsforthrusters,e.g.MMH/NTO.
69.2.3.2 Temperature
All propellants produce extremely high gas temperatures (>2500*C) from which the containment
materials are protected by controlled gas flows and the use of cooling. This ensures that these
containmentmaterialsremainattemperatureswithintheircapabilities.
Fortherangeofpossibleservicetemperaturestheseinclude:
Carboncarbonto2000C(possibly2500C),
SiCSiCto1600C,
Niobiumalloysto1400C,
Titaniumalloysto600C,
Copperalloysto540C.
69.2.3.3 Spaceplanes
With the advent of spaceplanes (SSTO or TSTO), the range of propulsionsystem designs has
broadenedtoinclude:
Airbreathingengines,
ScramJets,
RamJets.
All propulsion systems experience a spread of temperatures away from the region of fuel
combustion,enablingarangeofdifferentmaterialstobeusedinthereducedtemperaturezones.
For spaceplane concepts, the main propulsion unit and the necessary air intakes are usually
integratedintotheairframeandexternalaerodynamicprofile.
69.2.3.4 Other design factors

Additionalparametersaffectingdesignsinclude:
Oxidativeandcorrosiveexhaustgases,
Thermalshock,
Materialcompatibilitywithfuels,
Optimumliferequirement,
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Specificimpulse,
Activecooling,
Materiallimitations.
69.3 Operating environments

When materials are used at high temperatures, there is a narrow margin between stability and
unacceptable material degradation. In general, the shorter the life requirement, the higher the
operatingtemperature.
For reusable structures, a sufficient margin is established in order to guarantee material and
structuralintegrityformultiplemissions.
Theoperatingenvironmentforhotstructuresimposesarangeofconditions,which,compounded,
cangivemechanismsformaterialfailure,including:
Thermalcycling,
Thermalshock,
Thermomechanicalfatigue(TMF),
Oxidisingandcorrosivegases,
Embrittlement(effectsofhydrogenorcryogenicconditions),
Aggressivefuels,
Impact,
Hightemperaturecreep.
[See: Chapter 83 for thermomechanical fatigue; Chapter 85 for hightemperature environmental

stability]
69.4 Integration
Hotstructuresareintegratedwiththecoolerpartsofthevehicle:
Theloaded,hotexternalaerodynamicsurfacesofthespaceplaneareconnectedtothecooler,
primaryairframestructures.
Thrustfromahotpropulsionunitistransmittedtothevehicleviaasuitableloadpath.
Integrationtakesintoaccount:
Differencesinthermalexpansionbetweencomponents,
Joiningtechniques,[See:Chapter60andChapter61].
Assemblymethods.
Inspection,[See:Chapter80].
Sealtechnologies,[See:Chapter75].
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69.5 Heat management

The generation of high thermal fluxes and energy densities at the surface of a component or
structurecreatesproblemsinheatmanagement.Theamountofheatabsorbedisdeterminedby:
Surfaceemissivity,
Materialthermalconductivities,
Specificheatcapacities,
Gasflowvelocitiesandheatcapacities,
Overallthermalinertia,
Locationofthermalinsulation,
Opportunitiesforactivecooling.
Heat management is a controlling factor in the design of thermal protection systems (TPS), [See:
Chapter71].
69.6 Life expectancy
69.6.1 General
Thegreaterthelifeexpectancyplacedonacomponentorstructure,thegreatertheopportunityfora
degradationmechanismtooccurthatcancompromisematerialintegrity.
Lifeexpectancyisdeterminedby:
Maximumtemperature,
Thermalshock,
Timeattemperature,
Numberofthermalcycles,
Presenceofcorrosivespecies.
Inpropulsionsystems,materialerosionispermissibleprovidedthatitisconstrainedtoacceptable
levelswithinthedefinedoperatinglife.
69.6.2 Launcher
Totallifeexpectancyforalaunchermainengineisamatterofminutesforasinglelaunchcycle.
69.6.3 Spaceplane
Theenginecanbeoperationalforafewtensofhourswithpossiblyonehundredcycles.Asimilar
liferequirementisapplicableforthevehicleTPS.
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69.6.4 Satellite
Asatelliteattitudecontrolthrusterhasafewhourstotaluse,butthiscanbespreadover5000firings
(thermalcycles)underacuteoxidisingconditionsat1400C.
69.7 Materials selection

Theselectionofanappropriatestructuralmaterialislargelyinfluencedby:
Maximumoperatingtemperature,
Lifeexpectancy,
Operatingenvironment,
Availabilityoftechnology,
Historyofprovenperformance.
Given thatsurface behaviouris all importantinhightemperatureenvironments,coatingshavean

importantroleinprotectionandcompatibility.Coatingsprovide:
Oxidationandhotcorrosionprotection,
Controlledcatalyticresponse,
Desiredemissivity.
[See:Chapter74]
69.8 Manufacturing
Hightemperaturematerialsrequirespecialisedprocesstechniqueswhicharecapitalintensive.Net
shape or near netshape forming processes are common as the finished materials are difficult to
process.Theoveralldesignsarethereforestronglyinfluencedbytheavailabilityofmanufacturing
facilities and expertise. Sound reasons can be put forward for using materials with lower cost
manufacturing routes in preference to more costly, though perhaps technically more desirable,
options.
Superplasticforminganddiffusionbonding(SPF/DB)enablesproductionofcomplexdesigns
intitaniumsheet.
[See:Chapters47and72forTialloys;Chapter88formanufacturingtechniques]
CMCs can be produced by resin pyrolysis or solgel routes at a lower cost than that of
chemicalvapourdeposition(CVD/CVI).
[See:Chapter52forCMCs;Chapter88formanufacturingtechniques]
Load transfer can be achieved by a range of methods each of which has various attractions
andlimitations.
[See:Chapters58,59,60,and61]
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69.9 Applications
69.9.1 Future reusable launch vehicles
69.9.1.1 European perspectives and objectives

ResearchanddevelopmentonTPSandhotstructuresiscrucialforfuturespacevehicles.Ingeneral,
thehightemperaturematerialtechnologiescanbegroupedas:
Flightvehicledependent.
Nonvehicledependent.
AccordingtoaNASAreviewin2007,thenextgenerationofTPSandhotstructuretechnologiesare
under development within Europe for numerous experimental launch vehicles concepts (whereas
theUSAisseentohaveconcentratedonSpaceShuttlederivedtechnology).Othercommentscanbe
summarisedas,Ref.[697]:
EuropeanTPSandhotstructureemphasis:
DevelopmentofceramicmatrixcompositeandmetallicTPSwithfibrousinsulation.
Largerunititemsize(reducedpartcount).
Moredurable(reducedinspectionandrepair).
Developmentofceramicmatrixcompositesandmetallichotstructures.
Noceramictiledevelopment.
Onlylimiteddevelopmentsusingblanketinsulation.
Waterproofinggenerallynotnecessary.
Technologydevelopmenthasabroadbase,including:
Fabrication.
Testing facilities, developed for TPS and hot structures, e.g. thermal/structural test
chamber;arcjettunnels.
Largecomponents.
Fasteners.
Bearings.
Oxidationprotection.
Damagerepair.
Lifecycle.
Longterm funding is based on technology needs. Europewide industry support and
financial commitment to X38 program, with significant resources available for future space
vehicleTPSandhotstructures:
C/SiCbodyflaps(estimatedUS$20million);Technologydevelopments(estimatedUS$
50millionbyGermany).
ManycompaniescommittingresourcesindevelopingC/SiChotstructures.
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Large thermal/structural test chamber developed specifically for verification of hot
structures.
69.9.2 Flight-vehicle dependent
69.9.2.1 Summary of concept vehicles

Many concepts for RLVs of various complexities have been proposed. All of these vehicles have
thermostructures or TPS and hence contribute to the technological advances made with high
temperature materials. The expertise and experience gained during these earlier programmes has
contributedtorecentvehicleconcepts:
SpaceShuttleOrbiter(USA),[Seealso:71.5]
BURAN(exUSSR),[Seealso:71.6]
Hermes(Europe),[Seealso:70.3]
HOPE(Japan),[Seealso:70.4]
HOTOL(UK),[Seealso:70.5]
Snger(D),[Seealso:70.6]
Xprogramvehicles,e.g.
X33.
X38,[Seealso:70.23bodyflap;70.24nosecap].
X43,partofNASAsHyperXprogramtodevelopahypersonicairvehiclepoweredby
anairbreathingengine.
X51 WaveRider, NASAs scramjet engine demonstrator (SEDWR), to undergo test
flightsend2009into2010.
NASP or X30 (USA), [See also: 70.7], an airbreathing SSTO single stage to orbit concept
vehicle.
Hopper (D), an unmanned commercial launcher system that forms part of the Phoenix
programme. Intended to test technologies. A joint initiative by DaimlerChrysler Aerospace
withaconsortiumofindustrialandscientificpartners(startedin1999).
Foton (Russia), a flight experiment testbed (15 days in orbit) for DLRs LSI liquid silicon
infiltrationC/CSiC,[See:52.3]andprotectivecoatings(yttriumsilicate),[Seealso:71.17].
PRORAUSVunmannedspacevehicle(I),fundedbyItalianSpaceAgency/CIRA,anorbital
FTB(flyingtestbed)fortechnologydevelopmentofsharphotstructures(wingleadingedge
andnosecap),[See:70.22].
IXVIntermediateExperimentalVehicle(ESA),partofESAFLPP,runbyNGLPrime,joint
ventureofAstrium(F,D)andFinmeccanica(I),PDRendof2007,firstflightendof2010.
EXPERT European eXPErimental Reentry Testbed (ESA): Flight Experiment TPS,
comprisingabluntconeconfigurationwithapyramidalshape(calledKHEOPS)havingfour
flatsurfaces,eachwithafixedflap(twofixedflapsettings).
SHEFEXSharpEdgeFlightExperiment(D),whichisDLRfundedtoevaluateperformance
ofmultifacettedleadingedges.FlewOctober2006(Mach7between9020km,300kmapogee)
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SHyFE Sustained Hypersonic Flight Experiment (UK), whichisfunded by UK Ministry of
Defence,todesignandflyaprototyperamjetcapableofsustainedhypersonicflight.1stflight
August2009,2ndflightin2010.
LEA(F),byMBDAandONERA,destinedMach4to8testflightsbetween2010and2013.Key
technologyfuelcooledcompositestructuresforcombustionchambers.
[See also: 71.1 for description of other European programmes which have contributed to TPS
technologies]
69.9.2.2 Summary of high-temperature structural materials

Table 69.9.1 summarises the various hightemperature material technologies developed for the
thermostructuresandTPSofparticularvehicleconcepts,Ref.[697].
69.9.2.3 Summary of hypersonic engine materials technologies

Thepropulsionsystemsofseveralofthehypersonicconceptvehiclesrelyonairbreathingscramjets.
Developmentenginesusehydrogenorhydrocarbonfuels,Ref.[6910],[698].Othermaterials,such
as silanes, are also suggested. Materials for scramjets need to demonstrate extreme combined
thermalandchemicalresistance,[Seealso:Chapter73].Engineconceptstendtouse:
Hightemperature alloys, often cooled by the fuel, [See also: 48 superalloys; 49
intermetallics].
Ceramics or CMCs, [See: 52], either uncooled or cooled, e.g. Cooled C/SiC CMC concepts
destinedforthehydrogenfuelledFrenchLEAscramjet,Ref.[699];DLRsCMCcombustion
chamberinGermany,Ref.[697].
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Table69.91Summaryofhightemperaturematerialstechnologies:Flight
vehicledependent
IXV - Intermediate Experimental Vehicle (ESA)
Leeward and base side :
FEI flexible external insulation (FEI 1000,
650, 450), [See: 71.11]
ODS metallic TPS: Metallic sandwich TPS
stainlesssteelhollowspherecore;HollowMet
ODShollowspherecore(AlcatelAleniaSpace
(I) & and Plansee (A)); Metallic honeycomb
TPS TIMETAL 1000; ODS superalloys based
onIN617(DutchSpace)
Windward side:
C/SiC shingles of different size (SNECMA)
C/SiC leading edges, either fixed hot
structure (MT Aerospace) or shingle
(SNECMA, )
SPFI - surface protected flexible insulation,
[See: 71.12]
EXPERT - European experimental re-entry test bed (ESA) - KHEOPS
C/SiC nose cap (DLR)

EXPERT metallic TPS (Plansee PM 1000)
CMC open flaps (MT Aerospace)

USV - unmanned Space Vehicle (I)
UHTC ultra high temperature ceramics:
- Nose: bulk graphite core; truncated conical
C/SiC frame (Fabbricazioni Nucleari), with
ZrB2-SiC coating on C/SiC frame by plasma
spray (Centro Svilippo Materiali); UHTC
conical tip from hot pressing (National
Research Council Institute for Ceramic
Materials)
- Wing leading edge: Actively cooled:
Inconel; UHTC. Hybrid sandwich panel (to
2000C on windward surface) with C/C face
sheets, carbon foam core.
- Leeward surface: MMC of Ni sheets and
SiC/Al2O3 fibres
.../continued
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SHEFEX - Sharp Edge Flight Experiment (D)

CMCs with some metallic TPS (C/C-SiC
leading edge; CMC LSI panels liquid
silicon infiltration process (DLR); Fibrous
matt insulation, [See: 71.12]; CMC
fasteners)

SHyFE - Sustained Hypersonic Flight Experiment (UK),
C/SiC used for vehicle construction:
almost entire flight experiment is CVI
C/SiC (MT Aerospace)
Titanium alloy tank

LEA (F)
Actively-cooled composite combustion
chamber:
- A3CP - C/SiC Novoltex CVI, with
machined cooling channels. Brazing of
another sheet of C/SiC Novoltex.
Sepcarbinox CMC C/SiC
- PTAH-SOCAR monoblock structure
obtained by weaving with stitching
yarns through removable mandrel
(burn-out), liquid densification

.../continued
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X-program vehicles (USA)

X-43A - Hyper-X
X-43A known as Hyper-X completed flight

trials in 2004 and flew at Mach 9.6 for a
few seconds, X-43A has a tile-based C-C
TPS (Boeing) and high-temperature
resistant metals that also resist shock
waves forces on the airframe generated in
hypersonic flight.
The air-breathing scramjet (developed by
ATK) uses gaseous hydrogen fuel. The
copper-based engine was not designed to
survive the test flight. Ref.[69-13]

X-51 - WaveRider
Test flights (end-2009 2010) to fly
hypersonic (> Mach 6) for 5 minutes using
air-breathing hypersonic scramjet. The
vehicle obtains some lift from its shock
waves in-flight.
The Pratt & Whitney X-51 Falcon engine
is made from standard Ni-alloy and cooled
during flight by its fuel. Ref. [69-13]
69.9.3 Non-vehicle dependent
69.9.3.1 General
Somebroadcategoriescreatedtoclassifyapplicationsforhightemperaturematerialsinclude:
Thermostructuraldesigns,[See:Chapter70],
Thermalprotectionsystems(TPS),[See:Chapter71],
Propulsiontechnologies,[See:Chapter73],
Protectivecoatings,[See:Chapter74],
Sealtechnologies,[See:Chapter75].
TheseChapterscontainaseriesofcasestudiesdescribingaspectsofdesignandmaterialsselection.
Manyoftheconceptshavenotnecessarilybeenappliedorflown.
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69.9.3.2 Technologies
High temperature material developments for nonvehicle specific RLVs tend to associated either
withTPSorscramjetpropulsionsystems.SomeTPSdevelopmentsevolvedfrompreviouswork,e.g.
layeredinsulationmaterials,panels.
WithinEurope,ESAfundsworkwithintheframeworkoffuturelauncherprogrammes,e.g.FLPP1
Materials and Structures Program. Some examples of technologies developed that are not vehicle
specificaresummarisedinTable69.9.2,Ref.[697],[6912].
Table69.92Summaryofhightemperaturematerialstechnologies:Nonflight
vehicledependent
Actively cooled CMC thrust chamber (DLR)
C/C used for inner material
(porosity 13% to 22%; 0/90 lay-up;
10 mm thick)
Temperature gradients
(1000C/mm due to low k of 1
W/mK to 1.2 W/mK; 30 mm
chamber diameter)
CFRP jacket (internal pressure
loads; longitudinal compression
loads due to attachments and
thrust; 5 mm thick.; needs H2
barrier
MLI - multi-layer insulation (MT Aerospace)
Medium Temperature
(~1000C):
Weight limit* 4 kg/m2 and 40
mm thick; Nextel 312 fabric
containment; Pryogel superior to
Microtherm (density, vibration,
humidity, handling); Consists of
IMI and Pyrogel (6 mm).
High Temperature (~1600C):
Limits* 8.5 kg/m2, 80 mm;
Nextel 440 fabric containment;
IMI [See also: 71.10] with Zircar
APA-2 for highest temperature
regions and Pyrogel for lower
temperature regions.
Seals (DLR):
Saffil filled Nextel 312 bag
impregnated by MTMS (up to
1300K); Saffil filled Nextel 440
bag impregnated by MTMS (up
to 1900K); Kept in placeby
C/SiC guard.
* ESA imposed limit
.../continued
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FEI - flexible external insulation (EADS)
FEI blankets new developments:

High emittance coating developed
with better stability; Less toxic
waterproofing for initial and re-
waterproofing (now methyl
triethoxy silane); Refurbishment
and repair procedures defined;
Applied to FEI-1000 blankets and
subjected to 10-flight
environmental testing; Water-
proofing and coating refurbished
after 4 cycles.

[See also: 71.11]
Hybrid Metal/CMC Winglet Hot Structure (Alenia)
General configuration: 1/3 size

of X-38, removed hinge step.
Design and analysis complete,
with fabrication and PWT test
planned.
Outboard panel and wing leading
edge: MT Aerospace C/SiC, 3
mm thick
Inboard (3 panels): Plansee PM
2000, 1 mm thick with 2 mm
thick ribs
Seals: Nextel wrapped Saffil

ULTIMATE Metallic TPS (EADS)
General configuration: Load-

carrying metallic box with
standoffs and internal
insulation; Outer surface
honeycomb sandwich (10 mm
thick, hexagonal cells); -TiAl;
-standoffs. SHEFEX flight
similar to ULTIMATE design.
Panel size: Development 200mm
200mm; Final design 500mm
500mm;
Panel test (Vibration*, Acoustic,
Thermal to ~850C); Assembly
tests (Vibration*, Thermal IR,
PWT)
* HOPPER loads
.../continued
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MERIT Metallic TPS (EADS)

Further development of
ULTIMATE using a -Ti alloy
instead of the -TiAl in
ULTIMATE. Reason for change:
Aluminide brittle at RT.
ESA-funded study within the

framework of FLPP-1 Materials &
Structures Program.

Passive-to-Active Oxidation (Germany)
Research into a reproducible phenomenon seen during PWT tests.
Under some steady state conditions, a small increment in energy (1 mm closer) caused a
small hot spot that within 30 seconds that covered the entire sample with a temperature of
2050C.
Cause of temperature rise at passive to active transition attributed to half energy released
during active oxidation from oxidative reactions, half from nitrogen recombination (tested
with N2 plasma, low oxygen).
Effect seen at: 1720C/800 Pa, 1700C/500 Pa, 1720C/800 Pa, 11800C/2000 Pa,
1840C/3500 Pa, 1940C/7000 Pa
69.9.4 Summary of European capabilities

European capabilities for hightemperature materials destined for hotstructures and TPS are
summarisedinTable69.9.3,Ref.[697].Itisnotanexhaustivelist.
Table69.93Summaryofhightemperaturematerialstechnologies:European
expertise
Organisation(Country) Activities
ESA (F)
Future launchers programs.
ESTEC (NL)
MT Aerospace (D)
CVI C/SiC hot structures fabrication and design.
(formerly MAN Technologie)
LSI C/C-SiC hot structures and general hot structures
DLR (D)
design.
High temperature metal (Ti, Superalloy, intermetallics
Plansee (A)
and refractory metals) fabrication.
IABG (A) Hot structures testing.
SNECMA (F) CVI C/SiC acreage TPS fabrication and design.
Dutch Space (NL) Metallic TPS and hot structures fabrication and design.
EADS-Astrium Group
Complete portfolio of TPS and hot structures design.
(Europe-wide, D and F)
CIRA (I) Aerospace R&D Centre, worlds largest PWT.
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69.10 References
69.10.1 General
[691] ESTECWorkshopAdvancedStructuralMaterials:DesignforSpace
Applications
2325March1988
ESAWPP004(October1988)
[692] ESASymposiumonSpaceApplicationsofAdvancedStructural
Materials
March1990
ESASP303,p227232
[693] ProceedingsoftheInternationalConference:SpacecraftStructuresand
MechanicalTesting
ESTEC,2426April1991
ESASP321,p299308
[694] ESASymposiumonAdvancedMaterialsforLightweightStructures
March1992;ESASP336
[695] ProceedingsofaNASAWorkshop:CurrentTechnologyforThermal
ProtectionSystems
1112February1992,LangleyResearchCentre,Virginia
NASAConferencePublication3157
[696] FirstESA/ESTECWorkshoponThermalProtectionSystems
ESTEC,Noordwijk,57May1993
ESAWPP053(August1993)
[697] D.E.Glass:NASALangleyResearchCenter(USA)
EuropeanDirectionsforHypersonicThermalProtectionSystemsand
HotStructures
31stAnnualConferenceonCompositesMaterialsandStructures,
DaytonaBeach,Florida,USA,January2007
[698] G.J.Daddetal:QinetiQFarnborough(UK)
SustainedHypersonicFlightExperiment(SHyFE)
Paper:AIAA20067926,14thAIAA/AHISpacePlanesandHypersonic
SystemsandTechnologiesConference,Canberra,610November,2006
[699] L.Serre&F.Falempin:ONERA/MBDA(F)
FrenchR&TActivitiesonHighSpeedAirbreathingPropulsion
14thAIAA/AHISpaceplanes&HypersonicSystems&Technologies
Conference,Canberra,610November,2006
[6910] M.R.Tetlowetal:UniversityofAdelaide(Australia)
OrbitalPayloadDeliveryusingHydrogenandHydrocarbonfuelled
ScramjetEngines
PresentedatIEEEAerospaceConference2006.
[6911] WP.P.Fischer&JrgBolzetal:DaimlerChryslerAerospaceBremen,
(D)
SPFIANewTPSforReentryVehicles
SAEPaper1999012165(1999)
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[6912] WP.P.Fischer:EADSAstriumSpaceTransportationGmbH,Bremen,
(D)
BetaTitaniumAlloyThermalProtectionSystemforReentryVehicles
SAEPaper08ICES0013(2008)
[6913] ExtractsfromNASAPresswebsite(June2009)
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70
Thermo-structural designs
70.1 Introduction
70.1.1 General
Thischapteraimstodemonstratehowspacestructuredesignshavedevelopedtofunctioninhigh
temperatureenvironments.Materialselectionhasbeendrivenbytheneedtocombineloadbearing
functionswithheatmanagement.Therehavebeenanumberofcontributoryfactorstotheevolution
ofdesigns:
Amovefromsingletomultiplemission,reusablestructures,
Higherpayloadrequirements,
Moreefficientliquidfuelpropulsionsystems,
Moreefficientstructuralmaterials,
Advancesinhightemperaturematerialstechnology.
Ahistoricalviewshowstheinitialinvestmentonwhichsubsequentspaceprojectshavebeenbuilt.
Spaceprogrammesconsumesmallquantitiesofmaterialswhicharecostlytoevaluateandapprove
forspaceuse.Provenmaterialsandconstructionmethodsarealwaysattractiveincomparisonwith
unproventechnologies.
In many cases a thermostructural design also forms the external thermal protection system of a
spacevehicle.
[Seealso:Chapter71forthermalprotectionsystems]
70.1.2 Single mission

Initialmanratedspacevehiclesweresmallcapsules,suchastheGemini,MercuryandApolloseries
launchedonSaturnrockets.Thesenonreusablecapsulesweredesignedforsinglemissionsandhad
towithstandtheheatgeneratedonreentryintotheearthsatmosphere.Theheatshields(TPS)were
ofanablativedesignattachedtothemetalcapsule(coldstructure),[See:71.3].Theyperformedtheir
role efficiently and ablative designs are appropriate for some future space missions such as
planetaryexploration.
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70.1.3 Reusable vehicles

With the advent of the Space Shuttle Orbiter and Buran, the requirements were extended to
multiplemissioncapabilitiesandgreaterpayloads.Theexternalstructureofthesevehiclestherefore
had to withstand multiple reentries with minimal maintenance, so ablative technologies were
excluded. These early spaceplanes were essentially aircraft designs of predominantly aluminium
airframeconstruction.Insulativetileswereaddedtotheexternalsurfacestoprovidetheinsulation
forkeepingtheairframecool,[See:71.5and71.6].
Critical aerodynamic surfaces such as the nosecone were made of carboncarbon composites and
wereessentiallythermostructuraldesigns.Thesuccesswithcarboncarboncomposites(RCConthe
Shuttle),promotedthemovetodesignsonnewerspaceplaneconceptswhichrequiretheextensive
useofthermostructuralmaterialssuchasSiCSiC,CSiCandCMCs.Whilstfunctional,theceramic
tiles on the Shuttle are now thought of as mass inefficient and troublesome in maintenance
requirements.Lowmaintenanceandinspectioncostsarenowdeemedessentialforfuturereusable
spaceplaneswithshortturnroundtimes.
Spaceplanesformthefocalpointforthermostructuraldesignconcepts,Ref.[701].However,with
the costs envisaged for their construction the technology can also be applied elsewhere, such as
deepspaceplanetaryexploration.
70.2 Spaceplanes
70.2.1 Hermes
The Hermes programme was a continuation of the Shuttle concept, but used more advanced
technologies.In1993theHermesprogrammewasterminatedandthevehiclewasneverbuilt.
HermeswasintendedtobelaunchedbyAriane5andplacedinLowEarthOrbit(LEO).TheHermes
enginesweresmallbutsufficientfororbitalmanoeuvring.Eachspaceplanewasintendedtoperform
30 missions with the vehicle designed to sustain 100 flights. The structure and thermal protection
systemthereforehadtobecapableofsustainingthisnumberofreentries.
Most of the external aerodynamic surfaces were intended to be rigid CMC tiles or shingles [See:
71.12]. The external surfaces were thermostructural in sustaining aerodynamic loads and thermal
fluxesonreentry.AswiththeShuttle,thenoseconewasofaCCconstructionwithanoxidation
protectioncoatingsystem.AspartoftheHermesdemonstratorprogrammevariousassemblieswere
manufactured,including:
Nosecone,[See:70.9],
Wingleadingedges,[See:70.10],
Boxsection[See:70.11],and
Shingles,[See:71.12].
70.2.2 HOPE
HOPE is the Japanese equivalent of the shuttle concept, i.e. a spaceplane with a disposable
launcher having some recoverable components, Ref. [7033]. The level of technology is similar to
that of Hermes as a demonstrator for more advanced materials with thermostructural design
concepts.
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70.2.3 Single- and two-stage-to-orbit

Thenextgenerationofspaceplanesareintendedtobetrulyreusableineliminatingthedisposable
launcher.Thisrequiresthespaceplanestohavetheirownlaunchcapabilitywithanefficientpower
plant and appropriate fuel capacity. The payload then represents a small proportion of the total
(gross)mass.
Onlyveryefficientdesignsenablesufficientpayloadtobeeconomicallyviable.Thesespaceplanes
are intended to be operated in a similar fashion to aircraft and to offer significant economies in
placing payloads into orbit. They are subjected to the thermal excursions both on launch and re
entry.Highprofileprogrammesincluded:
NASPandHOTOLsinglestagetoorbit(SSTO)vehicles,and
Sngeratwostagetoorbit(TSTO)system.
SubsequentRLVconceptsincludethosearisingfromtheEuropeanFESTIPandFLTPprogrammes;
resulting in the EXTV (European Experimental Test Vehicle). The PHOENIX collaborative
programmeinGermanyincludestheHoppervehicleconcept.Thisbuildsonthetechnologybase
investigatedforSnger.
Within the US Xprogramme, the X33 Venture Star, X34 and DCXA Delta Clipper are all
technology demonstrator vehicles for RLVs. The X38 CTV is a reentry demonstrator and the
forerunner to the Crew Rescue Vehicle (CRV) for the International Space Station (ISS). The X
38/TETRA demonstrator vehicle contains a significant amount of Europeanbased technology and
expertise,Ref.[7033].
[See:Chapter52forCMC]
[Seealso:Chapter90toChapter94forsmarttechnologies]
The information presented reflects the development of suitable technologies. No endorsement of

anyonetechnologyinpreferencetoanotherisintendedorimplied.
70.3 Hermes
Beneath the outer surface is a loadbearing airframe made principally of aluminium alloy with
titanium in localised areas. The maximum temperature that aluminium alloys can withstand is
around175C,sothermalsoaktotheairframehastobeefficientlycontrolled.
Forthermostructuraldesigns,theouterrigidskinpossessescertainsurfaceemissivityandcatalytic
characteristics determined by the surface coating. The thermal conductivity or diffusivity then
determines the amount of heat that can enter the structure. The diffusivity and density of
underlying ceramic insulation determines the spacing needed between skin and airframe and the
remainderofthemassbudget.
Hermes was restricted to 24 tonnes gross mass, that being the maximum lift capacity of Ariane 5.
Maximum payload was around 3 tonnes. The US Space Shuttle in comparison has a 22.8 tonne
payload. Hermes was very vulnerable to erosion of the 3 tonne payload capacity, necessitating a
veryefficientstructuralandthermaldesignpackage.
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A resum of the thermostructural configurations developed is given in Ref. [702]. Prior to
cancellationoftheEuropeanHermesprogramme,theareasofmaterialstechnologytotheforewere:
CSiC and SiCSiC thermostructural designs manufactured by SEP using CVI processing
routes.
CCthermostructuraldesignsmanufacturedbyAerospatiale.
DassaultAviationassembledpartsinCMC.
FEI(flexibleexternalinsulation)conceptsbyMBBERNO(DASA),[See:71.11].
Rapid CSiC processing for CMC shingles by Dornier/DASA and MAN Technologie, [See:
71.12].
Work on these technologies has largely continued under more recent European and joint US RLV
programmes,[See:70.2].
70.4 HOPE
Whereas Hermes dispensed with a composite airframe and reverted back to an aluminium
construction,HOPEretainsapolyimideCFRPstructure,Ref.[703].
The external surfaces rely heavily on CC designs and ceramic tiles for the hotter regions. The
surfacetemperatureprofile,showninFigure70.4.1,hassimilaritieswiththatofHermes.
Figure70.41HOPE:Distributionofsurfacetemperatures
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HOPEisasmallvehicledesignedwiththeHIIlauncherliftcapabilitiesasthemajorconstraint.The
gross mass is 20 tonnes with a 3 tonne payload on launch (5 tonne on return). Diagrammatic
representations of the structural configuration and material allocations are shown in Figure 70.4.2
andFigure70.4.3,Ref.[704].
Figure70.42HOPE:DistributionofTPS
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Figure70.43HOPEstructuralmaterialstobeapplied
The National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) is applying selected technologies to
experimentaltestvehicles,Ref.[704]:
OREX(OrbitalReentryEXperiment)intendedlaunchin1994.
HYFLEX(HYpersonicFLightEXperiment)in1996.
Theseaimtoevaluatetheeffectofreentryonmaterialsandstructures.
RepresentativediagramsofthetwotestvehiclesareshowninFigure70.4.4andFigure70.4.5,Ref.
[704].
The HYFLEX configuration has an aluminium airframe as opposed to the PI CFRP intended for
HOPE.
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Figure70.44OREXstructureandTPS
Figure70.45HYFLEX:StructuralConfiguration
Theprimarymaterialtechnologiesunderinvestigationinclude:
titaniumconstructions,includingmultiwallTPS(upto550C),
carboncarboncompositesthermostructuresandTPS,
softceramictileTPS,and
polyimideCFRPairframetechnology.
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70.5 HOTOL
HOTOL (HOrizontal Take Off and Land) is a fully reusable SSTO unmanned launch vehicle. For
takeoff, the original design proposed using a powered sledge to propel the vehicle down the
runway.Thisreducedfueldemandsandloweredundercarriageweight.
SubsequentconceptshaveproposedlaunchingHOTOLfromthetopofamodifiedAntonovAN225
heavyliftaircraftflyingathighaltitude.
AllHOTOLconceptsrequirethevehicletohavealargeLH/LOXcapacityandefficientpropulsion
system.Auniqueenginehasbeenproposedwhichiscapableofswitchingfromairbreathingramjet
to rocket propulsion and back again for landing manoeuvres. The vehicle would have four to six
engines.
ThebasicconceptualshapeofHOTOLisshowninFigure70.5.1,Ref.[705].Insimpleterms,itisa
flying fuel tank with a payload bay, air intake and engine cluster. The forward portion of the
fuselage contains the LHtank. The fuselage crosssection is more or less cylindrical and shielded
againstreentryheatingbythecarrythroughwingsandtheenginenacelles.
Figure70.51HOTOL:Configurationg
A wide range of materials have been proposed for various parts of the structure with differing
thermalregimes,Ref.[705]:
Nosecone(1480C):CSiCsandwichstructuresupportedbyCSiCframes.
Nose shell: Sandwich structure of Ti/SiCf with additional TPS. This sustains fin loads via a
bearinginthenoseshellframe.
Fin(630C):Reinforcedtitaniumalloytorsionboxandspigot.Thetorsionboxisamultispar
design with honeycomb sandwich skins. The leading edge, trailing edge and tip are CSiC
sandwichconstructionsexperiencing1430C.
Liquid hydrogen tank (LH): Forms the front fuselage structure, carrying shear, torque, end
load and bending moment due to gusts, manoeuvres, takeoff, landing, lift, drag and fuel
sloshing. The tank is tapered with domed ends and end skirts to transfer the fuselagetank
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loads to the adjacent structures. Tank construction is based on filament wound PEEK
thermoplasticCFRP.
Thermalprotectionsystem(TPS):CryogenicinsulationisusedfortheLHtankcoupledwith
protection from the reentry temperatures of 930C on the lower surface and 430C on the
uppersurfacebyceramicfibreinsulationincorporatingfoilradiationscreens.Theinsulation
is protected from the airflow by CSiC sandwich aeroshell panels 1m x 0.3m. The aeroshell
panelsaredesignedtowithstandacoustic,thermalandpressureloadingandsizedtoprevent
theoccurrenceofpanelflutter.
Payload bay: Aft of the liquid hydrogen tank is the payload bay, 7.5m in length and 4.6m
width. The doors, which open sideways, are designed to carry fuselage bending moments,
end loads, shear loads and aerodynamic pressures when closed. Corrugated titanium alloy
sandwichconstructionsareenvisagedtosustaintemperaturesapproaching430C.
Thruststructure:Themainrocketchambersaresupportedbyamountingringconnectedto
anarrayofstruts.SomeofthestrutsaredirectlyattachedtotheaftLOXtank(PEEKCFRP)
andtheremainderareconnectedtothefuselagelongerons.Themaximumbaytemperatureis
150C. The longeron maximum temperature is 430C. The LOX tank experiences thermal
cycles between 183C and +150C. Titanium is the intended construction material, but
polyimideCFRPcanalsobejustifiedinplaces.
Wing:Consistingoffivemaincomponents:
Torsionboxofreinforcedtitaniumhoneycombsandwichwithexternalprotectionfrom
the930Creentrytemperature.
Centre section providing wing support from the fuselage by four main frames. The
framesarelocatedatthefrontandrearsparswiththetwootherframesbetweenthem.
Anotherframesupportsthestrakeandtrolley.Theframesexperience430C,sorequire
reinforcedtitanium.
TheleadingedgeisCSiCin1msectionswitheachjointprovidingthermalexpansion.
Trailing edge controls consist of two flaperons each side of rib stiffened CSiC
sandwichconstructionfor1430Capplication.
The strake is attached to both the fuselage (by swinging links) and the wing (by a
hinge)inordertoenabledifferentialthermalexpansion.AgainaCSiCconstructionis
essential.
Rear fuselage: This consists of an arrangement of longerons in reinforced titanium with
insulationadjacenttotheairintake,asshowninFigure70.5.2,Ref.[705].Skinningconsistsof
titaniumsandwichpanels,withalargenumberofaccesspoints.Noiselevelsupto165dBare
anticipated.ThebodyflapisCSiCtoresisttemperaturesof930C.
Airintake:TheairintakeisopenduringtheairbreathingascenttoMach5and25kmaltitude,
and is closed thereafter. It is subjected to a maximum temperature of 1430C and a CSiC
constructionisintended.
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Figure70.52HOTOL:RearFuselageandAftLOXTank
HOTOLisaconceptunderfurtherdevelopment.ThedesignrevolvesaroundaninvestmentinC
SiC, TMC, fibrous insulation and PEEK CFRP technologies. The payload is small (circa 3%) in
relationtothegrossmassofthevehiclewithfuel.
Recentstudieshaveindicatedtheneedtooptimisetotalvehicledesignandconstruction,including
parameterssuchas,Ref.[706]:
trajectoryoptimisation,
crossrangeperformance,
heatpulseshaping,
TPSthermaldiffusivity,
TPSthermalconductivity,whichaffectsongroundandinorbitfuelboiloff,
TPSdensity,
TotalTPSmass.
Thisshowsthatthematerialsusedintheconstructioncanbecharacterisedverywell.
70.6 SNGER
TheGermanSngerprojectisatwostagetoorbitsystemandisaverylargetransportationconcept,
inlengthandgrossmass.ThewingedfirststageofSngerusesaclusterofturboramjetstopropelit
anditspayloadtoMach6.8.Themaximumtemperatureovermajorareasoftheairframeareinthe
600Crangewithlocalhotspotsupto1100C,asshowninFigure70.6.1,Ref.[707].
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Figure70.61SNGER:SurfacetemperaturesatMach6.8
Mostofthestructurecouldbemadeoftitanium.Theaerodynamicloadsarecomparabletothoseof
supersonictransportsuptothestageseparationphase.Themannedlowerstagetakesoffandlands
onaconventionalrunway.Theupperstage(HORUS)istheactualspaceplanecapableofa7tonne
payload. It requiresrocket propulsion to achieve final orbit. Thesimilarities between HORUSand
HermesorHOPEintermofstructuralconfigurationsthenbecomemoreobvious.
HORUS is designed with similar constraints to achieve reusable status for multiple reentries.
Similarmaterialtechnologiesareappropriate.TwoproposedadvantagesfortheSngerprojectare
thatthe:
twostagesoperateindependentlyinreasonablywellknownenvironments.
lower stage could be readily converted to a hypersonic craft, for a potential commercial
market.
Whilst hightemperature materials technology can find uses in any spaceplane concepts, within
SngerandGermanhypersonicprogrammesemphasishasbeenplacedon:
multiwalltitaniumandnickelalloyTPSconcepts,[See:Chapter71].
lowcostCMC(CSiCandSiCSiC)productiontechniques,[See:Chapter52].
70.7 National aerospace plane (NASP)

NASPisaUSASSTOvehicleonwhichvarioustechnologieshavebeendemonstrated,Ref.[708].It
hasanambitiousscramjetpropulsionsystemtoattainMach25velocities,Ref.[701].
Figure70.7.1givesthebasicX30NASPconfiguration,Ref.[709].
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Figure70.71NASP:Basicconfiguration
Producing an efficient airframe construction for NASP poses considerable challenges. This is due
largely to kinetic heating which, being more critical in the ascent phase, leads to temperatures at
stagnationpointswellabove2500C.Materialsselectionthenbecomesagreateruncertaintyasthis
maximum temperature range is some 800C higher than anticipated on European and Japanese
spaceplaneconcepts.Activecoolingofstructuresaroundtheenginecontrolsmaterialtemperatures
withinacceptablelimits.
To predict the flow characteristics through and around prospective aerodynamic concepts
considerableinvestmenthasbeenmadeinComputationalFluidDynamics(CFD).
Within the NASP programme, heavy investment has been made in materials technologies, with
largedemonstratorpanelsbeingprepared,Ref.[708]:
Titaniumaluminidesandtitaniumaluminidecomposites,[See:Chapter49].
TMC materials of continuous silicon carbide monofilament reinforced betatitanium alloys
(TimetBeta21S),[See:Chapter47].
High conductivity copper, beryllium and carbon compositions, [See: Chapter 45 for Cu;
Chapter51forBe].
Advanced carboncarbon composites (ACC) with multiplex oxidation protection schemes,
[See:Chapter54].
Hightemperaturecoatingtechnology,e.g.hafniumcompounds,[See:Chapter74].
[Seealso:Chapter71forTPS]
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70.8 Demonstrator panels
70.8.1 General
The various spaceplane programmes have resulted in a range of demonstrators produced by
different materials technologies. The information highlights the achievements given that no full
scalevehicleshavebeenconstructedandflown
70.8.2 NASP
TMCconstructionsbasedonformed,plasmasprayed,filamentpreformsinclude,Ref.[708]:
tubesupto3mlong,
Ibeamsections,
tophatstiffenedsectionsandpanels,
NASPskinpanels~2.4mx~1.2m(8ftx4ft),
boxbeamchannels,
assembledtorquebox,
fuselageassembly.
Titaniumaluminidepanels(760mmx2030mm)havebeenconstructedfromSPF/DBTi3Almaterial,
Ref.[708].
DetailedtechnicalpublicationsontheNASPprogrammeareawaited,Ref.[709].
Aerospatiale have prepared a NORSIAL C sandwich structure consisting of two skins with a
corrugatedcore,80mmx80mmx25mm,Ref.[7010],[7011].ThisusedMAS/NicalonSiCmaterial
forapplicationsupto1000C.Ademonstratorleadingedgewasalsomadeinthismaterial.
70.9 Nose cones
70.9.1 General
Astheleadingaerodynamicsurface,thenoseconesofspaceplanesexperiencehighthermalloadings
coupled with pressure loadings. Carboncarbon constructions are used on the Shuttle Orbiter and
Buran. CC has proved reliable and is the first choice for many thermostructural applications.
ImprovedCCmaterialsandconstructionswerespecifiedforHermes,HOPEandNASPnosecones.
C/SiC,developedinGermany,wasspecifiedfortheX38vehicles.
70.9.2 Shuttle orbiter

The nose cap and chin panel are structural fairings which transmit aerodynamic loads to the
airframestructurethroughdiscretemechanicalattachments,Ref.[7012],asshowninFigure70.9.1
andFigure70.9.2.
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Figure70.91Shuttle:Nosecapsystemcomponents
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Figure70.92Shuttle:RCCchinpanelsystemcomponents
Theoldergenerationcarboncarboncomposite(RCC)isusedforthemainparts.Inconel718andA
286 stainlesssteel fittingsare bolted to flanges formed on the RCC components. These in turn are
fixedtothetitaniumnosecapbulkhead.
Since RCC is not an insulator, the metallic attachments are protected from internal radiation and
conductionbyinsulationblankets.Theseconsistof:
cerachromeinsulation,containedinformedandweldedInconelfoil,
blanketsfabricatedfromAB312ceramiccloth,Saffilandcerachromeinsulation,
ceramictiles(RSILI2200).
70.9.3 Hermes
Partscale demonstrator nose cones were fabricated, Ref. [7011], [7013]. The basic carbon fibre
preformwaswovenbyAerospatialeorSEP.DuringtheearlystagesoftheprogrammebothCC(0.6
scale)andCSiC(0.5scale)noseshellsweremanufactured.SEPproducedaSkinexCSiCversion
in2Dwovenform.AerospatialeusedtheirAEROTISSautomatedwindingandweavingprocessto
achievea3Dconstructionfordensificationwithcarbonbyphenolicresinpyrolysis(CCINOX).
CC INOX version: A thinwalled structure locally reinforced with 5 stiffeners and a thick
flangetotransferloadstoatitaniumringwhichlinksthenosecaptotheairframe,asshown
in Figure 70.9.3. The AEROTISS technique enables the skin thickness to be varied between
3mmand15mm.Itisalsoapplicabletowingleadingedges.
CSiCSkinexversion:LesswelldevelopedthantheCCversionandusedchemicalvapour
infiltration(CVI)fordensifyingthefibrepreformwithSiC.
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Figure70.93Hermes:CCINOXnosecone(0.6scale)
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70.9.4 HOPE
Figure70.9.4showsthattheoutlineresemblesthatoftheShuttleorbiter,Ref.[704].
Figure70.94HOPE:Heatresistantstructuralconfiguration
[See:Figure70.4.4fordetailsofthetransitionbetweentheCCnoseconeandthecoldstructurefor
theOREXdemonstratorvehicle]
The cone has a diameter of 1.736m with a radius of curvature of 1.35m. The cellular through
thicknessoftheconstructionis4mm.
Attachment to the aluminium structure is by a progressive change of materials in thespacersand
fasteners, from ceramic, steel, titanium through to polyimide adjacent to the aluminium. All
fasteners are located on the outer circumference of the shell. The SiC conversion coated CC cone
experiencestemperaturesupto1700C.
70.9.5 NASP
The NASP nose cone experiences very high heat fluxes depending on its mode of operation.
Advancedcarboncarbon(ACC)constructionsareenvisagedwithadvancedprotectionsystems.The
conecouldrequireactivecooling,[See:71.14].
70.9.6 HOTOL
CSiCnoseconeconstructionsproposedforHOTOLareshowninFigure70.9.5,Ref.[705].
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Figure70.95HOTOL:Noseconeandnoseshell
70.9.7 SNGER
TheHORUSupperstageresemblesHermesingeneralconstruction.
The Snger first stage experiences lower temperatures, therefore the material options for the nose
conearenotaslimited.
70.9.8 X-38
TheX38nosecapoverallTPSsystemcomprised,Ref.[7040],[7041]:
C/SiCpanels(externalsurface)developedbyDLR.
Flexible insulation blankets, which were used to fill the remaining volume between the
substructureandtheC/SiCnoseshell.Differenttypesofinsulation,developedbyAstriumSI,
wereused:
IFIinternalflexibleinsulationonthecoldsubstructure;anexistingsidedevelopmentof
FEIblankets,[See:71.11].
HTI high temperature insulation on the outermost region; a new development to
providehigherthermalperformancethanexistingFEIandIFItypesofproducts,[See:
71.23].
TheoverallTPSsystemforthenoseassemblywasacollaborativeexerciseconductedbyAstriumSI,
DLRStuttgartandMANTechnologieinGermany.NASAcancelledtheprojectwhentheintegration
oftheX38demonstratorvehicleV201was90%complete.
[See:70.24X38Nosecap;Seealso:70.23X38Bodyflap].
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70.10 Wing leading edges (WLE)
70.10.1 General
The choice of materials for wing leading edges are basically the same as those for the nose cone,
[See:70.9].
Onanyspaceplanethesamematerialandmanufacturingtechnologiesapplytobothnoseconesand
WLEs.ThematerialsgainingpreferenceareCCorCSiC.
70.10.2 Shuttle orbiter

TheCCWLEfortheOrbiterisshowninFigure70.10.1,Ref.[7012].
Figure70.101Shuttleorbiter:Wingleadingedgesystemcomponents
EachWLEconsistsof22panelsjoinedby22TSeals.Thissegmentationisusednotonlytoenableits
manufacture,butalsotoaccommodatethethermalexpansionduringreentryandtopreventlarge
gapsorinterferencebetweenparts.
In addition, the TSeals prevent ingestion of the boundarylayer gases into the WLE cavity. The
rangeofmaterialsissimilartothatforthenosecone,[See:70.9].
70.10.3 Buran
TheconstructionissimilartothatoftheOrbiter,asshowninFigure70.10.2,Ref.[7014].
AtimetemperatureprofilefortheWLEisshowninFigure70.10.3,Ref.[7016].Thisdemonstrates
howheatmanagementthroughtheuseofradiationheatexchangewassuccessfulinloweringpeak
temperaturesbetween100Cand150C,soextendingtheworkinglifeoftheCC.
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Figure70.102Buran:Wingleadingedgeconstruction
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Figure70.103Buran:Temperatureofwingleadingedgewithtime
70.10.4 Hermes
Various WLE configurations have been made by Aerospatiale, Ref. [7010], [7011], SEP and
Dassault Aviation based on their respective expertise in CMC materials and manufacturing
technologies.
SEP prepared a CSiC WLE section of dimensions 400mm (height) x 310mm (width) x 210mm
(depth). This integrally stiffened section was manufactured by the CVI route. It successfully
sustained16cyclesto1550Cinairand2cyclesto1700Cwhilstundermechanicalload,Ref.[70
15].
AschematicrepresentationofaHermesWLEisshowninFigure70.10.4,Ref.[701],[7010].
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Figure70.104Hermes:Hotstructureleadingedge
70.10.5 HOPE
Themainwingandthewingtipfins(elavons)bothhaveleadingedgesctions.CCistheintended
materialfortheconstruction,[See:Figure70.4.3].
HYFLEXhasaCCelevontoenableanassessmentofthetechnology,Ref.[7017].
70.10.6 Others
DornierproducedawingleadingedgebyalowcostmanufacturingrouteforCSiC.Theunitavoids
fastenersthroughtheuseofintegralflangestiffeners,Ref.[7016].
AerospatialehavemadeaWLEsectioninaGCMCmaterial.
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70.11 Box sections
70.11.1 NASP
AnassembledTMCNASPTorqueboxassemblymeasuressome2.4mx1.2m(8ftx4ft).Itconsists
ofamechanicallyfastenedconstructionofskinpanels,channelsectionsandIbeams.
70.11.2 Hermes
TheboxsectionisshowninFigure70.11.1andhadanoveralllengthof1.77m,Ref.[7013].
Figure70.111Hermes:CSiCboxforthermalstructure
SEPusedtheirSEPCARBINOXC/SiCmaterialinitsdevelopedformSKINEXtomanufacturea
Hermeswingboxsection,whichincluded,Ref.[7013],[7015],[7032]:
textileprocessingtoprepare3Dpreforms,
SiCinfiltrationbyCVI,
applicationofantioxidationprotection,
assemblybyfastening,withTZMmetallicfasteners,and
designoptimisation.
The outer skin was 1.6m long and 0.6m wide, with thicknesses varying from 1.9mm to 9.9mm in
spar assembly zones. The spars were 1.8m in length and 0.2m wide with a constant thickness of
3.5mm.Thetotalassembledmasswas41.5kg.
MechanicalloadingtrialswereundertakenatIABG,asapreludetohightemperaturetesting,Ref.
[7032].
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70.12 Cryogenic tanks

Cryogenicfueltanks(cryotanks)areaspecialcaseintheirconstructionandmodeofoperation.They
form a significant part of SSTO and TSTO vehicle designs. For concepts like HOTOL, they
effectivelyformtheloadbearingfuselage.
Theactualtankisusuallyconsideredasacoldstructure(asinHOTOL)andprotectedbyefficient
TPStoensurethatelevatedtemperaturesarenotexperienced.FortheHOTOLtank,PEEKCFRPis
envisagedasthemainconstructionmaterial.
Formoreambitiousdesigns,suchasNASP,thetankanditscontentscanbespecificallydesignedto
absorb heat. Therefore higher temperature materials are used for the construction, e.g. advanced
titaniumbasedmaterials.
70.13 Heat shield designs

Dornier designed and manufactured a demonstrator heat shield panel based on CC and CSiC
materials,Ref.[7016],[7017],[7018].
Variousmanufacturingrouteswerestudiedinconjunctionwithdifferenttwostiffenerconcepts:
Doublewall version: The inner CSiC panel was reinforced by stiffening corrugations and
actedas theloadcarryingpart of the double wall. The outer thin CC panelacted as a heat
emitting layer. Both panels were joined by oxidationprotected niobium bolts. The
configurationandfasteningareshowninFigure70.13.1,Ref.[7017].
Stringerreinforcedsinglepanel:Acarbonfibrefabricpreformwaspreparedwithstitchedon
stiffeners. The preform was resin infiltrated by RTM and then pyrolysed to CC. The basic
configurationsareshowninFigure70.13.2,Ref.[7017].Theoverallshielddiameterwas4m.
ProtectivecoatingswereappliedtotheCC.
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Figure70.131Doublewallheatshield
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Figure70.132Heatshieldandstringerstiffenedpanels
ThesedesignscouldbeusedonaMarsLander,e.g.MARSNET,asshowninFigure70.13.3,Ref.[70
18].
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C/SiCdeceleratorandTPS
Figure70.133MARSNET:Heatshieldforplanetaryentryprobe
SEPproducedaCCheatshieldforHuygens,Ref.[7019].
[See:70.19]
70.14 Air inlet-intakes

AspartoftheGermanHypersonicTechnologyprogramme,MANTechnologieandDornier(DASA)
producedanairintakerampinCSiC,Ref.[7020],[Seealso:52.7fortheX38BodyFlap].
MANusedliquidinfiltrationandpyrolysisofsiliconbasedpolymersinconjunctionwithgradient
CVI manufacturing techniques. The component is shown in Figure 70.14.1, Ref. [7020]. The
manufacturingalsoincorporatedanopenfacesheetwithholesproducedbylaser.
The assembled component has been tested under thermal and mechanical loads at IABG and has
demonstrateditsintegrity.
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Figure70.141AirintakerampinCSiC
70.15 Earth re-entry capsules

Thisgroupofvehiclesincludesnonmanratedcapsulesusedtoretrieveexperimentsfromspacefor
returntoearth.ThesuccessoftheApollomissionsprovidesthestartingpointforimproveddesigns
andmeansofconstruction.
Projectswhichcanbehighlightedinthisfieldare:
CARINALEOmicrogravityexperimentrecoveryvehicle,Ref.[7021].
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[See:71.4forablativeTPSconceptandstructuralconfiguration].
CNSRRosettacapsule(ERC)forreturningcometnucleussamples,Ref.[7022].[See:70.17].
COMETmicrogravityexperimentrecoverycapsule,Ref.[7023].Thestructuralconfiguration
is shown in Figure 70.15.1. Away from the TPS, the capsule consists of a stainless steel
forebody structure which acts as a radiator. The capsule structure for the nose cap, aft
structureandendcapareinepoxyCFRP.
[See:71.4forablativeTPSconcept]
EXPRESS and MIRKA reentry capsules, Ref. [7024]: As part of the German Hypersonic
Technology Programme, these two reentry capsules are flight experiments to assess hot
structure technologies. They follow the 1992 flight of TPS materials on the Russian mission
FOTON8.
EXPRESS (EXPeriment Reentry Space System) is a joint GermanRussianJapanese
project,intendedtoflyin1994.A300mmdiameterCSiCtile(5mmthick)withamass
of 1kg is attached and expected to reach 2700C on reentry (CETEX: CEramic Tile
EXperiment).
MIRKA is a ballistic reentry capsule intended to have an Apollotype ablative shield
withanouterlayerofCSiCtoprovideerosionresistance,knownasSurfaceProtected
Ablator (SPA) from DASADornier. The experiment is intended to fly 1995. The
structureisshowninFigure70.15.2,showingthesphericalheatshieldwithadiameter
of1mandtotalmassof60kg,Ref.[7024].
Figure70.151COMETrecoverysystem
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Figure70.152MIRKAcapsule:Explodedviewofsphericalheatshield
70.16 Manned re-entry vehicles

Apollo capsules were successful in bringing astronauts back from space through the earths
atmosphere.
With the advent of manned space stations, concepts for an escape module for emergencies or
ACRVs(Assured CrewReturnVehicles) have beenproposed. They have been studied bothinthe
USA,Ref.[7025]andEurope,Ref.[7026].Thestudiestakeaccountofalltheexperiencegainedwith
reentrycapsulestoearthandotherplanets.
Figure70.16.1showsthegenerallayoutofanACRV,whereanablativeTPSisproposed,Ref.[70
26]. To this can be added the experience gained with thermostructures within the Hermes
programme.
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Figure70.161ACRVflightvehicle:Generallayout
70.17 Deep space missions
70.17.1 CNSR ROSETTA: Earth return capsule

ThecapsuleconceptisshowninFigure70.17.1,Ref.[7022].
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Figure70.171CNRSROSETTA:Aerocapsuleconfiguration
It has a SEPCORE layered protection system, where the loadbearing heat shield is
SEPCARBINOXCSiC,withanexternalablativelayerandinternalthermalinsulation.
Thecapsuletotalmasswas320kg,anexternaldiameterof1.63manda60coneforwardshape,Ref.
[7022].
Severeconditionswereanticipatedforapeakdecelerationof55gandheatfluxesto10MW/matthe
stagnationpoints.Themassbudgetof140kgfortheSEPCOREheatshield,i.e.44%oftotal,reflects
theheatmanagementproblem.
70.18 Mars landers
70.18.1 General
VikingMarslanderwasthefirstsuccessfulvisittotheplanet.Furtherexplorationprogrammesare
planned.
70.18.2 NASA Pathfinder/MESUR network landers

The MESUR (Mars Environment SURvey) vehicle is based on the Viking vehicles forebody
aerobrakeshape,Ref.[7027].Aparachuteassisteddescentaidsseparationofthepayloadpackage
from the aeroshell. The aerobrakes diameter is 2m. A peak stagnation heat flux of 0.8MW/m is
envisaged which is not particularly high, enabling a range of TPS options to be considered,
includingimprovedsilicatiles(exShuttle),siliconeablators(SLA561,exViking)orAVCOAT5026
material(exApollo).
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70.18.3 MARSNET
TheapplicationofCSiCthermostructuresisenvisagedforthedeceleratorandheatshield,Ref.[70
28].
[See:71.18foraeroshellconceptsforMarslanders]
70.19 Cassini-Huygens
70.19.1 General
ForentryintotheTitanatmosphere,NASAandESAhavesponsoredprogrammestostudydifferent
thermostructural configurations. These being the Cassini orbiter (NASA) and the Huygens probe
(ESA).CassiniHuygensisdueforlaunchin1997andwillreachTitanintheyear2004.
TheHuygensheatshieldconstructionfallsintotwopossiblecategories:
berylliumbasedtechnology,Ref.[7029],[7030],[See:71.15],or
CCconstructions.
TitanhasanonoxidisingatmospherewhichenablestheuseofunprotectedCC.
70.19.2 C-C aerobrake (heat shield)

The Huygens concept is shown in Figure 70.19.1. It has an outer diameter of 3.1m with an inner
diameterof1.65m,Ref.[7013],[7015],[7019].
ThedevelopmentdeployablesystemisbasedonsixSEPmanufacturedCCpanelslinkedtogether
by a fishplate and fastener system. The CC skin is 0.5mm thick, reinforced by stringers and
stiffeners. Each 3D multilayer woven conical panel is 600mm x 600mm, [See: Figure 70.19.1]. The
totalmassofthesystemis21.3kg.Thisdesignwassuccessfullybothmechanicallyandacoustically
tested,Ref.[7019].

Figure70.191Huygens:CCdeceleratordesign
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70.19.3 Nose cap front shield with AQ60

This Huygens concept is manufactured by Aerospatiale, Ref. [7031], to withstand the high heat
fluxes(1.35MW/m).
TheshieldisaCFRP/aluminiumhoneycombsandwichstructurewithAQ60TPSapplied,asshown
inFigure70.19.2,Ref.[7031].TheTPSisanAerospatialedevelopmentconsistingofsilicafibrefelt
impregnatedwithphenolicresin.
Figure70.192Huygens:Nosecapfrontshield
70.20 Planetary probes

Planetsreachedbyexploratoryprobesinclude:
Venus,[Seealso:71.3],Pioneer,
Mars,[See:70.18,71.18],NASAPathfinder,MESURandMARSNET,
Saturn,[See:70.19],CassiniHuygens,
Jupiter,[Seealso:71.3],TheGalileoorbiterandprobereachedJupiterinDecember1995,Ref.
[7027].
70.21 Aerobrake designs
70.21.1 General
The forward shield or face of an entry vehicle reacts against the atmosphere to provide a braking
action. Aerobrake, heatshield and aeroshell are terms used variously to describe this part of a
vehicle,[Seealso:70.25].
70.21.2 NASA/ESA Cassini-Huygens mission

Adeployablehighdragdeceleratorhasbeeninvestigated,Ref.[7029].Thevehicledeceleratorisa
meansofincreasingtheoverallbrakingarea,inconjunctionwiththeforwardcone.Thedecelerator,
connectedtoanaftcover,andforwardconearejettisonedoncetheirrolehasbeenfulfilled.
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Originally a thin skin CC construction was proposed. This, however, proved inadequate because
the skins buckled. The elimination of the matrix was suggested, with the basic carbon fibre fabric
retained and stretched between a structure. The fabric forms an axisymmetric concave shape, as
indicatedinFigure70.21.1,forassemblywiththeoverallvehicleshowninFigure70.21.2,Ref.[70
29]. Beryllium was proposed for the struts of the deployment armature. The total mass of the
deployabledeceleratorwasestimatedat25kgandexperiencestemperaturesupto600C.
Figure70.211CassiniHuygens:Stretchedcarbonskindecelerator
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Figure70.212CassiniHuygens:Separationsequence
70.22 PRORA: USV unmanned space vehicle
70.22.1 Background
70.22.1.1 RLV development approach

ThemajorityofRLVreusablelaunchvehicleprogrammesworldwidearebasedonthewellknown
logicleitmotiv:
FrequentaccesstospaceReusabilityCostreduction
RLV development involves extensive use of flight demonstration. Instead of expensive, highly
systemintegrated flight vehicles, future research needs vehicles to be simpler and less costly. The
emphasis is then the flight demonstration of a particular set of technologies and costeffective
operations, rather than fullscale vehicle system development of production, missionsized,
spacecraft. Consequently, this approach enables subscale, unmanned, autonomous, or remotely
piloted,vehiclestobeflighttestedatreducedcostandrisk.
Variousreasons,rangingfromtechnicaltopolitical,ledtothemaingeographicalareasinvolvedin
theseactivitiesapproachingtheproblemindifferingways,i.e.:
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USAapproach,whichisgenerallythemostadvancedandtraditional,hasalwaysbeenbased
on a comprehensive integration of ground data with flight experimentation. It has profited
from various actions both in the civil and military field. However, from time to time, this
approachsuffersfromtopleveldecisions,e.g.cancellationofX33andX34.
Japan, although adopting the US approach, has limited it to a particular project, i.e. Hope,
withhasalreadymadethreeflighttestswithanothertwoenvisaged.
ESA in Europe has lacked flight experimentation compared with the US. Both institutional
and industrial sectors now talk of flight demonstrators; ARD being the first of these. The
programmes consist of research work and technology development along with ground
testing.Thismeansthatflighttestsarefeasibleafter4to5yearswork.
70.22.1.2 PRORA: Italian national aerospace research programme

CIRA is responsible for the Italian national aerospace research program; known as PRORA. This
program involves the integration of research centre infrastructures, including a number of
laboratories some of which have worldclass facilities. As of December 2000, PRORA became the
major instrument for research development. As a result, a decision was made to concentrate on a
number of technological areas, developing scientific and technological knowledge whilst making
use of the available laboratories and facilities, and integrating the ground testing capabilities with
flighttestbeds(FTBs)toprovidetechnologicaldemonstration.
For space technologies, activities were identified based on the premise that space planetype
vehicles,e.g.SSTOHTHL,willbecomethemeansofaccesstospaceinthelongterm.Suchvehicles
needinnovationandmaturationinthreemainareas,i.e.:
Sustainedhypersonicflight,
Atmosphericreentry,
Reusability.
PRORAcoverstechnologydevelopmentsintheseareas,uptotheirvalidationeitherongroundor
onboardflighttestbeds.FTBscanbeusedindifferentways,i.e.:
Experimentalmodelsinthemselves(e.g.specificdemonstrators),
Vehiclesonwhichpassengerexperimentscanbeallocated,
Systemdemonstrators.
Experimentalflightvehiclesarethecriticallinkintheultimatevalidationofdesignmethodologies
for future missionapplications and ofan integrated vehicle systems operational capability. Flight
test often reveals and, hopefully, solves many design issues and systems problems that were not
discoveredduringtheinitialdesignandgroundtestseries.
Inmanycases,technologiesandtheirintegratedeffectscanonlybetrulyevaluatedinflight,because
realoperatingenvelopesandconditionscanonlybefoundunderactualflightconditions.
Withtheaimofanincrementaltestobjectiveapproach,startingfromaproposalmadeinthe1940s
andrenewedfewyearsagobyAleniaSpazio,thePRORAUSVconceptofanexperimentalvehicle,
launchedfromastratosphericballoon,tobethebestcompromisebetweenvehicleperformance,test
objectivesanddevelopmentcosts.
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70.22.2 USV programme
70.22.2.1 Objectives
Themainobjectiveoftheprogrammeistoprovideatechnologicalfocusforresearchactivitiesinthe
field of aerospace. Within this, the USV (unmanned space vehicle) programme aims to identify,
developandvalidateanumberofnecessarykeytechnologiesthatareconsideredasrepresentative
of the needs for future new generation reusable space transportation vehicles. It assumes that a
future space vehicle is intended to fly 20 to 25 years from now; takingoff from an airportlike
launchsiteandisoperatedlikeacivilaircraft.
70.22.2.2 Technologies
The development of an aerospace vehicle presupposes the availability of specific macro
technologies,i.e.:
Atmospheric reentry, where the aerospace vehicle has to cope with the typically large
thermal loads encountered when reentering Earths atmosphere from LEO. These occur
duringbrakingfromMach25orso,toafewhundredsofkm/hforlanding.
Hypersonicflight,wherefuturespacevehicleswillflyforlargepartsofitsmissionatspeeds
much greater than the speed of sound. They also have to manoeuvre safely under such
conditionsandcopewithhighthermalloadsgeneratedbyatmosphericfriction.
Reusability,wherethemostimportantcharacteristicfromtheoperationalpointofview,isto
behave,asfaraspossible,likeaconventionalaircraft.
Many other technologyareasare alsoinvolved in the development process, e.g. propulsion, flight
mechanics,stabilityandcontrol,guidanceandnavigation,aerothermodynamics.
70.22.2.3 USV programme structure

Inordertomeetthemaingoal,theUSVprogrammehastwomainparallelactivities:
Developmentoftechnologiesorientedtowardsmediumlongtermneeds.
Designandcreationofflighttestbeds;designatedFTB_1,FTB_2andFTB_3.
Thesystemdesignactivitiesenvisagedthreedifferentvehiclestodemonstrateandvalidate,under
real flight conditions, thedevelopments madein the strategic technologies.Moreover, as each test
bed hosts a small payload, the effectiveness of the concept as a real space system can also
established.
70.22.2.4 USV programme missions

Fourspecificmissionsareenvisaged;knownas:
DTFT:droppedtransonicflighttest.
SRT:suborbitalreentrytest.
HFT:hypersonicflighttest.
ORT:orbitalreentrytest.
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Themissionsenabletestingofthesignificantfeaturesofthespacetransportationsystem,i.e.:
Atmospheric reentry, where the overall atmospheric reentry of a winged vehicle is
conductedfromhighaltitudedrop(DTFT)tosuborbital(SRT)andLEO(ORT)conditions.
Steady hypersonic flight, where the hypersonic horizontal steady flight of a winged vehicle
(HFT)isconducted.
Reusability,wherethe(evenpartial)capabilitytoreusethesysteminsubsequentmissionsis
demonstrated.
Space system operations, where the basic operations of a space carrier, including payload
transportation and servicing, deorbiting, manoeuvring, return to Earth and recovery is
accomplished.
70.22.3 USV systems and flight test beds
70.22.3.1 General
ThedevelopmentoftheUSVsystemprogrammeisachievedwiththreeflighttestbeds,designated
FTB_1,FTB_2andFTB_3.TheFTBmissionsareaimedattestingtechnologiesandcriticalphasesof
thetypicalflightofafuturereusablelauncher.Theoverallaimistoprogressivelyvalidatethefinal
demonstrator definition. The missions envisaged also provide the scientific community with
opportunitiestoaccessspace.
70.22.3.2 FTB _1
The FTB_1 performs the DTFT mission, which is mainly aimed at testing the aerodynamics and
flightbehaviourintransonicregime.TheconditionsforFTB_1arethoselikelytobeencounteredby
awingedlauncherstageduringitsatmosphericentrytrajectoryfromorbit:Theseconditionsarealso
representativeoftheFTB_2SRTmission.Thevehiclecanaccommodateapayloadonboard.
70.22.3.3 FTB _2
As FTB_2 performs both the SRT and the HFT missions, this demonstrates the reusability of the
vehicle.
The FTB_2 is devoted to testing the aerothermodynamics, the flight behaviour, the controllability
on suborbital reentry and hypersonic horizontal flight, whilst checkout of the general system
featuresapplicable to reentry from space,suchaspropelled phases, other critical mission phases.
Thevehicleservesasaflighttestbedthatcarriesasuitablepayload.
70.22.3.4 FTB _3
FTB_3 winged reentry vehicle has major features, such as aerodynamic efficiency, innovative
thermalprotectionconcepts,integratedflightcontrolcapabilities,orientedtowardsthirdgeneration
RLV(ideallyHTHL/SSTO).
TheFTB_3isalsointended(andwillbeused)asaflyingfacilityabletoperformtechnologicaland
operationalresearchinthefieldsofreentry,sustainedhypersonicflightandgeneralspacesystems.
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70.22.4 External configuration of FTB_1 and FTB_2
70.22.4.1 General
TheexternalconfigurationoftheFTB_1andFTB_2vehicleistheresultofacontinuoushighlevel
system design aimed at meeting the aerodynamic, flight mechanics, and equipment allocation
demands and constraints. The configurations were derived from similar existing vehicles without
performingspecificoptimisations.
70.22.4.2 Design drivers

The overall vehicle shape was defined on the basis of aerodynamic considerations. The design
driver was the need for high efficiency under the envisaged flight conditions, i.e. L/D > 2.5 from
transonictohypersonicranges,togetherwiththenecessitytoincreasetheincomingstagnationheat
fluxes,inordertoenabletestingofinnovativeTPSmaterials.
70.22.4.3 Geometry
Thegeometricalconstraintsassumedwerequitechallengingfromthemechanicalandconfiguration
pointofview,i.e.:
Maximumthicknessofwingprofile:8%
Nominalnoseradius:<50mm
Thefuselagedimension,thatdrivesthevehiclesize,wasdeterminedbytheneedtoaccommodate
theselectedbaselinemotor,ATKORION32,whilsttakingintoaccounttheTPSthickness.
The solution, based on two verticalfins, was introducedin order to take intoaccountinterference
with parachute deployment and structural constraints, while matching stability and control
requirements.
The vertical fins are moved slightly back with respect to the wings, in order to minimise
aerodynamicinterference,enablingthewingflapstoworkcorrectly.
Figure70.22.1showstheoverallexternalconfigurationoftheFTB_2wingedvehicle.
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Figure70.221PRORAUSV:FTB_2externalconfiguration
70.22.5 External configuration of FTB_3
70.22.5.1 General
A preliminary external configuration was obtained from a general analysis. This aimed to define
majormissionandsystemfeatures.

Thedesigndriversandconstraintsassumedinthedesignofthevehiclewere:
Envelope constraints, based on the current characteristics of the large fairing of the VEGA
launcher;asshowninFigure70.22.2.
Geometricalconstraintsoncurvatureinstagnationregions,dictatedbyaerothermodynamic
heatingthresholdsnottobeexceeded:
noseradius>300mm,
wingleadingedgeradius>30mm.
The most slender shape possible, given the other constraints, which offers a reasonable
internalspace;giventhatthereisnoneedforanautonomouspropulsionsystem.
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Figure70.222VEGAlauncher:Largefairing
70.22.5.3 Geometry
TheFTB_3configurationof2005,knownasFTB_3_001,isshowninFigure70.22.3.
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FTB_3_001
Figure70.223PRORAUSV:FTB_3externalconfiguration
70.23 X-38 Body flap
70.23.1 Background
70.23.1.1 Programme
The X38 programme covered the development of the CRV (crew return vehicle) for the ISS
internationalspacestation.CRVwouldenableanincreasednumberofcrewmembersonISS.The
roleiscurrentlyundertakenbytheRussianSoyuzTMAvehicle,whichislimitedto3crew.TheX38
developmentprogrammewascancelledin2001.
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Bodyflap
Figure70.231X38:Testvehicle
70.23.1.2 European participation

The NASA X38 programme included significant participation from European organisations,
including MAN Technologie. Under ESA and DLR funding for various programmes, e.g. FESTIP,
GSTP, GAP and TETRA, MANs expertise in CMC enabled the designdevelopment of the body
flaps andassociated technologies, including C/SiC materials, manufacturing,articulated and static
jointsandCMCmechanicalfasteners,Ref.[7034],[7036],[7037],[7038].
70.23.1.3 CMC key technologies

The design and manufacture of lightweight thermostructures, such as rigid TPS, leading edges,
fins,ruddersandmovablecontrolsurfaces,appliedtoX38,included,Ref.[7036]:
CMCbearingsformovablehotstructures.
CMCtribologynecessaryforhotslidingapplications.
OxidationprotectionsystemsforCMCmaterials.
CMCfastenersforhotceramictoceramicjoining.
Hottocoldstructurecombinations,neededforattachinghotCMCstructurestocoldmetallic
structures.
Hightemperatureinsulationtoprotectmetallicstructures.
Hightemperaturestaticanddynamicsealstolimithotgasingestionorheattransferandto
preventoverheatingofstructuresandcomponents.
AtthecancellationoftheX38programme,thetechnologieswerereasonablymature,availableand
werequalifiedfor4reentriesonX38V201;anorbitalprototypevehiclecapableofbeinglaunched
bytheSpaceShuttle,Ref.[7036],[7037],[7038],[7039].
The technologies can be considered for future space vehicle projects because they are suitable for
most reusable vehicle TPS and hot structure concepts operating under thermomechanical
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conditions similar to X38. Further work is ongoing within the German national ASTRA
programme,Ref.[7036],[7039].
70.23.2 Body flaps
70.23.2.1 General
TheX38testvehiclehadtwopairsofmoveableflightcontrolsurfaces(ruddersandbodyflaps)for
theintendedautonomous,controlled,reentryandparafoilassistedlanding.Eachbodyflapmoved
independentlyforrollandpitchmanoeuvres,Ref.[7034],[See:Figure52.7.1].Theflap(1.4m1.6
m)weighed68kg,whichisabout50%ofthemassofaconventionaltypeofflap,Ref.[7036].
70.23.2.2 Construction
The flap structure, developed by MAN Technologie, comprises 4 box sections joined by ceramic
fasteners;asshowninFigure70.23.2,Ref.[7036].
C/SiC box section: 1700mm 400mm 120mm; Body flap assembly (4 boxes), using C/SiC
wall thickness 2mm to 3mm. fasteners.
Figure70.232X38bodyflap:Construction
Each box was made of C/SiC CMC, which supports high mechanical loads at temperatures up to
1600C.EachboxstructurehasintegralfeaturessuchasTandIstiffeners,alongwithplaneand
curvedsurfaces.
70.23.2.3 OPC - oxidation protection coating

AnoxidationprotectionsystemisusedtoenableoperationofC/SiCCMCinoxidisingatmospheres.
A multilayer OPC, initially developed during under HERMES and FESTIP programmes, was
adaptedandtestedtomeetthedemandsofX38,Ref.[7036],i.e.:
Preventoxygendiffusionintocarbonreinforcingfibres.
Chemical compatibility between coating and C/SiC substrate with no degradation of the
substrate.
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Thermal resistance in air over a wide temperature range of 500C to 1700C, especially
between500Cto750C,andextremeplasmaandhotairflowconditionsat1700C.
Goodadherencetothesubstrate,withdamageandspallresistance.
Economic,industrialprocessingmethodsforapplyingcoatings.
Applicabletodifferentsizedandshapedparts,e.g.coatingthickness.
SuitableforC/SiCmaterialsmanufacturedbydifferentprocesses.
The development of OPC also considered the need for different coating thicknesses for particular
components,e.g.
Thincoatings:Mechanicalfasteners,e.g.screws,nutsandwashers.
Mediumcoating:Largecomponents,e.g.boxes
Thickcoatings:Highlymechanicalloadedparts,e.g.bearings.
Resultsofvariousoxidationtests,includingstatic,cyclicandpostoxidationbending,indicatedthat
aminimumOPCthicknessof50mwillensurematerialpropertiesaremaintained,withrespectto
RT strengths, under the stipulated exposure conditions (time and temperature). Only a small
oxidationeffectonresidualbendingstrengthwasseenonsamplesexposedtotheequivalentof10
reentries,i.e.5hours,at700C,1200Cand1700C,Ref.[7036].
The carbon fibres exposed after holes are machined in C/SiC for fasteners (bore holes) were
protectedusingacombinationofdesigntominimisetolerancesandsolimitoxidativeattack,along
withaslurrytechniquetorestoretheOPCcoating.RepairtechniquesfordamagedOPCswerealso
conductedusingslurries,Ref.[7036].
70.23.3 Mechanical fasteners

The body flap CMC components are assembled using mechanical fasteners made of C/SiC, e.g.
screws,nutsandwashers;asshowninFigure70.23.3,alongwithacrosssectionofaninstalledtest
fastener,Ref.[7036].
Figure70.233X38bodyflap:Mechanicalfasteners
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ThecharacteristicsofC/SiCfastenerscanbesummarisedas,Ref.[7036]:
Reducedmass.4to8timeslessthanrefractorymetalfasteners.
StrengthofC/SiCfastenersdoesnotreducewithtemperature.
Need protection against oxidation, so OPC applied to all fastener components prior to
assembly.
Table70.23.1summarisesthebasicpropertiesofC/SiCfastenersat1600Cusedforassemblingthe
bodyflap,Ref.[7036].
Table70.231X38bodyflap:Mechanicalfastenersproperties
Propertiesat1600C
Fastenerdiameter(mm) Minimumtensile Minimumshear
strength(kN) strength(kN)
6 3.5 2.6
8 6.5 4.7
10 10 7.3
Fastenerscapableofbeinginstalledwithsinglesidedaccesswerenecessaryforattachingthebody
flapcovers.Thiswasaccomplishedusinganutstrip,Ref.[7036].
Afterqualificationtestingofanassembledbodyflap,evaluationoftheinstalledfastenersshowedno
changeinpropertieswhencomparedwithnewfasteners,Ref.[7036].
70.23.4 CMC to metal attachment

The CMC body flap is joined to the aft beam and structure of the X38 vehicle, which is made of
aluminium alloy. The design of this attachment took into account the mechanical loads (4 tons),
bodyflapmovementsandthethermalconditions.AmainobjectivewastopreventheatfromaCMC
part (designed for 1600C) reaching the aluminium alloy part (limited to 175C) within a path of
200mm.
Figure70.23.4showstheCMCtometalattachmentdesignandthemaincomponents,Ref.[7036].
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Figure70.234X38bodyflap:CMCtometalattachment
70.23.5 Ceramic bearings

Ceramicbearingswereusedformountingtheflaponthevehicleaftstructure,asloadintroduction
pointsandinarticulatedjointstoenabletheflaptomove.Theflapismovedwithametalrodthatis
attachedtothebearing.Themetaltoceramicinterfacewasdesignedfortemperaturesupto1100C
andmechanicalloadsupto70kN(static)and40kN(dynamic).
Figure70.23.5showstheceramicbearing,whichwasdesignedtoperformunderreentryconditions,
Ref.[7036]:
SlidinginairfromRTto1600C.
Retaintolerances(clearances)duringlocaltemperaturedifferencesofupto600K.
Resistheatupat300C/minute.
The main operational demands were that, under combined thermal and mechanical loading, the
ceramicbearing,Ref.[7036]:
Performedfor10minutesperreentryat>1400C,
Wasreliablefor4reentries(4000movements),
Sustainedstaticanddynamicloads.
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Figure70.235X38bodyflap:Ceramicbearing
70.23.6 Ceramic seals

Static and dynamic seals developed for X38 flight vehicle V201 have to resist a number of
operationaldemands,Ref.[36]:
Oxidativeenvironmentandtemperaturesupto1700C.
Combinedconvectiveandradiationheating.
Differentthermalexpansionofsealparts.
Wearresistance,withcoefficientsoffrictionfrom1.07to1.17.
Componentmovementandrotation.
Lowpressuretohighdifferentialpressure.
Lowpermeabilitytominimiseleakage,i.e.11010to11011m2.
Staticsealswereappliedforthenose,ruddersandtheleadingedgesofthevehicle.
Dynamicsealswereusedforthetwomovablebodyflaps,mainlytopreventhotgasflowthoughthe
gapbetweentheflapsandtheaftstructureofthevehicle;asshowninFigure70.23.6,Ref.[7036].
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Figure70.236X38bodyflap:Ceramicdynamicseal
Both dynamic and static seals were essentially stuffed ceramic fabric core. The material and
components were qualified under thermal and mechanical loads for the X38 mission. These
conditions did not damage the seals. A 20% seal precompression provided effective blocking of
flowthroughthegapwithlessthan1%leakage.Thesealssurvivedupto1000scrubtestcyclesand
remained securely attached. The seals had no effect on the movement or rotation of the ceramic
components.Thesealswerealsoeffectivethermalbarrierstolimitheatconvection.
70.24 X-38 Nose cap
70.24.1 Background
Figure70.24.1showsthevariouspartsoftheX38NSAnoseassemblyandthevariousparticipants
in the designdevelopment programme, [See also: Figure 70.23.1; 70.23 for details of the X38
demonstratorvehicle].
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Thruster Tile
Tiles (NASA)
(NASA)
Nose Skirt Side Panel

(Astrium SI)
Nose Cap
(DLR-S)
Nose Skirt Chin Panel (MAN-T)

Internal Insulation
Parts (HTI & IFI;
Astrium SI)
Figure70.241X38Noseassembly
70.24.2 Concept
70.24.2.1 General
ATPSwasdevelopedtoprotectthesubstructureagainsttemperaturesupto1750C,reachedinthe
stagnation area during reentry. This comprised of C/SiC panels on the outer surface, with the
remainingvolume(betweentheTOMLoutermouldlineandSOMLstructuraloutermouldline)
filledwithdifferenttypesofflexibleinsulationblankets,Ref.[7040],[7041]:
IFIinternalflexibleinsulationplacedonthecoldsubstructure,[See:71.11].
HTIhightemperatureinsulationplacedintheoutermostregion,[See:71.23].
70.24.2.2 IFI
IFI was a sideproduct of the development of FEI flexible external insulation, [See: 71.11]. It is
similar to FEI in that it has a blanketlike configuration. An aluminabased core fleece is covered
withanaluminafabricandsewntogetherusinganABSaluminaborosilicatethread.Themaximum
reusetemperatureis1200C.[See:Figure71.11.2].
70.24.2.3 HTI
OwingtothehightemperaturesintheoutermostregionsoftheTPS,especiallynearthestagnation
point, it was not possible to use existing insulation products, so a new HTI high temperature
insulationhadtobedeveloped,[See:71.23].
70.24.3 Thermal profiles

Figure 70.24.2 shows the temperature profiles of the nose assembly and side panel at the hottest
trajectorypoint,Ref.[7040],[7041].
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~1750C
~1550C
Figure70.242X38Noseassembly:Thermalprofiles
70.24.4 Flexible insulation design

PreviousexperienceofFEItypematerials,includingIFI,alongwiththeresultsofdevelopmenttests
forHTI,wasincorporatedintotheoverallinsulationdesign,Ref.[7040],[7041]:
BothHTIandIFIwereslightlyoversizedinthickness;eachabout1mm.Duringintegrationof
the C/SiC hard TPS parts, the insulation system was slightly compressed to account for
possiblethicknessshrinkage.
Toaccountforpossibleinplaneshrinkage,theblanketdistributionwithinthenoseareawas
organised such that the interfaces between the individual blankets in the IFI and HTI area
wereatdifferentlocations.ThisensuredthatthesubstructurewasalwaysprotectedbytheIFI
evenifasmallgapoccurredinthehottestareasoftheHTI.
Shrinkage was only foreseen in areas where the maximum temperatures exceeded 1625C.
TheHTIwasdividedinto:
onelargeblanketcoveringthehottestareaofthenosecap;
severalsmallerblanketsinthecoolerregions.
Onlyoneblankethadtobechangedifrefurbishmentwasnecessaryafteroneflight.
AnadditionalintermediateHTIlayerwasnecessarybecauseofavariableoffsetbetweentheTOML
andSOML.ItwasmadeofHTIcorematerialonly(nofabric,nothreads)andavariableheight.This
layeralsofurtherenhancedtheabilitytoadjusttheoverallinsulationdesignbecauseitsheightwas
adapted manually to account for variations in the nominal height of the other insulation layers.
Figure70.24.3showsthedistributionofIFIandHTIwithinthenoseassembly,Ref.[7040],[7041].
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HTI blankets
IFI blankets HTI blanket in hottest part
Figure70.243X38Noseassembly:Flexibleinsulationdistribution
70.24.5 Integration and qualification testing
70.24.5.1 Insulation
The qualification of HTI was part of the overall nose assembly qualification test, but only items
relevanttotheinternalinsulationaredescribedhere.Thetestinghadseveralsteps,Ref.[7040],[70
41]:
Assembly.
Thermalcycletest.
Vibrationtest.
Disassemblyandvisualinspection.
70.24.5.2 Assembly
Figure 70.24.4 shows the various steps in the integration of the qualification unit. All parts were
assembledsuccessfully.
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HTI integration in nose cap area completed HTI and IFI integration in nose cap area completed
HTI in Side Panel

IFI integration in nose skirt area completed (after qualification test and disassembly)
Figure70.244X38Noseassembly:Flexibleinsulationassembly
70.24.5.3 Thermal qualification test

Themainresultsofthethermalqualificationtestingcanbesummarisedas,Ref.[7040],[7041]:
Temperatures: Levels and temperature gradients were in good agreement with those
predicted.
Displacements: Measured displacements and timedependent deformation were in good
agreementwithdeformationanalysis.
Thermocouples: Signals were in good agreement with prediction, with no damage or
degradationofthermocouplesortheirfixings.
70.24.5.4 Disassembly and visual inspection

Further testing was envisaged by DLRStuttgart, so the nose cap was not disassembled. The
observationsrelateonlytothesidepanelarea,Ref.[7040],[7041]:
Colourchangetogrey(partial).
Shape:
nogeneralshrinkagedetected;
twosmalllocalgapsprobablyoccurredduringintegration.
Flexibility:Nochangeexceptforthehottestareas,whereaslightembrittlementoftheblanket
surfaceoccurred.
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70.24.5.5 Conclusions
Theoverallconclusionsdrawnfromthequalificationtestcanbesummarisedas,Ref.[7040],[7041]:
Thermaltestwassuccessfullyperformedwithnodeviationsreported
Insulationsystemworkedasexpected
No damage or degradation was detected on HTI blankets in the side panel area; Tmax =
1550C.
HTIwasqualifiedforuseonX38.
ThedecisiononthemultipleusecapabilityofHTIwasdeferreduntilafterdisassemblyofthepost
testednosecap.
70.24.6 Summary
70.24.6.1 Development
TheinternalflexibleinsulationsystemusedintheX38noseareaneededthedevelopmentofHTI
hightemperatureinsulation.Aseriesofdevelopmenttestsenabledtheselectionofmaterialsand
theblanketconfiguration,[See:71.23].
Thetestsalsoprovidedinputtotheoverallinsulationdesign,whichiscapableofaccommodating
uncertaintiesinblanketthicknessaswellassmallgapsintheHTI,iftheseoccur,[Seealso:71.23].
70.24.6.2 Status
AlthoughitremainstobeclarifiedwhethertheHTIiscapableofmultipleuse,itwasnevertheless
qualifiedaspartoftheoverallinsulationsystemforflightonX38inthenoseassemblyqualification
test.
The insulation flight hardware was shipped to NASA. The X38 nose cap, with its HTI and IFI
insulationblankets,wassuccessfullyassembledinthenosestructureoftheX38vehicle;asshown
inFigure70.24.5,Ref.[7040],[7041].
UnfortunatelyNASAcancelledtheprojectwhentheintegrationofvehicleV201was90%complete.
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Figure70.245X38Nosecapwithinsulationmountedonvehiclenosestructure
70.25 Aerobrake: Deployable CMC decelerator
70.25.1 Background
70.25.1.1 Planetary missions

BothNASAandESAplanetarymissionsanticipatepayloadswithagreatermassandvolume.This
means the aerobraking system will have to be larger than that possible within existing payload
carriers, e.g. an 8 m to 9 m diameter aerobrake for a Mars mission, but contained within a 4 m
launcher payload fairing. The constraint of available launcher volumes led to the concept of
deployableaerobrakingsystems.Apotentialcandidateforadeployableheatshieldisafoldablehot
structureaeroshellmadeofCMC,Ref.[7042],[7043].
AnotherpossibleapplicationisforafoldablestabiliserforasmallISSpayloadreentrycapsule,Ref.
[7042],[7043].
ThemainobjectivesfordeployableCMCdeceleratorscanbesummarisedas,Ref.[7042],[7043]:
Lightweight loadcarrying aeroshells and thermal protection of space probes in order to
maximisethescientificpayload.
CMCtechnologyissufficientlymature,duetoqualificationofsomeTPSandhotstructures,to
enable its consideration for innovative designs for planetary probes, i.e. better mass
performance,particularlyfortheexternalaeroshell.
Functional reliability and the demands for cleanliness and low contamination are very
importantforscientificormannedprobes.
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ESAfundedstudieshaveshownthatCMCaeroshells,whencomparedwithablatortypeheat
shields, can withstand the high thermal shock conditions during entry into an atmosphere
andcanalsoresistdusterosion.
CMCs provide a high margin of safety against micrometeoroids during transfer or orbital
phases.CMCshavehighdamagetoleranceagainstmicrometeoroidanddebrisimpactduring
atmosphericentry.
70.25.2 Mars ISRU mission in-situ resource unit

Theapplicationexamplechosenforapreliminaryinvestigationofthedesignconceptforafoldable
hotstructuredeceleratorwastheMarsISRUmission,whichhasaVikingtype(biconic)deployable
aeroshell. The lander mass is assumed to be 8.2 tons, including 1.5 tons for the deployable heat
shield. The folded part with the payload and central rigid aeroshell cannot not exceed more than
about4.8mandtheunfoldedaerobrakedeceleratorstructureneedstobeabout8.5mdiameter,Ref.
[7042],[7043].
70.25.3 Mars ISRU mission Concept
70.25.3.1 Aero-assist aeroshell configuration

A constraint for a Martian aeroshell concept is the need for a certain level of control for landing
accuracy.Ifthisisadesigndriverfortheaeroshell,thentheheatshieldandfoldabledeceleratorcan
haveasuitableaeroassistconfiguration.
The dimensions of the folded and unfolded aeroshell are similar to the axissymmetrical Viking
version. The disadvantage of this concept, compared with a symmetrical version, is the higher
toolingcostforboththecentralheatshieldandthedeceleratorTPSpanels.Thelargestpanelofthe
deceleratorinthisversionisabout1.9m,whichisasuitablesizeregardingthemechanicalloadlevel
foreachpanelandthemanufacturingfeasibility.
70.25.3.2 Central heat shield

Theoptionsforthedesignofthecentralheatshieldweresubjectedtoamasstradeoffstudy,Ref.
[7042],[7043]:
Cold structure, covered with lowdensity ablator tiles, with deployable ablator coated
aluminiumpanels.
Coldstructure,coveredwithC/SiCCMCTPSpanelsattachedusingPM1000alloystandoffs.
This configuration was qualified up to flight hardware level for X38 for a very lightweight
panelwallthicknessof1.6mmfortemperatureupto1600C.
Table70.25.1summarisesthemasstradeoffforbothconcepts.Thecostofeachconceptissimilar,
Ref.[7042],[7043].
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Table70.251DeployableCMChotstructuresMasstradeoffstudy
C/SiCconcept: Density(g/cm3) Mass(kg)
C/SiC segments, stringer stiffened; Wall
2.2 72
thickness 1.7 mm
FEI internal insulation; Thickness 35 mm 0.1 64
Metal fasteners and stand-offs, e.g. PM1000
- 6
alloy
C/SiC Segmented decelerator; Wall thickness 2.4
2.2 239
mm
Deployment mechanism (aluminium struts,
spring-loaded): Hinges, rods, actuator ring, - 69
springs
Totalmass: 450kg
Ablatorconcept(excludingcoldstructure): Density(g/cm3) Mass(kg)

Ablator; Thickness 15mm 0.6 219
Deployable aluminium panels; Wall thickness 2
2.8 461
mm
Ablator on deployable aluminium panels;
0.6 357
Thickness 10 mm
Deployment mechanism (aluminium struts,
spring-loaded): Hinges, rods, actuator ring, - 69
springs
Totalmass: 1106kg
An advantage of a CMC heat shield compared with an ablator system is that it is a clean, non
polluting, material suitable for use in the Mars environment, which is a subject of considerable
scientificimportance.AnoxidebasedceramicTPSpanelisofinterestwherethetemperatureisless
than1100CbecauseproductioncostsofoxidebasedCMCisabout50%lessthanC/SiC.
Figure70.25.1illustratestheoverallC/SiCconcept,alongwithsomeofthedesigndetailsofstowed
anddeployedconfigurations,Ref.[7042],[7043].
70.25.3.3 Foldable decelerator

Previous experience with the manufacture and qualification of large TPS panels (X33 and X38
programmes) showed that ultralightweight C/SiC panels are feasible for the structural
configurationsproposed.
Thefoldabledeceleratorstructureisdividedinto20separateC/SiCpanelswithawallthicknessof
about2.4mm.Theconicalshapeofthedeceleratorprovidesaselfstiffeningeffectifthepanelsare
connected at the outer edges after unfolding. The panels are stiffened by stringers, integrally
fabricatedintothecompositestructure,toresistinitialpressureandaccelerationloadsonindividual
stowedpanelswithoutthebenefitoftheconestiffeningeffect,Ref.[7042],[7043].
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Aero-assist configuration of Heat Shield

and Foldable Decelerator
Central Heat Shield with Cold Foldable C/SiC

Stowed in launcher volume Decelerator
Structure CMC Panel TPS
Cross section view of Central Heat Shield and Deployable Hot Structure Decelerator
Edge detail: Overlapping Decelerator Panels

reinforced with stringers
Lay-out of central Heat Shield and Segmented

Decelerator
Deployed configuration: V-shaped Holding Struts

(inner panels)
Side view: Panels in the stowed

Aero-assist concept: Stowed view (smallest and largest configuration
decelerator panels)
Reproduced courtesy of Astrium (D
Figure70.251DeployableCMChotstructuresMarsISRUmission
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70.25.3.4 Unfolding and deployment
Thefoldingmechanismcanbeasimple,reliable,springloadedmechanism.Thesegmentedconical
deceleratorissupportedbyunfoldingstrutsandtheopenedshapecanbebackedtoaselfstiffening
systembyalockingdevicearoundtheouteredgesofthepanels.Aroundtheedgeofthecentralheat
shield,the20deceleratorpanelsaremountedintwoconcentriclayerssuchthattheycanbefolded
towardsthespacecrafttoreducethestowedvolume.Theoutsidepanelrestsagainsttheoverlapping
insidepanelgainingtorsionalstiffnessfromtheVshapedstruts.Inthiswaytheoutsidepanelsonly
needastrutfordeployment,soprovidingsimplicityandpotentialweightsaving.
Thefoldingstrutscontroldeploymentandformastructuralelementinthedeployedconfiguration.
Formlockingjoints,notincludedintheconceptdescribed,ensurethatthestrutscannotfoldbackon
themselvesoncedeployed.
TheinnerpanelshaveVshapedstrutsinordertoprovidetorsionalstiffnesstothepanels.Asthe
outer panels are able to support themselves on the overlaps with the inner panels, they are
supportedbysimplerstrutstosaveweightandreducecomplexity.
The second function of the overlap ensures that nogaps occur between the panels through which
hotgasescanpenetrate.
The deployment mechanism can be actuated to deploy all panels simultaneously, or using
individualactuatorstoprovideasynchronisedmovement.
Asimplespringactuatedsystem,asusedindeployableantennastructures,isthebaselineconcept.
Thedeploymentmechanismshavedampingdevicestocontrolthedeploymentspeed,e.g.byeddy
currents.
70.25.4 Mars ISRU mission Environmental aspects
70.25.4.1 Micrometeoroids and debris impact

Micrometeoroidsstrikingthesinglewallhotstructuraldeceleratordonotcauseseriousdamageto
the structure or shape. The results of hypervelocity impact tests on CMC structural materials
showedthattheimpactedareaandsizeoftheresultingholesdonotdisturbtheaerodynamicflow
ordamagethestructuresignificantly,Ref.[7042],[7043].
Evenifthesizeoftheimpactedholeisabout4timeslargerthantheimpactparticlesize,thedamage
zone is not enlarged significantly by the heat flux and dynamic pressure conditions during entry
intotheatmosphere,Ref.[7042],[7043].
From preliminary M&D tests results,it is assumed that impact of particles upto about 3mm on a
largedeceleratorofabout9mdiameterresultsinafailsafebehaviour.Thisistobeconfirmedby
furthertestsonademonstratormodel,Ref.[7042],[7043].
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70.26 References
70.26.1 General
[701] H.W.Bergman
MaterialsandStructuralConceptsforNewSpaceTransportation
Systems
SAMPEQuarterly,Vol.22,No.1,October1990,p5161
[702] E.Werling&J.P.Vialaniex:ESA/HPD
HermesReorientationProgramme:PresentStatusandMain
ObjectivesforHotStructuresandThermalProtectionMaterialsand
Technologies
FirstESA/ESTECWorkshoponThermalProtectionSystemsESTEC,
Noordwijk,57May1993,ESAWPP053(August1993)p136152
[703] M.Yamamoto
ConceptualDesigntoHeatresistantAirframeofHOPE
ProceedingsoftheInternationalConference:SpacecraftStructuresand
MechanicalTesting,ESTEC,2426April1991ESASP321,p277282
[704] M.Yamamoto:NASDA
ThermalProtectionDevelopmentofReentryVehiclesatNASDA
[705] S.Walmsley
DesignofHOTOLsStructure
ESTECWorkshopAdvancedStructuralMaterials:DesignforSpace
Applications,2325March1988
ESAWPP004(October1988),p191200
[706] N.W.Dunbar:BAe
InfluenceofTPSPerformanceonFutureSpaceTransportation
Concepts
[707] R.Kochendorfer
HighTemperatureMaterialsforHypersonicTransport
InternationalSymposium:AdvancedMaterialsforLightweight
Structures,ESTEC,2527March1992,ESASP336,p713
[708] F.D.Boensch
DesignChallengesfortheNationalAeroSpacePlane
ProtectionSystems,1112February1992,LangleyResearchCentre,
Virginia.NASAConferencePublication3157
[7010] J.L.Macret&P.Lautissier
HightemperatureCompositesinAerospaceActivities
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ESASymposiumonAdvancedMaterialsforLightweightStructures,
March1992,ESASP336,p367373
[7011] J.F.Jamet&P.Lamicq
CompositeThermostructures:AnOverviewoftheFrenchExperience
ProceedingsofHTCMC1,BordeauxSept1993
ISBN1855731436,p735742
[7012] D.M.Curry:NASA/JSC
SpaceShuttleOrbiterThermalProtectionSystemDesignandFlight
Experience
[7013] A.Lacombeetal
DevelopmentofC/SiCLargePartsTechnologyforAerospacePlane
ThermalStructures
ESASymposiumonSpaceApplicationsofAdvancedStructural
Materials,March1990,ESASP303,p233240
[7014] V.P.Timoshenko:NPOMolniya
BURANsMainThermalProtectionComponents
[7015] D.Desnoyeretal
LargeThinCompositeThermostructuralParts
[7016] U.Trabandtetal
DesignofHotStructuresofShortcycleManufacturedCMC
ProceedingsofHTCMC1,BordeauxSept1993
ISBN1855731436,p751758
[7017] U.Trabandt&J.Heitzer
DesignConceptsforLoadcarryingHotStructuresforReentryBodies
[7018] T.Haugetal:DASA/Dornier
ShortManufacturingCycleCMCHeatShieldsandHotStructures
[7019] M.J.Eiden,A.Launay&C.Buck:ESA/ESTEC/Interspace/SEP
C/CHeatshieldDevelopmentandMechanicalPerformance
Verification
[7020] GermanHypersonicsTechnologyProgramme,19931995
FederalMinistryforResearchandTechnology,Feb1993
[7021] A.Russoetal:AleniaSpazio
TheCARINAAblativeThermalProtection:Analysis,Designand
Testing
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CNSRRosettaEarthreturncapsule
[7023] J.E.Zimmer&R.A.S.Beck:AerothermCorp.
ThermalProtectionSystemforCOMETRecoveryCapsule
[7024] H.Stockflethetal:DASA/Dornier
C/SiCSurfaceProtectedAblatorforHighHeatFluxes
[7025] T.J.Kowal&J.M.Caram:NASA/JSC
ThermalProtectionSystemDesignsforCandidateAssuredCrew
returnVehicles
[7026] A.Russoetal:AleniaSpazio
TheARCVThermalProtection:ConceptSelection,PreliminarySizing
andDevelopmentPlan
[7027] W.D.Henline:NASA/Ames
ThermalProtectionSystemDevelopmentandApplicationtoPlanetary
EntryVehicles
[7028] G.E.E.Scoon,K.Keller&C.Bonnet:ESA/ESTEC/DassaultAeroshell
ConceptsforMarsLanders
[7029] Ch.Bonnetetal
StretchedSkinConceptfortheEntryAerodynamicDeceleratorSystem
ofPlanetaryProbes
[7030] A.Newerla&G.Wierheim:ESA/ESTEC/SiemensKWU
BerylliumComponentsforThermalProtectionSystems
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[7031] J.M.Bouilly&D.Guerrir:Aerospatiale
EntryTestingofAQ60forHuygens
[7032] A.Lacombeetal:SEP
StatusonC/SiCThermalStructures
[7033] J.Wilson&R.J.Hussey:RJTechnicalConsultants,(F)
StructuralHealthMonitoringTechniquesandPotentialApplicationto
ReusableLaunchVehicles(RLV)CompositePrimaryStructuresand
CompositeCryogenicTanks
ReportNo.RJTC046SHM(September1999)
WorkOrderNo.16.ESTECContractNo.10983/94/NL/PP
[7034] M.Dogiglietal:MANTechnologie(D)
AdvancedKeyTechnologiesForHotControlSurfacesInSpaceRe
EntryVehicles
Proceedingsof53rdInternationalAstronauticalCongress,10th19th
October,2002.Houston,Texas,USA.PaperNo.IAC02I.3.02.Abstract:
www.iafastro.com(April2003)
[7035] A.Muhlratzer&H.Pfeiffer:MANTechnologieAG,(D)
AllCeramicBodyFlapsforReentrySpacecraft
SAMPEJournalVol.38,No.4(July/August2002),p2229
CMCKeyTechnologiesBackground,status,presentandfuture
applications
Proceedingsof4thEuropeanWorkshoponHotStructuresandThermal
ProtectionSystemsforSpaceVehicles,Palermo,Italy,2629November
2002
[7037] H.Pfeiffer&K.Peetz:MANTechnologie(D)
AllceramicBodyFlapQualifiedforSpaceflightontheX38
Proceedingsof53rdInternationalAstronauticalCongress,10th19th
October,2002.Houston,Texas,USA.PaperNo.IAC02I.6b.01.
QualificationofCMCBodyFlapsforX38
Proceedingsof52ndInternationalAstronauticalCongress,1st5th
October,2001.Toulouse,F.PaperNo.IAF01I.3.02.
[7039] C.Rttgeretal:MANTechnologie(D)
StructureandMaterialsTechnologiesforRLV
PaperprovidedbyMANTechnologie(2004).
[7040] J.Antonenko:EADSSTGmbH
Flexibleexternalinsulation(FEI):PerformanceanddataforX38nose
capandnoseskirtapplication
ESTECContract15867/01/NL/MV:CCN5(2006)
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HighTemperatureInsulationHTIandIFI:Performanceanddatafor
X38nosecapandnoseskirtapplication
[7042] U.Trabandtetal:Astrium(Bremen&Friedrichshafen,D)
DeployableCMCHotStructureDeceleratorforAerobrake
Proceedingsof17thADSConference,May2003
[7043] U.Trabandt&E.Monreal:EADSST(Bremen)/EADSDC
LiquidPolymerC/SiCandPotentialApplicationsinSpace
Components
ProceedingsofHTCMC5:5thInternationalConferenceonHigh
temperatureCeramicMatrixComposites,Seattle,2004
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71
Thermal protection systems
71.1 Introduction
71.1.1 Application
71.1.1.1 Structures
TPS thermal protection systems control the heat energy at the surface of structures that undergo
externalheating.Usuallyheattransfertotheunderlyingstructuresislimitedbecausethesecannot
withstandelevatedtemperatures.ThemainsourceofexternalheatingiseitherreentryintoEarths
atmosphereorentryintotheatmosphereofotherplanets.Velocitiesareextremelyhighandheating
occursbyhypersonicgasflowovertheexternalsurfaces.
[See:Chapter70forvehicledescriptions;ECSSHB308Spacecraftthermalcontroldesigndata]
ThemainusesofTPSare:
Reentrycapsules,e.g.Apollo,ACRVs.
SpaceShuttleorbiterandBuran.
Spaceplaneconcepts,Ref.[711],e.g.:
Hermes,
HOPE, Ref. [712]; HOPEX which is a full scale, unmanned prototype of the HOPE
wingedmancapablereentryglider,Ref.[7180],
HOTOL,
NASP,
SNGER.
Demonstratorvehicleprogrammes,Ref.[7180]:
X33Flight,
X34Technology,
X38Liftingbody,partoftheCRVcrewreturnvehicle.
Reusableitems,suchascontainingpropellants,e.g.LHcryotanks.
Marslanders.
Planetaryprobes.
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71.1.1.2 Propulsion systems
TPSisalsousedinthevicinityofenginesandpropulsionsystemstocontroltheheatgeneratedby
combustion.
71.1.2 European development programmes
71.1.2.1 Status
TPSconceptsevolvedfromanumberofEuropeanprogrammesmainlyconcernedwithtechnology
development and demonstration. Many of these technologies are now awaiting commitments to
fundparticularflightprogrammes,notablyreusablelaunchers.
EuropeanorganisationsalsocontributedsignificantlytotheUSbasedXvehicleprojects.
71.1.2.2 Examples
SomeEuropeanprogrammesthathavecontributedtotheoveralladvancementofTPSinclude:
Hermesreusablespaceplane(198893).
HOTOL(SSTO)andSnger(TSTO)concepts(to1994).
WLCwingedlauncherconfigurations(199294),Ref.[7169].
Integrity control for hightemperature structural applications (199295), Ref. [7161]. This
studycoveredCSiCheatshingles,withmaterialcharacteristicsandNDIrelatedtothermo
mechanicalandacousticperformance.
MSTP manned space transportation programme (199598), Ref. [7170], [7175], [7180],
including:
CTVcrewtransfervehiclesandACRVassuredcrewreturnvehicles.
Reentrycapsules.
Heatshieldassemblies,e.g.CHAceramicheatshieldassembly
Ablatives.
Planetaryprobes.
MarsLander,e.g.MARSNET.
Aeroshellsanddecelerators.
CassiniHuygensheatshieldconstructions.
FESTIP future European space transportation investigations programme (199497: Phase 1),
Ref.[7162],[7166].
Reentryflightdemonstrators(from1994)
EXPRESSexperimentalreentryspacesystemcapsule,Ref.[7180].
CETEX ceramic tile experiment on the EXPRESS reentry capsule (in 1995), Ref. [71
60]: For testing a 300mm tile of CCSiC material (made by liquid phase siliconising of
carbon) under extreme, ablative stagnationpoint conditions. Owing to launch vehicle
problems, EXPRESS did not reach the target orbit and reentered after 2.5 orbits. The
precisereentryconditionswereunknown(lossoftelemetry),butpostflightanalysisof
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ablationthicknessindicatedmoresevereheatfluxthanexpected.(2.6MW/m2),Ref.[71
80].
MIRKA mikro rckkehr kapsela micro reentry capsule(in1997),Ref.[7178],[71
79].Thesurfaceprotectedablator(SPA)concept,consistingofanablatormaterialfilled
honeycomb with an external thin shell of CMC (CSiC) produced by lamination and
subsequentpyrolysis(DorniersPIPprocess).
ARDatmosphericreentrydemonstratorlaunchedfromAriane5(1998),Ref.[7176],
[7180]. Contains CMC materialspecimens (CSiCfrom MANMT and SEP, CC from
Aerospatiale, CCSiC from DLR); each 200mm diameter. These are mounted with
ceramic fasteners on the primary ablative heatshield for inflight, reentry
characterisationofsubstrateandcoatingperformance.
TETRAtechnologienfrzuknftigeraumtransportsysteme,aDLRfundedprogrammein
collaborationwithGermanindustry,Ref.[7180]:
Baselineflighthardware:CSiCnosecapandsplitflaps.
NonBaseline:heatshieldpanelsandblanketsintegratedaroundthebaselineTPS,e.g.
rigid external insulation (REI)type CSiC panel, fasteners and internal multiscreen
insulation (IMI); C/SiC panel with internal flexible insulation (IFI); flexible external
insulation(FEI).
ALSCAP alternative lowcost, short manufacturing cycle assessment programme, Ref. [71
80]aparalleltechnologyprogrammetodevelopalowcost,serialproductionmethodforC
SiCreentrycapsuleheatshieldcomponents.
PRORA: Italian national aerospace programme:USV unmanned space vehicle flight test
beds,[See:70.22]
RecentandongoingEuropeanprogrammesonreusablestructuresinclude:
FTLPfuturelaunchertechnologyprogramme(to2001)
FLPPfuturelauncherpreparatoryprogramme(2004to2009)
IXVIntermediateexperimentalvehicleforreentrytechnologies,flightexpectedin2010.
71.1.3 Concepts
TherearemanyconceptsforTPSdesignsdescribedinopenpublications,whicharebasedupona
rangeofmaterials.
TheselectionofanappropriateTPSisbothmissionandvehiclerelated.
Preferenceisgiventoprovensystemswithaknowledgebasetoworkfrom,providingconfidencein
their use in new projects. This is particularly true of USA and RussianCIS space programmes.
However, there is always a drive to produce more efficient TPS concepts, not least in spaceplane
developmentwherelowmassandreusabilityareimportantcriteria.
Table71.1.1providesasummaryofselectedTPScandidatesandtheircharacteristics,Ref.[714],[71
81].
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Table71.11TPS:Summaryofcandidatecharacteristics
Flexiblesurface MultiwallTPS
Criteria Rigidceramictiles Ceramicshingle Metallicshingle CChotstructure CSiChotstructure
insulation panels
Uppertemperature
650 1260 1300 1300 1300 1600 1600
limit(C)
Nosecap,leading
Leeward Staticanddynamic
Localapplication Fuselage/wings Fuselage/wings Fuselage/wings Fuselage/wings edges,control
fuselage/wings controlsurfaces
surfaces
Screwsandshear
Attachment Adhesivebonding Adhesivebonding Screwsandbolts Clipsorstuds Screwsandbolts Nutsandbolts
pins
Slidingjoint+ Ceramicfabricsand Ceramicfabrics,
Sealing Buttjoint Ceramicfabrics Ceramicfabrics Sealingplates
ceramicfabrics rings rings,springs
Manufacturingtools
Low High High Moderate Moderate High High
effort
Maintenance/Repair
Low Moderate Low Moderate Low High High
effort
Scatterinmaterial
Moderate High High Low Low High High
characteristics
Mechanicalstrength Low Moderate High High High High High
Notrelevantfor
Coatingreasoning Surfacesealing Erosion,humidity Oxidation Oxidation Oxidation Oxidation
SiCSiC
Thicknessat
Notapplicable Moderate High Moderate Low Notapplicable Notapplicable
comparableconditions
Thermalexpansion Low Low Low High High Low Low
Key: >1000C
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The classes of materials used within TPS and thermostructural concepts are summarised in Table
71.1.2,Ref.[713].
Table71.12TPSandThermostructuraldesigns:Materialclasses
Externalinsulation Primarystructure Internalinsulation
Medium/high density CMC thermostructure Ceramic foil multilayer
ablators (>1 MW/m) materials (>1000C) insulation (>1000C)
GMC, Intermetallics or
Alumina/silica tiles or Lightweight ceramic
Superalloy (up to
low density ablators fibre tiles or mats
1000C)
CMC shingles with low Titanium, Beryllium
Metallic foil multilayer
density fibrous alloys & Al MMC (up to
insulation (<1000C)
insulation ~500C)
Metallic multi-wall Glass fibre, silica
panels with low density microsphere insulation
CFRP and aluminium
insulation (<500C)
alloys
Ceramic fibre flexible Rigid or flexible
blankets organic foams
MostreusablevehicleTPSconceptscombinematerialscapableofcarryingloadsathightemperatures,
i.e.externalvehiclesurfaces,withsomeformofinsulationthatprotectstheunderlyingstructurefrom
overheating.TogethertheyformtheoverallTPSsystem.
In reusable cryotank concepts, [See: 71.19], the overall TPS system includes cryoinsulation, which
limitsfuelboiloffandicingduringprelaunchandascent,[See:71.22].
71.1.4 Non load-carrying TPS

TypesofTPSthatdonotcarrysignificantloadsinclude:
Ablatives,[See:71.4].
Ceramictiles,[See:71.5Orbiter;71.6Buran]
Fibrousinsulation,[See:71.10IMI;71.11FEI]
Flexiblefabrics,feltsandcloths,[See:71.10IMI;71.11FEI].
Rigidorflexiblefoaminsulation,[See:71.22].
Thesematerialsprovideefficientthermalinsulation,butneedtobeoptimisedintermsofmass,both
onanarealbasisandthedeadmasscontributiontothevehiclestructure.
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71.1.5 Load-carrying TPS

TypesofTPSthatdocarrysignificantloadscanbeclassedasthermostructuraldesigns,[See:Chapter
70],andinclude:
Metallicbasedconstructions,[See:71.8,71.9,71.14]:
titanium,
nickel.
Ceramicbased,[See:71.7,71.12,71.17,71.18]:
CMC,e.g.CSiCandSiCSiC,
carboncarboncomposites.
Loadbearing TPS is of interest because it offers masssavings whilst providing the aerodynamic
surfacesofvehicles.Oftheseapplications,theCMCbodyflapconceptfortheX38testvehicleiswell
advanced,[Seealso:Chapter52].
Thebodyflap,producedinCSiCmaterial,consistsoftheseveralmainelements,Ref.[7185],[7189]:
flapstructures(boxsegments,sectionsandcoverplates),
hingelinebearing,Ref.[7190],
fasteners(bolts,nutsandwashers),Ref.[7186],
connectiontoEMAelectromechanicalactuatorEMA,Ref.[7185],
sealingsystem,Ref.[7191].
ACMCelevonisproposedfortheX33/RLVprogramme.Thelargestseparateelementsoftheinboard
andoutboardelevonareabout1.8m1.3m;oneassembledruddervatorhasaspanofabout2.4m,Ref.
[7184].Thedesignconceptcomprises:
ribreinforcedbox:upperleewardandlowerwindwardsideandribofintegrallyfabricatedC
SiCcomposite;withoxidationprotectioncoating,
metallichinge,
metallicactuatorfittings.
71.1.6 Reusable structures

TheShuttleOrbitersandotherspaceplaneconceptsrelyonthedevelopmentofreusableTPS.Ideally,
thisisbothdurableandlowmaintenance.
The experience with the US Space Shuttle isimportant because maintenance of the external ceramic
tilesinitiallyprovedcostly.TheinserviceinspectionofTPSneedsthoroughconsideration.Likewise
themeansofjoiningTPStothesubstructure.
TPS functioning at high temperatures and under oxidative or erosive conditions undergoes some
degradation. Any degradation should be sustainable within the flight environment and for the
numberofintendedflights.
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The details of TPS developments within Europe and the USA are provided within several
publications,e.g.USAperspective,Ref.[715];EuropeanandInternational,Ref.[713],[716],[7177],
[7181].
71.2 Cooling modes
71.2.1 General
TPSprovidescoolingforastructureandthiscanbeachievedinanumberofways,asshowninFigure
71.2.1,Ref.[715].
Conventional TPS tends to use passivesystems onwhich there is the largestknowledge base. More
emphasisisplacedonactivecoolingforadvancedspaceplanes,e.g.SSTOsandscramjetpropulsion
systems.
Figure71.21TPSconcepts
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71.2.2 Passive TPS
71.2.2.1 Heat sinks

Theserelyonheatstorageforpreventingexternalheatfromdiffusingthroughthestructure.
71.2.2.2 Ablatives
These use the decomposition of materials to transport (convect) heat away with the gases evolved.
They are sacrificial systems, usually based on polymeric composites, which break down at high
temperatureleavingacharredlayerwithinsulatingproperties.
71.2.2.3 Insulation systems

Principallyofceramicconstructionwithlowthermalconductivitywhichreradiatealargeproportion
of the heat back into the environment. The emissivity and catalytic characteristics of the immediate
outersurfaceareveryimportant.
ThermalcontrolvariantsaresummarisedinFigure71.2.2,Ref.[713].
Hot structure Protected structure Integral tank

arcitecture arcitecture arcitecture
Primary
structure Insulation
Primary
structure
Insulation
Insulation
Insulation
Tank skin Tank skin Primary
Tank skin
Primary
Primary
structure N.A.
Insulation
Insulation
Primary
N.A.
Primary
structure
Figure71.22Principalpassivethermalcontrolarchitectures
71.2.3 Active cooling concepts
71.2.3.1 Gas flow

Throughtheuseofcomputationalfluiddynamics(CFD),anoptimumgasflowcanbeachievedovera
surfacetominimiseimpingementandstagnationzones.Coolergasstreamscanbeusedtoprovidea
laminarflowbarrieroversurfacesseparatinghotgasesfromthestructure.
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71.2.3.2 Cryogenic fuels
Cryogenicfuels,inparticularliquidhydrogen,haveaveryhighspecificheatcapacity.Bypassingfuel
close to the structural surface on route to the propulsion system, active cooling can be provided,
togetherwithincreasedpropulsiveefficiency.
71.2.3.3 Liquid coolants

Highheatcapacityliquids,e.g.moltensodium,havebeenproposedfortransportingheatawayfrom
criticalregionsthroughtheuseofheatpipesorheatexchangers.
71.3 Early re-entry capsules

In the design of passive TPS for atmospheric entries, ablative materials have provided successful, if
conservative,selfregulativesolutionsforearlymannedvehicles,Ref.[717],[718].
Thematerialsappliedwere:
Mercury:Glassfibrereinforcedphenolicresin.
Gemini:CorningDC235siliconecomposition.
Apollo (lunar): AVCO 502639 HCG, an epoxynovalac, glass fibre honeycomb reinforced
material.
Alowdensity(540kg/m3)wasachievedbytheadditionofsilicaandphenolicmicroballoons.Quality
assuranceandinspectionspecifiedthateachcellofthehoneycombwasfilledbyhand.
Apolloexperiencedreentryvelocitiesof11.2km/s,withtheTPScontributing13.2%ofvehiclemass.
Table71.3.1givesthemassfractionsofTPSusedinearlycapsules.Apolloexperiencedpeakheating
ratesof4.4MW/m2.
Table71.31Earlyreentrycapsules:TPSmassfractions
Project TPS %ofEntrymass
Apollo AVCOAT-5026 13
Viking SLA-561 7
Pioneer-Venus:
Large probe Carbon-phenolic 10
Small probe 13
Galileo Carbon-phenolic 43
Phenolic-nylon 4
MESUR (proposed):
7 km/s entry SLA-561 7.5
9 km/s entry AVCOAT-5026 & SLA-561 11
Key: Forebodyonly Afterbody
Someablativessuccessfullyusedinotherprogrammes,Ref.[718]are:
NASAPlanetaryAerothermalExperimentTest(PAET)Probe:Siliconebasedablatives.
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Viking Mars Lander: A low density silicone ablator, SLA561 with a density of 224kg/m, to
resistaheatfluxof0.24MW/mandtotalheatloadof11.8MJ/m.
Pioneer Venus mission: Carbon fibre reinforced phenolic ablator construction to withstand
uncertainheatfluxes(>30MW/m)
GalileoJupiterProbe:Carbonfibrereinforcedphenolicheatshieldsweighing146kg,or46%,of
thetotal338kgvehicle,asshowninFigure71.3.1,Ref.[717].
Figure71.31Galileoentryprobe
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71.4 Ablative designs
71.4.1 General
For single missions, with no reusable requirements, ablatives still have a role in future space
programmes,Ref.[7158].
Figure 71.4.1 shows the basic decomposition mechanisms of ablatives, Ref. [718], [See also: Figure
70.15.1].
Free
Stream Rad iation
Chemica l Spe cies
Flux In
Diffusion
Reactio n
Produc ts
Radiation Pyrolysis
Flux Out Gases Mec hanical
Boundary
Co nvective Erosion
Layer
Flux
Char
Cond uc tion Flux
S
Pyrolysis Mate rial Dec omposition
Zone
Virgin
Material
Backup
Material
Figure71.41Ablatives:Basicdecompositionmechanisms
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71.4.2 Programmes
Someexamplesofprogrammeswhereablativesareusedinclude:
NASA Commercial Experiment Transporter (COMET) recovery capsules with two functions,
Ref.[718].Designedasafreeflyerconceptofapressurisedrecoverysystem(intendedfor227
kgofrecoverableexperiments)withanonpressurised,nonrecoverableservicemodule.
SpacerecoveryvehicleCARINA(CApsuladiRIentroNonAbitata),byAleniaSpaziotocarry
andretrievevariousmicrogravitypayloads,Ref.[719].
NASA/ESAACRV,theassuredcrewreturnvehiclefortheemergencyreturnofastronautsfrom
orbitingspacestationstoearth,Ref.[7110],[7111].
NASAMESURNetworkMarsLander,Ref.[717].
CARTECFTstudyforanItalianscientificpayloadcarrierforreentryexperiments,Ref.[7181].
71.4.3 Materials
71.4.3.1 Acusil: Low-density, silicone-based ablatives

Two variants under consideration for COMET and CARINA are Acusil I and Acusil II, which are
derivedfromtheApolloeraablativesESA3560HF,SLA220.Theirmaincharacteristicsinclude:
Acusil I: An ablative foam composed of silicone resin, quartz microballoons, phenolic
microballoons and quartz fibre. This is incorporated into a Flexcore glass fibre/phenolic
honeycombbondedtotheforwardstructureofCOMET.Thematerialhasanoveralldensityof
480kg/mandisamoderatedensitycharringablatorforheatfluxesupto4.5MW/m.
AcusilII:ForuseontheaftstructureandendcapofCOMET.Ithasasimilarmaterialmakeup
but a density of 260 kg/m for lowmoderate heat fluxes up to 1.1 MW/m2. It remains RF
transparentevenduringreentry.
The CARINA concept and structural configuration shown in Figure 71.04.2, Ref. [719], is similar to
thatofCOMET.
ThesameUSAcontractorproducedtheTPSsystemforCOMETandstudiedtheTPSforCARINA.
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Figure71.42CARINA:Generallayout
71.4.3.2 ALS051: Medium-density, silicone-based ablatives

ItwasdevelopedbyAleniaSpazioforthehemisphericalnosecapoftheCARTECFTspacecraft,Ref.
[7181].Thespecificationincluded:
thermal:
heatfluxdistribution,
maintainingthealuminiumshellbelow160C.
generalmassanddimensionconstraints.
ALS051 is a siliconebased ablative material supported by a glassphenolic honeycomb. Mechanical

propertiesareimprovedbyaddingglassreinforcement,whilstthedensityisreducedbytheaddition
of phenolic microspheres. The ablative is packed into the honeycomb core and cured (at RT, or
accelerated by moderate heating), followed by machining to the required thickness. Flat or curved
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panelsarebondedtothesubstructure.ThepropertiesofALS051aresummarisedinTable71.4.1,Ref.
[7181].Theseweredeterminedaspartofthefirstqualifiedversionofthematerialandusedasinput
to Alenia Spazio CAPSA, an ablative TPS design tool computer program. The ground testing
programmeincludedchemicalcomposition,kineticparametersandoutgassingproperties.
Table71.41AblativeTPS:ALS051properties
RTproperties:
Colour Brick red
Density 830 30 kg/m3
Hardness 72 3 Shore A
Tensile strength 3.23 MPa
Elastic modulus 37.5 MPa
Elongation 12 %
Poissons ratio 0.43
Thermal*:
Conductivity, at 160C 0.056 W mK-1
Char conductivity, at 160C 0.063 W mK-1
Specific heat, at 160C () 1.22 J gK-1
Char specific heat, at 550C 1.00 J gK-1
Expansion coefficient 77.4 m mK-1
Ablativeproperties**:
Mass loss, in air, to 900C 54.4 %
Mass loss, in nitrogen, to 900C 50.5 %
Ablation heat, by DSC, in nitrogen 3800 J g-1
Key: *convectiveheatingreentryenvironment;
**bythermogravimetric,DSCanalysisandarcjettests.
ArcjettestsonsamplesinairandthedifferentnominalheatingconditionsexpectedintheCARTEC
FT environment suggested comparable performance between ALS051 and other commercially
available,qualified,ablativematerials;testedfrom200kW/m2to1000kW/m2coldwallheatfluxesfor
150s.
The posttest samples showed no significant surface regression and retained their shape and
dimensions,withatoughsurfaceandhomogeneoustexture.
71.4.3.3 Epoxy resin and cork ablators

ThesewereconsideredbyAleniaSpazioforACRVconceptsinconjunctionwiththeCARINAstudy.
Acusilmaterialsweremoreweightefficientinsulatorsthanepoxy(1051kg/m3)orcork(490kg/m3)in
modellingstudies.
The modelling of ablation response is an important part of the design process for vehicle
dimensioning,Ref.[716].
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71.4.3.4 SPA - Surface protected ablator
TheSPAwasdevelopedtomeettherequirementsoftheMIRKAcapsule,[Seealso:70.15].Thisnon
reusableheatshieldcomprisesofaconventionalablativematerialenclosedinathinCMCshell.
Duringreentry,theCMCshellprotectstheablatorfromabrasionanderosion,intenseheatfluxesand
dynamicpressuresrelatedtothemission.
The gas produced during ablation is channelled and vents from behind the CMC shell at
predeterminedlocations,[Seealso:71.17].
71.5 Space Shuttle orbiter
71.5.1 General
TheOrbiterwasdesignedtowithstandthesurfacetemperaturesshowninFigure71.5.1,Ref.[7112].
Figure71.51Orbiter:Designsurfacetemperatures(C)inascentandreentry
trajectories
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Beneath the outer TPS systems lies a fairly conventional lightalloy airframe construction, with a
mannedflightdeckandcargobaywhichiskeptcoolduringreentry.Theairframestructureiskept
below177C.
71.5.2 Materials and configurations

A range of TPS systems is used,Ref. [7113],[7114], with the coverageshownin Figure71.5.2,Ref.
[7112].
TheCCnosecone[See:70.9]andwingleadingedges[See:70.10]arethermostructuralelements.
[Seealso:71.7forprogressiveimprovementsinCCmaterials]
Different types of ceramic insulation, classed as reusable surface insulation (RSI), cover most of the
externalsurfaceoftheOrbiter.
Figure71.52Orbiter:TPSThermalprotectionsystems
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The temperature limits for the respective types of insulation are given in Table 71.5.1, Ref. [7112].
Somearerigidceramictiles,Ref.[7112],whilstothersareflexibleblankets,Ref.[7113],[7114].
Table71.51Orbiter:TPSmaterialtemperaturelimits
Maximumoperatingtemperature, Minimum
(C) operating
Typeofinsulation
100Mission Singlemission temperature
life life (C)
High temperature reusable 1260 1427
-128
surface insulation (HRSI) 1260 1482
Low temperature reusable
1093 1149 -128
surface insulation (LRSI)
Fibrous refractory composite
1260 1427 -128
insulation (FRCI)
Felt reusable surface
399 482 -128
insulation (FRSI)
Advanced flexible reusable
816 982 -128
surface insulation (AFRSI)
Reinforced Carbon-Carbon
1482 1816
(RCC)
Thermal window pane 956 -
Key :144kg/m :352kg/m :Nolimitidentified
TheTPSsystemsappliedtotheorbitercanbesummarisedas:
HRSI (hightemperature reusable surface insulation: Low density, highpurity (99.8%) silica
fibreinsulationrigidisedbyceramicbonding.Density144kg/mor352kg/mwithablackRCG
(reactioncuredglass)coating.
LRSI (lowtemperature reusable surface insulation): The composition is the same as HRSI,
exceptithasawhiteRCGcoatingandadensityof144kg/m.
FRCI(fibrousrefractorycompositeinsulation):ThecompositionisthesameasHRSI,butwith
aluminoborosilicatefibresforimproveddurabilityandadensityof192kg/m.
FRSI (felt reusable surface insulation): A Nomex felt coated with a white pigmented silicone
elastomer,offeringwaterproofingwiththespecifiedthermalandopticalproperties.
AFRSI (advanced flexible reusable surface insulation): Comprising of low density 176 kg/m
batting (sheets for quilting) of highpurity 99.8% amorphous silica fibres. This batting is
sandwiched between an outer wovensilica, hightemperature fabric and an inner lower
temperature,wovenglassfabric.Thecompositionisstitchedwithasilicathread;treatedwith
waterrepellentandcoatedwithaceramictoprovidedurabilityandresistancetodamage.
The FRCI and AFRSI were lateradditions to the Orbiter fleet. AFRSI replaced LRSI in many places.
TheFRCItilesareusedinareassusceptibletohandlingorimpactdamage.
TypicalRSIpropertiesareshowninTable71.5.2,Ref.[7112].
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Table71.52TPS:RSITypicalProperties
Property RCG LI900 LI2200 FRCI12
Density (kg/m) 2195 144 352 192
Tensile strength (N/m):
Through-thickness 5.58 x 105
- 1.65 x 105 5.03 x 105
In-plane 17.72 x
2.76 x 107 4.62 x 105 12.4 x 105
105
Compressive strength (N/m):
Through-thickness 8.96 x 105 9.10 x 105
- 1.93 x 105
In-plane 15.86 x 18.27 x
6.89 x 105 4.83 x 105
105 105
Thermal expansion (10-6C-1):
Through-thickness 1.08 0.72 0.72 1.26
In-plane 1.08 0.72 0.72 1.26
Apparent thermal conductivity
(W/m.K):
Through-thickness: 21C @ 10-4
1.44 0.014 0.032 0.019
atm
- 0.045 0.059 0.049
538C @ 10-4
1.44 0.063 0.105 0.076
atm
- 0.156 0.180 0.163
In-plane: 21C @ 1 atm
538C @ 1 atm
Specific heat (J/kg K) 920 771 711 711
Dielectric constant 4.8 1.13 1.30 1.20
Loss tangent 0.0030 0.0004 0.0016 0.0009
TheRSIceramictilesarebondedtotheOrbiterstructurewithasiliconeadhesiveandanintermediate
layerofnylonfelt,asshowninFigure71.5.3,Ref.[7112].
The nylon felt acts as a strain isolation pad (SIP) which separates the lowstrength, brittle tile from
airframestructuralstrainsanddeflectionsandsubsequentcriticaltilestresses.
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Figure71.53Orbiter:RSIsystemconfiguration
Tiles are densified at the inner mould line to provide adequate strength at the tiletoSIP interface.
Thisdensificationenablesasufficientstructuralmarginforthetilebasedonthepredictedloadcases.
Thegapsbetweenthetilespreventtiletotilecontactoccurringbyacousticallyinducedtilemovement
orbycontractionoftheairframeintheextremecoldofspace.Fillerbarmaterialatthebottomofthe
tiletotilegapisusedtopreventheatpenetrationthroughthegap.
In the higher pressure gradient regions of the Orbiter, open gaps can result in ingestion of high
temperaturegasduringreentry,causinglocalovertemperatureofthevariousTPScomponentsand
thestructure.Topreventthis,twobasictypesofgapfiller,pilloworlayer,arebondedtothetopof
thefillerbar.
To fill the larger gaps around movable hatches and doors, thermal barriers made from the ceramic
clothfilledwithsoftinsulationandmetallicspringsareused.
TheRSIblanketsarebondeddirectlytothestructurewithasiliconerubberadhesive.
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71.5.3 In-Service TPS Performance
71.5.3.1 Surface damage

SurfacedamagehasoccurredonallShuttleflights.Thedamageexperiencedcanbegroupedas:
Gapfillerdamage,
Tileslumping,
Dents,
Gouges,and
Chippedcoatings.
Theseprimarilyresultfromimpactbyfragmentsduringlaunchseparationstages,icingandrunway
debris. Approximately 2% to 3% of impacted tiles are replaced, whilst the remainder are repaired
using standardised procedures. The loss of tiles experienced in early flights is now avoided by
improvedbondingtechniques.
71.5.3.2 Columbia
ThetotallossoftheColumbiain2003duringmissionSTS107wasattributedtoabreachintheTPSon
theleadingedgeoftheleftwing.Thiswascausedbyapieceofinsulatingfoamthatseparatedfroman
areaoftheExternalTank81.7secondsafterlaunch.Thefoamstruckthewinginthevicinityofthe
lowerhalfofRCCpanelNo8.
DuringreentrythebreachintheTPSenabledsuperheatedairtopenetratethroughtheleadingedge
insulationandprogressivelymeltthealuminiumstructureoftheleftwing,resultinginaweakening
of the structure until increasing aerodynamic forces caused loss of control, failure of the wing, and
breakupoftheOrbiter,Ref.[7197].
71.6 Buran
71.6.1 General
Buran was designed for launch into LEO by the Energyia heavylift launcher. Early trials with TPS
conceptswereconductedontheBOR4reentrytestvehicle,Ref.[7115].
Buranhasonlyflownonce,sodoesnothavetheoperationalexperienceoftheOrbiterfleet.
The similarities between the two vehicles can be seen by comparing Figure 71.6.1, Ref.[7115], with
Figure71.5.2.
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Figure71.61BURAN:Externalthermalprotection
Groundbased trials of TPS systems were conducted with induction and arcjet plasmatrons. High
frequencyplasmatronswithinductionheatingenabledthecatalyticactivityatsurfacestobestudied.
Arc jet plasmatrons,froman earliergeneration of test facilities,were used on ablativesystems, [See
also:70.10forBuranwingleadingedgeconstructions].
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71.6.2 Materials and configurations

The thermal profiles of the two vehicles on reentry are similar, as are the distribution of TPS
materials.
Buranhasceramictilesmadefromsilicafibresforregionsexperiencingtemperaturesbetween700C
and1200C,withflexibleinsulationforzonesupto370C.
Ablatives also appear in the design, as do external thermoresistant shields of metallic honeycomb
panelsforthe400Cto700Careas,Ref.[7115].Bothofthesearefoundonthetrailingedgesofthe
wings.Buranhas38,000thermalprotectiontilesbondedtoexternalsurfaces.
71.7 Advanced carbon reinforced composites
71.7.1 Carbon-carbon composites

Carboncarbon(CC)compositesareusedinthermostructuralTPS,Ref.[7116],[7117],[7118].Their
popularity continues despite the complex protection systems required for oxidation resistance, [See
also:Chapter74].
CCcompositesarespecifiedbecause:
TheyhaveproveninserviceperformanceonShuttleOrbiterandotherspaceprogrammes,
Theyaretheonlyprovenstructuralmaterialscapableoffunctioningabove1600C,
Carbonfibresincreaseinstrengthathightemperaturesto2500C,
Provenmanufacturingroutesexist;eitherresinorpitchpyrolysis,orbyCVI,
Complexconstructionscanbepreparedwith3DornDfibreorientations,
Theyhaveexcellentcapabilitiesinsustainingthermalshockandthermalcycling.
Performanceimprovementsinthisclassofcompositeshavecomeaboutbecauseof:
Theavailabilityofimprovedcarbonfibres,
Differentcarbonfibresofferingoptimisationof:
strength,
modulus,
conductivity,and
thermalstability.
Multidimensionalfibreorientation,upto6D.
71.7.2 ACC - Advanced carbon-carbon

To demonstrate the improvements, NASA developed ACC (advanced carboncarbon) by 1982 to
replace the earlier RCC (reinforced carboncarbon). A 25% improvement in tensile strength was
achieved,althoughtheinterlaminarstrengthdiminishedslightlyforthis2Dfabriccomposite.
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Subsequentfurtherrefinementsinclude:
A fine tow and thin fabric combination simultaneously improves inplane and interlaminar
strengthsin2Dcomposites,
Optimising fibre surface treatment and sizes enables potentially high improvements in
interlaminarstrength,
Throughthickness reinforcement results in property tradeoffs between inplane strength and
interlaminarshearstrength,
Overalltensilestrengthscanbeimprovedby100%andinterlaminarshearstrengthsby200%.
Theseimprovementsgivedesignersgreaterconfidenceinthematerialsforloadbearingapplications,
eitherinminimumgaugesectionsorhighloadcarryingmembers.
Figure71.7.1showsanACCMultipoststandoffTPSconcept,Ref.[715].
Figure71.71TPS:ACCmultipoststandoffconcept
71.7.3 Aerospatiale - Aerotiss 2.5D

WithintheHermesprogramme,Aerospatialedevelopedafamilyofreinforcedcarboncarbon(RCC)
materialswithmultidirectionalfibrearchitectures;knownasAerotiss.
The fibre preforms (2D, 2.5D, 3D) are densified by repeated phenolic resin impregnation and cure,
followed bypyrolysis toachieve the correct density. Antioxidation coatings (PAO), basedon silicon
carbide,arethenappliedbypackcementation,CVDandsilicaimpregnation(viasolgel).
FortheX33programme,BFGoodrich(formerlyRohr)isresponsibleforthedesign,manufactureand
integrationoftheTPS.Duringtestflights,thevehiclecanreach1300Cto1400Cinsomeareas.This
exceedsthereusabilitytemperaturecriteriaimposedforthemetallictilesthatcoverthemajorityofthe
vehicle. Consequently, a CC nose cap was selected to cover all the external surfaces exposed to
temperaturesexceeding1100Cduringtestflightsandleadingedges,Ref.[7183],[7184].
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Table71.7.1summarisesthemechanicalandphysicalpropertiesalongwithoxidationresistanceofthe
AerospatialematerialfortheX33nosecap,Ref.[7183].
AnevaluationsampleofAerospatialesCCmaterialisincludedontheARDreentryexperiment,[See
also:71.1].
Table71.71Aerotiss2.5Dcoatedcarboncarbon:Properties
A)Mechanical/Physicalproperties:
Properties 20C 1500C
Density (kg/m3) 1550 -

Porosity (%) <6 -
Min. tensile strength (MPa) 120 120
Tensile modulus (GPa) 75 75
Min. compressive strength (MPa) 120 120
Compressive modulus (GPa) 75 75
Min. interlaminar shear strength (MPa) 10 10
Thermal expansion coefficient (10-6 K-1) -0.5 1
Thermal conductivity (Wm-1K-1) 17 34
B)Oxidationresistance:
Temperature( Masslosspercycle
No.ofcycles Pressure(mbar)
C) (%)
BLOX Laser heating facility

800 10 10 0.015
1000 10 10 0.015
1450 10 10 0.015
1600 10 10 0.025
SIMOUN Arc-jet facility
1300 5 75 0.015
1500 30 75 0.02
71.7.4 Carbon-silicon carbide composites

The use of ceramic matrix composites (CMC) in thermal protection systems originated within the
Hermesprogramme.
AnaimsweretoimproveonthatappliedtotheSpaceShuttle,e.g.:
higherdurability(damageresistance),
lowermaintenancecosts,
lowerinstalledmass.
Thisledtotheseparationofthethermalinsulationandmechanicalstructurefunctions,Ref.[7180].
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Within the Hermes programme and subsequent European activities, a number of carbonreinforced
siliconcarbidematerialshavebeendeveloped,manufacturedandevaluatedforTPSapplications.Of
these,severalhavereachedfullscalecomponentlevelflightverificationandhavebeenincorporated
intofuturereentryvehicleprogrammes,Ref.[7180].
ThematerialsforvariousprogrammesandapplicationsaresummarisedinTable71.7.2,Ref.[7180],
[7185].
Table71.72CMCcarbonsiliconcarbide:VariousTPSprogrammesand
applications
CMC
Source Programme/Application
material
CC-SiC DLR ARD, [See: 71.1]
CC-SiC DLR CETEX, [See: 71.1]
CC-SiC DLR TETRA/X-38 Nosecap
CC-SiC DLR TETRA/X-38 REI-type panel, [See: 71.12]
C-SiC DASA TETRA/X-38 Large scale panel
C-SiC MAN ARD, [See: 71.1]
C-SiC MAN FESTIP - Cryogenic fuel tank TPS, [See: 71.19]
C-SiC MAN TETRA/X-38 REI-type panel, [See: 71.12]
C-SiC MAN TETRA/X-38 Split Flaps
SNGER Air-intake ramp
C-SiC
MAN X-38 Body Flap (girders, lugs & beam parts; double-
CVI
hinge, actuator bearing components; CMC fasteners)
CHA Heatshield, [See: 71.17]
C-SiC
MAN SNGER Air-intake ramp
LPI
X-38 Body Flap (cover/bottom plate parts)
C-SiC SEP ARD, [See: 71.1]
Hermes REI shingle
C-SiC SEP
[See: 71.12]
C-SiC
[SEPCA
CHA Heatshield (cassette panel)
RB- SEP
[See: 71.17; Table 71.17.1 for material properties]
INOX
272-01]
The mechanical properties and oxidation resistanceof MAN materials LPIC/SiCand CVIC/SiC are
summarisedinTable71.7.3,Ref.[7185],[7186].
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Table71.73CMCTPS:MANcarbonsiliconcarbideProperties
A)MechanicalpropertiesforLPIC/SiC,Ref.[7185]:
After2.5h/1500C/20mb
Property AsreceivedValue
argon
Tensile strength (MPa) 331 322
Tensile rupture strain (%) 0.62 0.62
Youngs modulus (GPa) 61 60
ILSS (MPa) 26 28
Bending strength (MPa) 280 285

B)ApproximateMechanicalPropertiesforCVIC/SiC,[0/45]layupforCMCfasteners,Ref.[7186]:
Property Value
Tensile strength (MPa) 280
ILSS (MPa) 40
Translaminar shear strength (MPa) 140
Tangent modulus, parallel to lay-up (GPa) 80
Tangent modulus, perpendicular to lay-up (GPa) 25
Thermal expansion, parallel to lay-up (10-6 K-1) 2-3
Thermal expansion, perpendicular to lay-up (10-6 K-1) 4-5

C)OxidationresistanceforLPIC/SiCandCVIC/SiC:PlasmaArcJettestsbyNASAJSC,Ref.[7185]:
Temperature(C) Pressure(mbar) Time(mins) G(%)

LPI-C/SiC
1660-1788 136 27 -1.47
1538-1933 92 13 -1.84
CVI-C/SiC
1538-1621 92 11 -0.66
1471-1971 110 13 -0.43
71.8 Durable metallic TPS
71.8.1 General
These concepts centre on the use of titanium or nickelbased materials to create radiative standoff
TPS.Thebetterknownexamplesare:
Titaniummultiwall(M/W)versions,and
Superalloyhoneycomb(SA/HC).
Durableimpliesthattheyarelesspronetodamagethantheirceramiccounterparts.
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These systems have been consideredfor Snger in Germany,Ref.[714],[7119], [7120], [7121]and
forUSAprogrammes.
AswithallTPSconcepts,therearemanyconstructionpermutations.Themetallicconceptswithlow
arealmasscancompetewiththeotherTPSsolutions.
71.8.2 Multiwall TPS

MetallicmultiwallTPSconsistsofthin(30mto100m),dimpledfoilswhicharediffusionbondedat
the dimples. Several layers with plane shear foils, combined with an optional layer of internal
multiscreeninsulation(IMI),makeupamultiwallpanel,asshowninFigure71.8.1,Ref.[7120].
Figure71.81TPS:Multiwallpanelscheme
Severalparameterscanbevaried:
dimplepattern,e.g.gridspacing,
foilthickness,
foilmaterial:
Tialloys(to600C),
Nialloys(to1000C),
Moalloys(to1300C).
bulkdensityrange100kg/mto250kg/m,
optimiseddesignscanhaveanarealmassaslowas9kg/m.
The multiwall panels are mechanically attached to the cold substructure with clips or studs. The
emissivityandoxidationresistanceofthefoilsisgivenseriousconsiderationtoensurethattheTPSis
fullyreusable.
Materialsevaluatedintrialsinclude:
Ti6Al4Vtitaniumalloy,
InconelIN718nickelalloy,
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Haynes188cobaltalloy,
TZMmolybdenumalloy.
MoreadvancedmaterialssuchasTi1100,withSPF/DBprocessing,ortitaniumaluminidescanalsobe
used.
There is greater confidence in the reproducible behaviour of metallic materials than their ceramic
counterparts.ThisisusedtopromotethemetalbasedTPSconcepts.
NASAhavesupportedthedevelopmentofvariousmetallicconcepts,Ref.[7122],[7123],[7124],[71
25],[7126].Thetitaniummultiwallversionismuchasdescribedabove.TheTidimpledfoilisbonded
togetherwithaliquidinterfacediffusion(LID)technique.
The superalloy honeycomb concept consists of an Inconel 617 honeycomb outer panel with 127m
facesheets,layeredfibrousinsulation,andatitaniumhoneycombinnersurfacepanelwith152mface
sheets.
Theedgesofthetwometallicconceptsarecoveredwith76mbeadedclosurestoformpanels300mm
square.
71.8.3 Developments
71.8.3.1 General
Further developments in multiwall concepts were made by DASA (formerly MBB Ottobrunn)
regardingthewingedandfullyreusableESAWLCTSTOreferencevehicle,Ref.[7169].
The combination of dimpled foils with internal insulation (IMI), [See: 71.10] has been examined
furthertocharacterisethebehaviour.TheanticipatedusewasfortheprotectionofaCFRPcomposite
integralliquidhydrogentank.
71.8.3.2 Construction
4flatfoils+3dimplelayersHaynes188:
Upper surfaces coated with ~10m alumina deposited by physical vapour deposition
(PVD).
Emissivityof0.7(0.65after10hoursat900C).
40 mm IMI thickness (less than 30 kg/m) with 9 silica quartz layers, each 4.4mm thick,
separated by Inconel 600 foils. The two hottest foils were gold coated with a TiN diffusion
barrier.
TwofurtherflatfoilsplusadimpledlayerbackedtheIMI,enablingfixingtothesubstrate.
Totalthicknessof60mm,witharealdensityof10kg/m.
Careneedstobetakenwhenhandlingthesethinlayermaterialsandtheassembliescannotbeover
compressedduringintegration.
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71.8.3.3 Mass distribution
Forboxedtestpanel(totalweight563grams):
Upperandlowermultiwallpackage:227g(40.3%oftotalmass).
Metalliccoversheetandborderprofiles:86g(15.3%).
Metallicboxstructure:51g(9.1%).
Fibrousinsulation(IMIplusfillers):69g(12.3%).
Reradiativescreens(eight25mInco600foils,twowithgoldcoatings):81g(14.4%).
Panelattachmentclips:33g(5.9%).
Brazingmaterial:16g(2.8%).
71.8.3.4 Limitations
Theconstructionlimitationsincluded,Ref.[7169]:
UncoatedHaynesandInconelsheetsundergosurfaceoxidationabove650C.
Uncoatedpurenickelreradiationfoils(screens)surfaceoxidiseabove500C.
Oxidationleadstoanincreaseinemissivity.
Thedimplelayerconfigurationundergolocalelasticbucklingforexcessivethermomechanical
loadings,e.g.atheatingorcoolingratesgreaterthan3C/sec.
Fatiguecracking:Lifetimesof25missionsfororbitalstageand80missionsforfirststage.
71.8.3.5 Surface emissivity

Surfaceemissivitycanbeadjustedbyapplyingdedicatedcoatings:
Highemissivityatouterpanelsurface.
Lowemissivityforscreens,sidewallsandinternalmultiwallelements.
Materialcharacteristicsinclude:
Bright nickel foil has a lower emittance (initially 0.09 rising to 0.41) than Inco 600 (from 0.14
increasedto0.22)evenifmoderatelyoxidised,buthasa150Clowertemperaturestability.Inco
600ispreferrediffoilsbeneath15mcanbeobtainedtocontrolmass.
Gold coated Inco 600 screen material has a favourable emittance provided that the surface
roughnesscausedbyadiffusionbarrierlayercanbereduced.
Fullyoxidisednickelfoilhasalowerthanexpectedemittanceof0.39at600C.
Emissivityvalueshaveasmalleffectontheoverallbehaviourasthemostsensitiveparameters
areIMIthermalcapacityandpackagedimensions,i.e.depth.
71.8.3.6 Static mechanical tests

Testsconductedonthemultiwallconfigurationshowed:
Multiwall shear tests: strength varied between 16.8MPa and 18.5MPa which compared well
withthatpredictedbyFEanalysis.
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Clip attachment tensile test: an average areal strength over entire panel of 42kPa was 5 to 6
timesdesignlevelload.
Bendingstrength:Multiwallpackageandsidewallsdemonstratedadequatebendingstrength.
71.8.3.7 Acoustic noise test

Themultiwallpanelsustaineda40minuteacousticnoisetestto165dB(Shuttlenoisespectrum),with
minor damage recorded at dimple bonding points and at fixation points to the test facility (locking
springandbearingclip).Thisdamagecanbeavoidedbyminordesignchanges,Ref.[7169].
71.9 Titanium-based composites
71.9.1 NASP
TheNASPprogrammeplacedconsiderableinvestmentin:
TMC(titaniummatrixcomposites)withSCSSiCmonofilamentreinforcement,
Titaniumaluminides,
Titaniumaluminidematrixcomposites.
These materials are intended for the airframe, external skin and propulsion system. They are also
appropriate for consideration in thermostructural TPS because they offer better stiffnesstoweight
andstrengthtoweightcharacteristicsthanconventionalunreinforcedtitaniumalloys.
[Seealso:Chapter47forTMCs;Chapter49forintermetallics]
71.10 Internal multiscreen insulation (IMI)
71.10.1 Concept
71.10.1.1 General
Internalmultiscreeninsulation(IMI)developmentwasinitiatedundertheHermesprogrammeasan
integralpartoftheRigidExternalInsulation(REI)concept,i.e.IMIisbetweenthecoolsubstructure
andexternalTPSskin(C/SiCormetallic)butformspartoftheREIshingle,Ref.[7127],[7128].
More recently, IMI has been included in other vehicle programmes, e.g. McDonald Douglas SSTO
DeltaClipperandNASAsLockheedMartinVentureStar,Ref.[7187].
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71.10.1.2 Materials and construction
IMIconsistsofaseriesoflightweightceramicscreens,coatedwithanultrathinlayerofnoblemetal.
The screens are separated by fibrous alumina or silica spacers, which also serve to minimise
convection. The assembly of the screens and spacers produces an IMI with high thermal efficiency,
Ref.[7128].
The foilsarepreparedfrom alumina fibre fleecesimpregnatedwith analuminasol. After pyrolysis,
theresultingaluminaaluminacompositecharacteristicsare:
Porousmatrix:55%micropores(50nm),density1.7g/cm3.
Foilarealmass:35g/cm3,40mthick.
Anoblemetalcoating(afew100nmthick)isappliedtoeachsideofthefoils,i.e.gold:meltingpoint
1060C;platinum:meltingpoint1769C.Thisprovidesahighreflectivitytoanincidentheatflux,by
multiplereflectionandreradiation.
Toensurethermalstabilityanddurability,anoxide(patented)isappliedontheceramicpriortonoble
metalcoating.
TheIMIconceptisadaptablebyvaryingthe:
materialselection,
densityoffibrouslayers,
thicknessandnumberoffibrouslayers,
numberandarealmassofscreens,
materialandtypeoflowemittancecoatingsontheradiativescreens.
ThepossibleIMIcombinationsprovideawiderangeofoptionsforvarioussurfacetemperatureand
vehiclerequirements;typicallywithhighestmasssavingsbetween600Cto1700C,Ref.[7187].
Figure71.10.1showsthebasicdesignconcept,Ref.[7187].
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Figure71.101TPS:IMIdesignconcept
Table71.10.1listssomeofthematerialcandidatesfordifferentapplications,Ref.[7187].
Table71.101TPS:IMImaterialcandidatesfordifferentapplications
Operational
Feltspacermaterial Screen Screen
temperaturerange
(Bulkdensity,kg/m3) substrate coating
(C)
Low density Quartz
<600 Alumina Gold
(<17)
Low/medium density
600 - 900 Quartz Alumina Gold
(>17)
Low density alumina
900 1050 Alumina Gold
(25 35)
Medium density Alumina
1050 1450 Alumina Platinum
(35 45)
High density Alumina
1450 - 1700 Alumina Platinum
(50 60)
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71.10.1.3 Theory
Eachreflectivescreencontributestotheattenuationofradiativeheattransferbyathermalradiative
resistanceproportionalto:
1
2
[71.101]
E
Where:
E thermal emittance.
TheprimaryperformanceparameterforIMIscreendevelopment:
2 E 1
[71.102]
m
Where:
E thermal emittance.
m mass of screen per unit area.
ThetotalconductivityofanIMIpackageisthesumofthethreemaincomponents:
airconductivity,
solidmaterialconductivity,and
radiativeconductivity.
71.10.2 Development and characterisation
71.10.2.1 General
Under the Hermes programme, extensive analysis and testing of IMI and REI was undertaken, Ref.
[7187]:
Theoreticalmodelling,developedfor:
predictingthethermaltransportbehaviour,Ref.[716],
masssensitivitystudies,designlayoutandoptimisation(thermalandmechanicalvehicle
specifications).
Manufacture of sub and fullscale IMI components: Fabrication and integration feasibility,
improvemanufacturingroutesandproducetestsamples.
Screens,foilsandspacers,
Integratedpackages(350mmx350mmx100mm).
Material characterisation and testing: Model prediction validation and performance under
launch,reentry,longtermgroundandspaceconditions.
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71.10.2.2 Thermal tests
Theseconsideredthe:
High temperature stability and optical performance after thermal ageing under defined
temperature/pressureconditions(longtermsinglemissionandcyclic).
Thermalperformance(cyclicreentrypressure/thermaltrajectories).
Conductivity(ageing).
71.10.2.3 Material characterisation

Thepropertiesinvestigatedwere:
Conductivity(material,parallelandperpendicular).
Heatcapacity(material).
Permeability.
Humidityandmoistureabsorption.
Thermalshockandfreezing.
Saltwaterexposureandchemicalcompatibility.
Emission.
71.10.2.4 Mechanical performance

Thepropertiesevaluatedwere:
Mechanicalload.
Compressiontest
Residualresilience(springback).
Vibroacousticloads.
Flexuraltests.
Ventingtests.
71.10.2.5 Integration and assembly tests

Thisconsideredthe:
Integration,assemblyanddisassembly.
Handling,inspectionandrefurbishment.
71.10.2.6 Non-destructive inspection

Theevaluationof:
Xrayinspection.
Preloadcontrolandmeasurement.
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71.10.2.7 Results
Table71.10.2summarisesthemainresultsoftheIMIinsulationelementsandREIassembly,Ref.[71
80],[7187].
Table71.102TPS:SummaryIMIcharacterisationtestresults
Testtype Testconditions(representative) Results
Thermal:
Demonstrated thermal
10 missions, reentry profile up function of REI; temperature
Complete REI
to 1200C of cold structure met
requirements.
IMIalone: Upto1600C
Effective thermal emissivity:
Au-coated screens >120 missions/in air/900C
0.16
Effective thermal emissivity:
Pt-coated screens >10 missions/in air/1450C
0.4
No degradation in
Thermal Shock:
+150/-200C mechanical or optical
IMI
properties
Humidity: IMI 38C/70C; 90-100% water <1% water absorption
No degradation of material
Chemical: IMI salt water, acid rain, acids No change in optical
performance
REI:
Gas Flow/Venting: Ascent profile (1 bar to 1 mbar
No damage to REI or IMI
REI in 120s)
Static Pressure: 95 mbar external & internal
No damage to REI or IMI
REI overpressure
Wide band sine sweep 4 to No damage
Vibration: REI
2000Hz in 3 directions Significant damping by IMI
Wide band acoustic load, 50-
Acoustic: REI 2000Hz up to 154 dB for >30 No damage
missions
5 missions (10 min.) for
No damage
extreme overload at 165dB
Additionaltests:RepresentativeofSSTOenvironments
NASA-LaRC
Acoustic: 125 to 168 dB No degradation
facility
Thermal (quartz lamp): to
Wright-Patterson No degradation
1600C
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71.10.3 Potential applications

TheTETRAprogrammeincludesREItypeTPSsystemsthatincludeIMIinsulation.Thesehavealso
beenproposedfortheX38programme,Ref.[7180].
Inaddition,IMIhasbeenproposedforconsiderationwithintheTPSsystemsof:
HOPEX:IMIplacedwithinthehollowedout,baselinesilicatile.
X33:Replacementoffibrousinternalinsulationmaterials(Saffilalumina)withIMIwithinthe
baseline TPS (metallic shingletype). Mass studies indicated a significant saving over
traditionalinsulationmaterials;withapotential~17%saving(basedonnetinstalledmassof
anintegratedpanel).
X34:IMIinsulationaspartoftheproposedC/SiCTPSpanelarray.
71.11 Flexible external insulation (FEI)
71.11.1 General
FEI materials have been developed and characterised for TPS applications within various
programmes:
Hermes.
MSTPprogramme:
Crewtransfervehicle(CTV).
Crewreturnvehicle(CRV).
ARDprogramme.
Futurereusablevehicles.
71.11.2 Design concept

FEITPS consists of an assembly of lightweight, quilted, flexible insulation blankets, as shown in
Figure71.11.1,Ref.[7130].
Figure71.111TPS:SchematicofFEIblanket
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71.11.3 Key features

Theseare:
Blankets are constructed of ceramic, silica or glass fabrics, sewing threads and microfibre
fleecesorfelts:
Insulatingfleecesorfeltsareenclosedinfabricsandstitchedtogether,withthreadsofthe
samematerial.
Applicationtemperaturesandstructuralloadlevelsdeterminethematerialsselected.
ThethermalcapabilitiesoftheFEIsystemhavebeenextendedto1300Cbyusingaluminoboro
silicate(ABS).
Stitching(20mmx20mmsquarepattern)fixestheblanketshapeandthickness.Duringsewing,
the insulation core is compressed giving a blanket with improved stiffness and quasielastic
properties.
Establishedmanufacturingtechnologycanproduce:
plainblankets:from100mmx10mmx5mmto5000mmx2500mmx50mm.
cylindricalandsphericalblankets:minimumradius500mm.
gradientblankets:withvariablethickness.
Theshapeisfixedduringsewing.
BlanketsarebondedtotheprimarystructurebyRTcuringsiliconeadhesive(RTV).
Surfacecoatingoftheexternalsurfaceprovides:
enhancedemittance,
specifiedabsorptanceproperties,
reducedpermeability
increasedstiffness.
Waterrepellent(silanebased)avoidsrainormoistureingress.
ThetypesofmechanicalloadsanticipatedforeachcomponentoftheFEIareshowninTable71.11.1,
Ref.[7132].
Table71.111TPS:MechanicalloadsandsourcesonFEIcomponents
TypeofLoading
FEI Differential Acousticnoise Aerodynami Manufacturin
component pressure c gprocess Other
(Ascent/Descent
(FEI/Atmosphere) ) (Flutter) (Pretension)
Compression Compression
Core - Compression -
Fatigue Fatigue
Outer
Tension Tension Tension
fabric, inc. Tension Erosion
Fatigue Fatigue Local Forces
coating
Sewing Tension Tension Tension
Tension Erosion
thread Fatigue Fatigue Local Forces
Lower Tension
- - - -
fabric Local Forces
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71.11.4 Product range

Table 71.11.2 summarises the FEI options available; with application temperatures from orbital
minimum150Cto+1200Cduringreentry,Ref.[7188].
The productcodes designate the limittemperaturefor multiple reuse, nominally100 reentry cycles
undermoderatestructuralloads,Ref.[7188].ThisgenerallyrestrictstheapplicationofFEItotherear
surfacesofwingedreentryvehiclesandcapsules.
Table71.112FEITPSproductrange
Product
Core Thread Fabric Comments
code
Development product, within
ESA/ESTEC TRP programme.
Aramid fibre felt
FEI-300 Aramid Similar to, but improved
(Nomex, Kevlar).
temperature capability, FRSI
(Space Shuttle).
Aramid felts Development product, within
FEI-450 Polybenzimidazole PBI or silica TETRA programme for X-38
(PBI) fibre-felts applications.
Similar to AFRSI (Space
FEI-650 Silica felt ABS ABS Shuttle), but improved mass
advantage with FEI.
Ceramic
FEI-1000 ABS ABS
microfibre felt
Higher alumina content in
Ceramic
FEI-1100 ABS ABS fibres gives improved
microfibre felt
temperature capability.
Derivative of FEI-1100. Used
under stand-off panel TPS,
aerothermal, acoustic &
(50mm x 50mm
IFI-1100 Alumina fleece aeroelastic loads are carried
sewing pattern)
by the panel. IFI has better
insulation but lower load
resistance.
Key: ABS=aluminoborosilicate
71.11.5 Hermes
71.11.5.1 General
FlexibleExternalInsulation(FEI)wasdevelopedasTPSintheHermesprogramme,Ref.[7129],[71
30], [7131], [7132]. Intended for the leeward surfaces, it was capable of use up to 650C under
moderatetohighacousticloads,Ref.[7188].TheHermesFEIconsistedofanumberofquiltedsilica
blankets,directlybondedtotheprimarystructure.
In general, Hermes FEI was similar to the AFRSI system found on the Space Shuttle Orbiter, [See:
71.6].
ThequiltedFEIblanketsarecharacterisedbyasurfacewavinessoftheorderof2mmandanincreased
permeability (compared with other TPS). This restricts the FEI to locations with a comparably thick
boundary layer, low to moderate pressure gradients and low aerodynamic surface requirements. In
general,suchconditionsarefoundontheleewardsidesofvehiclesduringreentry.
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High acoustic loading is a critical design driver, along with excitation of the outer cover by airflow
possiblyleadingtouncontrolledoscillations(flutter).
Initial tests with early FEI constructions showed catastrophic failure at high overall acoustic sound
levels of around 168dB. Failure was attributed to an erosion process between hard coating particles
and the silica thread or fabric. This prompted an improvement in the construction by changing the
coatingformulationandapplicationprocess,Ref.[7132].
71.11.5.2 Prequalification tests

The prequalification of FEI650 and to a certain extent FEI1000 and FEI1100 was successfully
completedfortheHermesspaceplane.Theblanketsweresubjectedtothetestsequence,Ref.[7188]:
Thermophysicaltests:includingcatalycity,plasmaerosionupto1100C.
Thermoacoustic test, with loads, to 950C surface temperature with 156dB OASPL (overall
acousticsoundpressurelevel)acousticnoise,5.3kPastagnationpressure.
Thermalcycling:30cyclesinair,20mins.exposureat650C.
Dynamicresponse(NDI).
Acoustic noise test: stepwise increase of loads; 158dB/10 mins. + 163dB/10 mins. +
186dB/10mins.
Acousticnoiseageingtest:158dB/20mins.
Flutter test (transonic): Ma = 0.31.1, po<47kPa (tangential flow), with 160dB OASPL acoustic
noise.
Fluttertest(supersonic):Ma=0.32.6,po<93kPauptoMa=3.2,po<213kPa.
71.11.5.3 Status
FEI650blanketwasverifiedfor:
120cyclesunderloadscorrespondingto650Climittemperatureand158dBOASPLacoustics.
Extremeconditions:800Cultimatetemperatureand165dBOASPLacoustics.
FEI1100blankettestedto:
30cyclesupto1100C,168dBacousticloads/10mins.
71.11.6 MSTP programme
71.11.6.1 General
FEI development continued after the Hermes programme to cover its possible use on crew transfer
vehicle(CTV)orcrewreturnvehicle(CRV).
In the MSTP programme FEI blankets were developed to replace the ablative TPS on the leeward
conical surface of a Vikingshaped CTV or CRV capsule. From 199496, the functional behaviour of
flexible insulation blankets was studied to increase confidence in their integrity for operational use,
Ref. [7173]. These FEIs have been successfully qualified with limit temperatures up to 1100C and
ultimatetemperatureof1300C;on4ascent/reentrycycles,Ref.[7188].
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71.11.6.2 Crew transfer vehicle (CTV) specification
SpecificationsforaVikingshapedCTVcapsulewere:
Trapezoidalshapedblankets,1mx1mtaperingtooneend.
Optionsfor650C(FEI650)and1000C(FEI1000)operation.
20mmx20mmsquaresewingpatterns(ceramicthreads)tointegrateinsulationcore(fleeceor
felt)withouterfabrics.
Ceramicfabricforouterheatresistanceandwovenglassfabricforundersidesurface.
Blanket is pretensioned when compressing the insulation core and held in place with pattern
sewing.
BlanketpremouldedtocurvatureoftheconicalsurfaceoftheCTV.
BlanketsbondedtosubstructurewithRTVsiliconeadhesive.
71.11.6.3 FEI characterisation

Theassessmentsmadeonmaterials,componentsandblanketswere,Ref.[7173],[7188]:
Thermalconductivitymeasurementsforaluminasilicahybridfelt,fleececorematerialsandfor
entire blankets from 300C to 1200C and air pressures ranging from vacuum to one
atmosphere.TsAGI,Russiademonstratedtheirexcellentinsulationperformance.
GaspermeationstudiesatNLR(cold)andTsAGI(hot,inanarcheatedwindtunnel)confirmed
thatwhenafterapplyingacoatingtotheouterfabric..Theeffectoftypicalpressuregradients
experiencedduringcapsuleascentandreentrywerenotshowntobesignificant.
Fromarcjetwindtunnelteststheinfluenceofsurfacediscontinuitieshasbeenassessed.Local
overheatingremainswithinsafelimitsforgapsbetweenblanketsofupto2mmandstepsupto
3mm.Stepsto4.8mmcanbetoleratedbycorrectshapingoftheblankettoblanketborders.
71.11.6.4 Structural tests

Thetestingandinspectionincluded:
Acoustic noise screening tests with stepwise increases; 155dB, 160dB and 165dB for four
minuteseachshowedthatFEI650andFEI1100survivewithoutfailure.
Shearandpeelingtestsonthesiliconebondbetweenblanketandaluminiumsubstructuregave
adequatestrengthuptothemaximumpermissiblesurfacetemperatureof180C.
Xray methods (used during manufacturing) and infrared thermography (after assembly and
integrationonthecapsule)weredemonstratedtobesuitableNDItechniquesfordetecting:
coredensityvariations,
ceramicthreadfailure,
metallicforeignpartinclusion,
wateruptake,
delaminationofsiliconebondline.
71.11.6.5 Material and process characterisation

Thevariousparametersevaluatedcanbesummarisedas:
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Thehightemperaturestrengthretentionoffabricsandthreadswereinvestigatedafterexposure
to temperatures in the range 800C to 1400C. The alumina constituents showed reasonable
strength retention to 1200C, whilst silica constituents were limited to 900C. This complied
well with the temperature resistance demonstrated in arcjet and plasmajet tests where
blanketshadbeenexposedbetween1300Cfor2.5minutesand900Cfor50minutes.
Theeffectofsaltexposureandsubsequentannealingwasmeasuredonthestrengthreduction
offabricandthread.
Thecompressionbehavioursofasilicacoreandtwoceramiccores(onestiffandonesoft)have
been determined in the asreceived state and after annealing at 1100C. The compression
strengthvarieddependingonthearrangementofthefibres.
The silicone adhesive to aluminium shear strength behaviour was assessed with respect to
surface pretreatment (cleaning, abrasion and chromatising), filler addition (glass micro
balloons), temperature and humidity. Surface pretreatment was significant at room
temperature, but decreases as temperature increases. Increasing the microballoon content
decreasestheshearstrength.
Thesiliconeadhesiveshowednouptakeofwater,andtheFEIwasunaffectedbyexposureto
monomethylhydrazine(MMH)vapour.
71.11.6.6 Design verification

Thiscoveredtheprequalificationfortheenvironmentsequencefromlaunchtoreentryandlanding;
with4blankets150mmx300mmx20mmtestedtosimulatelaunchunprotectedontopofAriane5.
Thetestsequenceappliedwas:
Groundenvironment:
rainsimulation,
humidity,
thermalcycling,
saline atmosphere, where the silica core (FEI650) was more prone to moisture
absorbtion.
Ascentenvironment:
Acoustictest:4minutesoverallsoundpressurelevel(OASPL)of168dBatIABG,Munich.
Some broken threads were found for blankets previously given ground environment
exposure.
Fluttertestinhighspeedwindtunnel(HST)andsupersonicwindtunnel(SST)atNLR.
The nominal test envelopes are given in Table 71.11.3, Ref. [7173]. All samples were
stablethroughoutthetests,eventhosewithlowlevelacousticdamage.
Reentryenvironment:
Plasma test: near tangential plasma flow to simulate hot reentry, undertaken at TsAGI
withtheVAT1104plasmatron.Thetemperaturecyclefortopsurfacewasequivalentto4
nominal reentries of 650C to 1000C for a total of 16.8 minutes; plus one extreme re
entryof800Cto1200Cfor4.2minutes.Nodamageoccurredexceptfordiscolouration.
Acoustic tests at 134dB OASPL for 4 minutes and 146dB for another 4 minutes. No
deteriorationwasobserved.
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Table71.113TPS:FEInominalfluttertestenvelopes
Highspeedwindtunnel(HST) Supersonicwindtunnel(SST)
0.5 < Mach > 1.1 1.31 < Mach > 2.31
15 kPa < Q < 50 kPa 57 kPa < Q < 88 kPa
101 kPa < P0 < 202 kPa 134 kPa < P0 < 299 kPa
Key: Q=dynamicpressure;P0=staticpressure
71.11.6.7 Status
Fromtheresultsofthetesting,FEI650andFEI1000havedemonstratedtheirresistancetothesevere
environment.Theyareconsideredasprequalifiedforonemannedflightontheconicalrearsurfaceof
theVikingshapedCTVcapsule,Ref.[7188].
71.11.7 ARD programme
71.11.7.1 General
TheARD(atmosphericreentrydemonstrator)capsuleisanApolloshapedstructure,downscaledby
2,withanablativeTPS.
Forinflightvalidation,samplesofFEI650andFEI1000wereflownontheconicalrearoftheARD,
integratedwiththeablativeTPS,Ref.[7188].IntegrationintoARDtookplaceinSeptember1995with
launchin1998onArianeflightV503,Ref.[7188].
71.11.7.2 Design verification

OnARDsconicaluppersection,FEIsamplesareintegratedwiththeablativeTPS,i.e.FEI650inan
areaofrelativelylowthermalloading;FEI1000wasclosertotheheatshield,thereforehotter.
SincetheFEIsamplesformpartoftheoverallcapsuleTPS(i.e.notredundant),adeltaqualification
wasneededwhichalsoconsiderstheFEItoablatorinterface.Thetestsusedwere:
Ascentacousticnoise:AR5ascentspectrum,148dBOASPL.
Aerothermal:
Onereentrycycle:1260C/2.5mins.
Endurance:1050C/10mins.(4reentrycycles).
Reentryacousticnoise:Reentryspectrumwith148dBOASPL.
Flightsamplesarepreshaped,whereasqualificationsamplesareflat.
71.11.7.3 Status
Thetestsamplesshowed:
excellentposttestcondition.
discolourationduetocopperandironbasedsubstancesinthewindtunnel.
nodeteriorationofFEIduetoflowofcharfromtheablatortotheforwardedge.
ThequalificationwassuccessfulandtheFEIexperimentwasreleasedforflight.
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71.11.8 Future reusable vehicles

Largesurfacesontheleewardsideoffuturereusablelaunchvehiclesareexposedtomoderatethermal
loads, corresponding to surface temperatures below 500C. At such locations, mass savings are
possible with the lightweight FEI blankets under development, optimised for limit temperatures of
300Cand400C,Ref.[7188].
The FEI approach is adaptable and versatile. Radiative heat transfer can be reduced with further
developmenttoincludereflectivescreensandmetallisedfibreswithintheoverallconstruction.
FEIiscurrentlyconfinedtoareashaving:
lowsurfaceroughnessrequirements.
lowtomoderaterequirementsforcombinedthermal,structuralandaerodynamicloads.
moderateerosiveenvironments(plasmaandparticles).
71.11.9 Verified performance

FEIhasbeendevelopedandprequalifiedforapplicationontheleewardsurfacesofvehicles,e.g.the
conicaluppersurfaceofaVikingshapedCTVvehicle;ARDcapsule.
Comparedwithanablator,FEIoffersanumberofadvantages,including:
Lowarealmassof4.2kg/m2forathicknessof20mm.
Negligibleoutgassing(CVCM<0.01).
NegligibledegradationofFEIcomponentsinLEO.
Ease of spacecrafts thermal control by choice of thermooptical properties, adjusted by FEI
coating.
Adaptabilityforspecificinterfaces,e.g.TPSfornozzlesandHFtransparentantenna.
FurtherworkisintendedonFEI1000toimprovethewaterproofingandhighemittancecoatingsfor
singleusecapsuleapplications,Ref.[7188],togetherwithfurtherinvestigationofNDItechniques.
Table 71.11.4 summarises the verified performances related to multiple, reuse applications, Ref. [71
88].
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Table71.114FEITPS:Summaryofverifiedperformances
Requirement/Load FEI1100 FEI1000 FEI650
Limit temperature,
1100 1000 650
C
Ultimate
1300 1200 800
temperature, C
Salt not tested yes yes
Rain not tested yes yes
Humidity not tested yes yes
Plasma-jet yes yes yes
Vibration Covered by acoustics
Acoustic noise, after 153dB/4 155dB/20 mins +
168dB/10mins
thermal ageing mins 168dB/10mins
No flutter No flutter
excitation Ma = excitation Ma =
Aeroelastic (flutter) not tested
0.5-2.3 0.5-3.2
Q = 15-88kPa Q = 15-107kPa
71.11.10 IFI - Internal flexible insulation development
71.11.10.1 Background
During the X38 nose cone and chin strap designdevelopment, the need was identified for flexible
fibrousinsulationplacedundertheCMCshelltoprotectthesubstructure,wheretemperaturesofup
to1750Carereachedinthestagnationareaduringreentry,[Seealso:70.24X38nosecap].
The development of the overall TPS system for the nose assembly was a collaborative exercise
conductedbyAstriumSI,DLRStuttgartandMANTechnologieinGermany,Ref.[7195].
71.11.10.2 Concept
TheX38nosecapTPSsystemcomprised,Ref.[7195]:
RigidC/SiCpanels(outersurface).
Flexibleinsulationblanketstofilltheremainingvolume:
HTIhightemperatureinsulationontheoutermostregion,[See:71.23].
IFIinternalflexibleinsulationonthecoldsubstructure.
Both the flexible insulation components were developed by Astrium SI (Bremen), now EADSST
GmbH.
[Seealso:70.24X38nosecap]
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71.11.10.3 IFI materials and configuration

IFIhasablanketlikeconfiguration,similartoFEI,comprisinganaluminabasedcorefleececovered
withanaluminafabricandsewntogetherusinganaluminaboronsilicateceramicthread;asshownin
Figure71.11.2,Ref.[7195].ItwasdevelopedasaspinofffromworkonFEI.Themaximumoperating
temperatureis1200C.
Figure71.112TPS:IFIinternalflexibleinsulationblanket
Figure 71.11.3 shows the IFI blanket configuration within the X38 nose cap, along with the various
attachmentpointsandinterfaces,Ref.[7195].
[Seealso:70.24X38nosecap]
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Figure71.113TPS:IFIblanketconfigurationinX38nosecap
71.12 CMC shingles
71.12.1 Hermes design concept
71.12.1.1 General
WithintheHermesprogrammethedevelopmentofrigidexternalinsulation(REI)conceptsconsisted
of,Ref.[7133],[7134],[7180]:
rigid outer thin shell of CSiC CMC, to withstand aerodynamic surface pressure loads,
thermodynamicstressesandenvironment(waterproofing,debrisimpact,handling).
lightweightinternalfibrousinsulation,e.g.internalmultiscreeninsulation(IMI),[See:71.10],to
optimiseheattransfertotheunderlyingvehiclestructure.
Each TPS unit formed a shingle which interlocked with its neighbour and was attached to the
substructure.Thisconceptwasdeemedtooffergreaterdurabilitythantheceramictilesdevelopedfor
the Shuttle Orbiter and reduced maintenance requirements. Since the expected average surface
temperatures of Hermes were higher by some 100C to 200C, the need was for more efficient TPS.
EachHermesvehiclewasanticipatedtohaveapproximately800shingles.Theoperatingtemperature
rangeenvisagedwas650Cto1300C.
Different manufacturing routes led to demonstrator shingles produced by SEP, Ref. [7135], MAN
Technologie,Ref.[7134],[7136]andDassaultAviation,Ref.[7133],[7137].
ThebasicdesigndescribedisthatenvisagedattheendoftheHermesproject.Figure71.12.1showsthe
basicconstructionandmethodofretention,Ref.[7133].
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Figure71.121TPS:HermesCMCshinglesupportcrosssection
71.12.1.2 Shingle construction

Eachshinglehasfourtypesofcomponent:
onemonolithicCSiCpanel,1mmthickwitha50mmto60mmhighflangeonallfoursides,
fourmetallicsupportsontowhichthepanelismechanicallyattachedwithfasteners,
layersofultralightIMI,and
sealsystem,including:
externalseal,ensuringaerodynamicshapecontinuityandpreventingsneakflows,whilst
enablingselfventinginthepresenceofdifferentialpressures.
internalbarrier,ensuringthepartitioningbetweenthecavitiesundereachshingle.
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71.12.1.3 Performance criteria
Thesewerespecifiedas,Ref.[7165]:
maintenanceofsmoothaerodynamicsurfacetoavoidprematureboundarylayertransition,
highsurfaceemissivityof0.85,
use of noncatalytic coatings to prevent exothermic recombination of dissociated chemical
species,
resistancetooxidationandotheroperationalenvironmentsover30flights(15years),
abilitytowithstandacousticexcitationonlaunch(155dB)andaeroacousticexcitationsduring
transonicsupersonicphases(upto165dBinsomeplaces).
typicaltemperaturerangeof600Cto1450C,Ref.[7180].
maximumtemperatureforthecoldstructureof175C.
maximumdeformationduringreentryof2mmtomaintainaerodynamicshape.
minimumfrequencyofthefirsteigenmodegreaterthan100Hz.
arealmassof11.9kg/mfortheTPS.
Table71.12.1summarisesthemassbreakdownfortheHermesREIshinglesubcomponents,Ref.[71
80].
Table71.121HermesTPSREIshinglemassbreakdown
Subcomponet Unitmass(kg/m2)
C-SiC shingle + coating 3.73
Internal multiscreen insulation
1.9 4.0
(IMI)
Joints, fasteners and supports 1.84
Seals and pressure barriers 0.88
Total: 8.35 10.45
Comprehensive testing confirmed the predicted system performance and provided information for
furtherimprovements,Ref.[7180].
[See:Table71.10.2forresultsofREIevaluation]
71.12.2 TETRA/X-38 programme panels
71.12.2.1 General
BasedontheinitialHermesconcept,REItypeTPSpanels,destinedfortheX38vehicle,are,Ref.[71
80]:
CSiCpanelwithIFI(DASA):
largepanel,approximately1082mm600mmto1160mm.
CSiCpanel,fastenersandIMI(MANTechnologie).
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CC/SiCpanel,fastenersandIMI(DLR/MT)
71.12.2.2 Large C-SiC panel

Investigations showed mass savings possible for larger TPS panels than those previously envisaged
onvehicles,Ref.[7180].
TheX38vehiclehas18baselineTPSsilicatilesreplacedbyasingle,CSiCpanel.Thiscoversanarea
ofabout0.95m2.
Someofthemainfeaturesofthispanelinclude:
externalCSiCtrapezoidalpanel.
internalflexibleinsulation(IFI),density110kg/m3.
attachedby7edgeand1centralfastenertotheunderlyingcompositehoneycombstructure.
massestimateofintegratedpanelandinsulationsystem:11kg/m2to12kg/m2.
designspecification:
Nominalsurfacetemperature:about1050C(150kW/m2).
Maximumpressureloads:upto7.4kPa.
ThegroundtestprogrammetovalidateflightreadinessisshowninTable71.12.2,Ref.[7180].
Table71.122TETRA/X38TPS:CSiCpanelqualificationtestmatrix
Testtype Aim Conditions
Characterisation of dynamic 158 dB to 168 dB (progressive
Acoustic properties (sub-scale panel) wave tube)
Qualification of full-scale panel 163 dB (PWT)
Vibration Qualification of full-scale panel Sine and random vibration
Thermo-
Combined thermal &
mechanica Verification of flight loads
mechanical loads (cyclic)
l
Wind tunnel (Ma = 0.5-1.3; Pdyn
Flutter Verification of stress/strain
= 30 kPa to 50kPa)
71.12.2.3 Lightweight shingles

Based on the developed shingle concept, the X38 programme includes the application and
verificationoftwodifferentmaterialtypes,i.e.LPIC/SiC(MAN)andCC/SiC(DLR),bothwithIMI.
TheCMCshinglesystemsareintendedtoreplaceTPSbaselinetiles.
Themainfeaturesofthepanelare:
trapezoidal,232mm314mm;surfacearea522cm2.
volumetricenvelope72.9mm(forlayout,shingleandinsulation).
underlyingstructuretemperaturelimit:175C.
design approaches (under evaluation): thinwalled shingle (~1.5mm), ribstiffened (to reduce
thermaldeformationandcarry7.4kPaaerodynamicsurfacepressure).
estimatedarealmass:6.3kg/m2to7.3kg/m2,includingallattachments,insulationandseals.
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Thefirstflightreadycomponentsarenotmassoptimised.Theyhaveinherentlyhighmechanicaland
thermalmargins.
EachpanelisinstrumentedtoassessinflightTPSperformanceandtoobtainadditionaldataonthe
environment.
ThegroundtestprogrammeisshowninTable71.12.3,Ref.[7180].
Table71.123TETRA/X38TPS:Shinglequalificationtestmatrix
Testtype Aim Conditions
Vibration Qualification of full-scale panel Sine and random vibration
Assess reaction of integrated Re-entry thermal loads
Thermal
system (cyclic)
Thermo- Verification of combined flight Combined thermal and
mechanical loads mechanical loads (cyclic)
71.12.3 SPFI - Surface protected flexible insulation
71.12.3.1 Background
SPFIisathermalprotectionsystemforfuturereentryvehicleswhichisunderdevelopmentbyEADS
ST (Germany). It is aimed at protecting the windward side of vehicles against high heat fluxes
experiencedduringreentryintoEarthsatmosphere,Ref.[7194].
Development of SPFI is based on the experience with FEI (flexible external insulation) technology
gainedbyEADSSTduringtheEuropeanHERMESspacevehicleprogram,[Seealso:71.11].
71.12.3.2 Concept
TheSPFIconceptaimstoextendtheapplicationoffibrousinsulationmaterialstothewindwardside
ofreentrybodies.Suchmaterialsarecurrentlylimitedtouseontheleewardside.
Theadvantagesoffibrousinsulation,e.g.homogeneousloadintroduction,flexibilityagainstthermal
expansionanddeformationofsubstructureareretainedtothemaximumextentpossible.Inorderto
usefibrousinsulationonthewindwardsideofreentryvehicles,surfacesneedtobeaerodynamically
smooth with good pressure tightness to prevent hot gas penetration. In the case of SPFI, this is
achieved using a thin sheet of ceramic material on the outer surface of the insulation. The main
featuresaimsofSPFIdevelopmentinclude,Ref.[7194]:
lightweight,
lowcost,
simpletoassemble,
easytointegrateandmaintain,
multipleuse,i.e.forreusablevehicles.
The manufacturing of comparatively large SPFI panels is envisaged, i.e. up to 0.5m 0.5m. Figure
71.12.2showsasmallpanelandalargepanelassembly,Ref.[7194].
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300mm 300mm 25mm SPFI large panel assembly
Figure71.122SPFIsurfaceprotectedflexibleinsulationpanel
71.12.3.3 Description
SPFI is based on an FEI blanket, which comprises fabrics, threads and felt made from ceramic
materials,[See:71.11].TheoutersurfaceoftheFEIblanketiscoveredbyathinCMCsheettoprovide
aerodynamicsmoothnessand pressure tightness. A coatingis applied to the externalface to protect
theCMCagainstenvironmentaldegradationandtoprovidethenecessarythermoopticalproperties,
i.e. absorptance and emittance. Depending on the mission, the interior of the SPFI, as well as the
externalsurface,canbewaterproofedtominimisewaterabsorptionduringmissionpreparationand
launch.
SPFIisbondedtothesubstructureofthevehicleusingaroomtemperaturecuringadhesive,whichis
said to enable easy integration and maintenance of the TPS. Figure 71.12.3 shows the design and
constituentmaterialsofSPFI,Ref.[7194].
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Figure71.123SPFISurfaceprotectedflexibleinsulation:Design
71.12.3.4 Characteristics
ThemainperformancecharacteristicsforthedevelopmentofSPFIinclude,Ref.[7194]:
Outersurfacetemperature:>1400C.
Mechanicalloads:Acousticnoise>160dBOASPL.
Applicationonareaswithhighthermalloads.
Highinsulationperformanceforvacuumto1bar.
Highthermalshockstability.
Highemittancesurfacecombinedwithlowcatalicity.
Erosionresistantsurface.
Reusability.
71.12.3.5 Structural design

SPFI comprises of a flexible felt insulation and a highly temperaturestable ceramic cover plate
bonded to the insulation. The thin fibrereinforced cover plate, about 1mm thick, improves the
performanceofthethermalinsulationbecause,besidesbeingaprotectionagainstabrasivemediasuch
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as dust, ice and rain, it can sustain much higher pressure loads (aerodynamic pressure) than the
unprotected insulation. As the loadcarrying part, the cover distributes the pressure load over the
completesurfaceoftheSPFIpanel.Theloadisthentransmittedtothesubstructureviatheinsulation.
The structural characteristics of SPFI, e.g. strength and dynamic response, were investigated under
pressureandtemperatureloadsusingFEmodels(assumingthatitbehaveslikeaplateonanelastic
foundation).Theeffectsofdifferentlayupsofreinforcingfibresandtheinfluenceofbentplateedges
on distortion with increasing temperature and pressure loads were analysed. Different types of
bondingconstraintontheinsulationwerealsoevaluated.
71.12.3.6 Thermal design

Duringtheinitialreentryphaseathighvelocitiesandlowgaspressures,radiativeheattransferisthe
dominantheattransferpaththroughthefibrouscore.Thecontributionofgasconductanceincreases
with increasing gas pressure. Radiative heat transfer depends on the optical properties of the fibre
material, the fibre diameter and the prevailing orientation of thefibres with respect to the radiation
direction. Radiative heat transfer is a minimum if the fibres are randomly oriented in a plane
perpendicular to the radiation direction. For the envisaged temperature range of up to 1200C,
aluminabased ceramic fibres are most suitable. The selected fibre fleece consists of 3.3m fibres
(average diameter), which is close to the optimum derived by theory (2m to 3m). During
manufacture,thefibrouscoreiscompressedtoapackingdensityofabout110kg/m3.
Figure 71.12.4 summarises the thermal performance of SPFI, Ref. [7194]. The main thermal
characteristicscanbesummarisedas:
Thermal conductance, which confirmed the thermally advantageous fibre orientation
perpendicular to the heat transfer direction under vacuum conditions and at ambient gas
pressures(105Pa).
Radiative heat transfer, which follows the typical T3 law of heat transfer in fibrous insulation
under vacuum conditions. The contribution of gas conductance to the total heat transfer
becomesnoticeableatgaspressuresexceeding100Pa.Atnearly104Pagasconductanceisfully
developed.
Surfacetemperature(external):SincetheheatfluxthroughtheSPFIiscomparativelylow,the
externalsurfacetemperatureresultsfirstofallfromtheequilibriumoftheaeroconvectiveand
radiated heat fluxes. For the specified limit and ultimate temperatures of SPFI, the emissivity
determinesthetolerableheatloadsandhencethepossiblelocationsonareentryvehiclewhere
SPFIcanbeapplied.
Emissivity:Since the CMC cover has astrong emissivity decrease at elevated temperatures, it
means that noncoated SPFI items can only be exposed to aeroconvective heat fluxes up to
100kW/m2(T=1200C).TouseSPFIasTPSonhigherthermallyloadedareasofthewindward
side of space vehicles the emissivitytemperature behaviour of SPFI needs to be improved by
usingacoating.Theallowableaeroconvectiveheatfluxesarelikelytoexceed200kW/m2atT=
1200C;assumingconstanthemisphericalemissivitiesgreaterthan0.8.
External emissivity coating system, which uses ceramics that exhibit high emissivities
throughoutthetemperaturerange,excellentadhesiontotheceramiccoverandextremelylow
catalycity. The emissivitytemperature behaviour of the coating system was determined by
extrapolation of angular spectral emissivity measurements at room temperatures to higher
temperatures,takingintoaccountthePlanckianspectraatelevatedtemperaturesandconfirmed
by hemispherical emittance measurements on coated SPFI samples at elevated temperatures.
TheresultsshowedthatcoatedSPFIhasemissivitesexceeding=0.8attemperaturesabove200
C.
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400
350
Thermal conductivity
Thermal Conductivity [m W/m K]
300
ambient
250
200
vacuum
150
100
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature [C]
1.00 250
Radiation Sink Non-coated SPFI:

0.90
Temperature: 27 C
Heat Flux: > 0.8
0.80 200 Emissivity with temperature
Heat Flux [kW/m^2]

0.70
Heat Flux: > 0. 7
(hemispherical emissivity v.
Emissivity [-]
Emissivity of
0.60 150
Non-Coated SPFI Heat Flux:> 0.6 temperature) and aero-convective
0.50 heat flux.
0.40 100
0.30
0.20 50
0.10 Heat Flux:

Non-Coated SPFI
0.00 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature [C]
1.00
Coated SPFI:
0.90
Emissivity v. temperature
0.80

Emissivity [-]
0.70
0.60
Hemispheri cal Emi ssivi ty Ba sed on Spectral Emi ssivity
Measureme nts
Measured to tal emi ssivity o f FEI-CT-7 09 at Elevated Temper ature s
0.50
Measured to tal emi ssivity o f FEI-CT-7 10 at Elevated Temper ature s
0.40
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 140 0
o
Temperature [ C]
Figure71.124SPFI:Summaryofthermalperformance
ToillustratetheperformanceofSPFIasTPSforatypicalreusablespacecraft,anSPFITPSsystemwas
designedfortheexternalheatloadandpressuretimelinedepictedinFigure71.12.5(A).
The0.5m0.5mSPFIpanelwasbondedontoa1.92mmthickaluminiumsheet,whichrepresented
thecoldstructureofthevehicle.Assumingthatthepeaktemperatureofthealuminiumcannotexceed
177C during flight and 192 C after landing, an SPFI thickness of 39 mm thick was needed. The
temperaturewithtimeprofileoftheSPFIcoverandcentre,alongwiththatofthealuminiumsheetare
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showninFigure71.12.5(B).Themaximumtemperatureofthealuminiumplate(173C)isreachedatt
=2727seconds,whichisafterthevehiclehaslanded,i.e.att=2450s.
A: Heat load and pressure timeline during re-entry:

6.0E+04 1.0E+06
A=0.25 m 2
5.0E+04 1.0E+05
H eat
Load Air Pres sure
Heat Load Q [W]=q*A
4.0E+04 1.0E+04
Air Pressure [Pa]

3.0E+04 1.0E+03
2.0E+04 1.0E+02
1.0E+04 1.0E+01
0.0E+00 1.0E+00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time [s]
B: Temperature profile of SPFI cover, centre and aluminium sheet:

1400 175
SPFI Cover
S PFI Cover and Center Temperatures [C]
1200 150
Al-Structure
Al-Structure Temperature [C]

1000 SPFI 125
Center
800 100
600 75
400 50
200 25
0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time [s]
Figure71.125SPFI:Thermalperformanceduringvehiclereentryandlanding
71.12.3.7 Properties
ThemostimportantTPSthermalcharacteristicsare,Ref.[7194]:
pressuredependent thermal conductivity: Measurements of heat conductance under various
gas pressures and temperatures were conducted in a hightemperature guarded flat plate
calorimeter.
emissivityoftheoutersurface.Hemisphericalemittancemeasurementswerecarriedoutunder
vacuumaswellasatmosphericconditionsforthestipulatedtemperaturerange.
When using microfibrous insulation materials, a compromise always has to be found between
thermal, e.g. extinction coefficient, and structural characteristics, e.g. load carrying capability,
dampingfactor.Extensiveinvestigationwasperformedpreviouslywhichresultedinamaterialwith
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high thermal conductivity coupled with adequate structural properties. The emissivity of the outer
surface generally needs to be as high as possible and be nearly constant over the entire application
temperaturerange.
71.12.3.8 Structural tests

From experience of the qualification of the FEI flexible external insulation in the HERMESMSTP
program,[See:71.11],itwasassumedthatSPFIissensitivetoaerodynamicpressureloadsandmost
sensitive to the acoustic noise excitation specified for launch and reentry of a future reusable
spacecraft. Consequently, the verification of SPFI loadcarrying components mainly used high level
acoustic noise testing. The acoustic noise qualification level was 165dB, although some test facilities
offer160dB.Pressuretestsarealsoenvisaged,theywillbecompletedinalaterphase.
Prior to the qualification tests, an SPFI characterisation phase was undertaken by testing small
sampleswithvariationsinthefixingprocess.Allsamplesweresubjectedtoathermalheattreatment
at 1200C before the tests. It was obvious that an adequate fixing between the cover plate and the
flexible insulation was a challenge. The samples showed good performance at 160 dB, but
disintegrated at higher loads. This was rectified by modification of the manufacturing process and
changes in the SPFI layout and test sample size (300mm 300mm) prior to thermal treatment and
testing.
Beforeandafterthethermalloading,thedynamicbehaviourofsampleswascharacterisedbyashaker
test to check the fixings. Figure 71.12.6 summarises the shaker test setup and results for an intact
sample(test1)andadelaminatedsample(test2),Ref.[7194].
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Dynamic Characteristics
1
8 00
2
3 4
7 00
5 6 7
6 00 9 spfi720 test1 spfi720 test2

8
SPECIMEN
1
5 00 11
Eigenfrequenc y [Hz]
4 00
3 00
2 00
1 00
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Meas urement Point
Figure71.126SPFI:StructuralperformanceShakertest
Thestructuralqualification,originallyintendedtobecarriedoutatWrightLaboratories(USA),was
eventuallyconductedatIABGPWTinJuly1998usingtwosamples.Thetotalruntimeforeachtest
was33.5minutesatanOASPLof160dB.
Figure71.12.7showsthespectraldistributionandOASPL.ToindicatetheperformancelimitsofSPFI,
one of the two samples was subjected to higher acoustic loading, i.e. OASPL 163dB for 10 seconds,
thenOASPL167dBwheresampledamageoccurredatabout15seconds,Ref.[7194].
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Spectral Distribution and O AS PL for S PFI Test
1 70.0
specified 160 [dB]
tested 161 [dB]
1 65.0 tested 167 [dB]
1 60.0
1 55.0
soun d level [d B
1 50.0
1 45.0
1 40.0
1 35.0
1 30.0
100
125
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1250
2000
2500
3150
4000
5000
6300
8000
OA S PL
3 1.5
40
50
63
80
1 00 0
1 6 00
1/3 o ctave cen ter fr equen cy [Hz ]
Figure71.127SPFI:StructuralperformancespectraldistributionandOASPL
71.12.3.9 Thermal tests

The results of the various thermalrelated tests conducted as part of SPFI development are
summarisedinTable71.12.4,Ref.[7194].
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Table71.124SPFI:Thermalpropertyevaluation
Test Testconditions Results
Temperature range: 400C Withstood severe loads
to 1200C without any damage or
Thermal shock
Temperature increase: 4K/s degradation.
Thermal cycling
to 6K/s
Number of cycles: up to 50
Stagnation point: Very good resistance
50 mm diameter samples: against plasma erosion.
800C /1000C @ 35 min Weight losses were less
1000C /1200C @ 9 min than 0.04%.
Nearly non-catalytic
behaviour, Kw< 1m/s.
Tangential plasma flow: No physical degradation
Plasma erosion (1)
Non-equilibrium plasma of samples.
Catalycity (1)
flow at high velocity. Mass losses less than
Earth atmosphere gas results from stagnation
composition. point.
Temperature and exposure No change to emissivity
identical to stagnation characteristics.
point tests. Slight surface
discolouration.
Medium-size sample panel, No noticeable damage
300mm 300mm. after test (visual
Nearly tangential flow inspection).
configuration, = 4.5. Only minor flaking of the
Surface temperature 800C surface coating was seen.
@ 20 min (Cycles 1,2). Some colour changes.
Surface temperature Surface emissivity not
1150C @ 15 min (Cycles 4 affected..
Arc jet re-entry (2) to 6) Better than predicted
insulation performance
as measured by
substructure
temperature, i.e. Cycle
1,2 (800C): 130C to
145C (160C predicted);
Cycles 4-6 (1050C):
170C (185C predicted)
Key: (1)Highenthalpyplasmatronfacility(TsAGIVAT104);(2)20MWpaneltestfacility(NASA
AMES)
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71.12.3.10 SPFI performance summary
ThemainperformancerelatedfeaturesofSPFIcanbesummarisedas,Ref.[7194].
Maximumtemperature,withtestsupto1200CconductedusingAstriumandDLRfacilities:
Multipleuse:1200C.
Shortduration:1400C.
Temperaturecycletests,conductedatDC,DLRandforeignfacilities:upto30cycles@1000C
(1200)C.
Plasmatests:
CatalycitymeasurementsinPlasmatronofTsAGI.
Reentrytests,conductedatNASAAMESPanelTestFacility.
Acoustictests,conductedatIABGfacility:upto163dB(160dB>30min)inIABGfacility.
Emissivitymeasurements:RT,500Cto1200C.
Heatconductancemeasurements:500Cto1200C.
Maximumdimensions:upto600mm600mm;thickness20mmto50mm.
Preliminarysizing:weight:~8.5kg/m2;thickness:~30mm.
Materials:Allceramic,withCMCcoverandaluminabasedfibrouscomponents.
Qualification status: All important tests with respect to the relevant TPS environment were
successfullyperformedonSPFIpanels.
ThedevelopmentperformedsofarshowsthatSPFIisapromisingTPShavingsignificantadvantages
comparedwithconventionalthermalprotectionsystems.Verificationofperformanceunderthemost
important environments (loads) confirmed the theoretical considerations and expectations. SPFI has
nowbeenfurtherimprovedbymassreductionwithoutlossinstructuralperformance.Asanextstep,
the design and verification of performance with respect to the TPS assembly, i.e. larger scale SPFI
panels,isenvisaged.
71.12.3.11 SHEFEX flight experiment

An SPFI experiment flew in October 2005 on the German TPS demonstrator SHEFEX; as shown in
Figure71.12.8,Ref.[7194].Theexperimentprovidedasuccessfuldemonstrationofthecapabilitiesof
SPFIaswindwardsideTPSinasimulatedreentryenvironment.
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Figure71.128SPFI:SHEFEXTPSdemonstrator
71.13 Heat pipes
71.13.1 General
Heatpipesprovidesolutionstothermalproblemsassociatedwithstagnationregionsatleadingedges
onhypersonicaerospacevehicles.DevelopmentofheatpipetechnologyhasalonghistoryintheUSA
(over25years),Ref.[7138],[7139].
Heatpipesareselfcontained,twophaseheattransferdevicescomprisingofa:
container,
wick,
workingfluid,e.g.sodiumorlithium.
Localheatinputtoonesectionoftheheatpipe(evaporatorregion)isconductedthroughthecontainer
andintothewickworkingfluidmatrix,whereitisabsorbedbytheevaporationoftheworkingfluid.
The heated vapour flows to a slightly cooler section of the heat pipe where the working fluid
condensesandreleasesheat.Theheatisthenconductedthroughthewickworkingfluidmatrixand
thecontainerandisrejected.
Ifappliedtoastagnantheatedwingleadingedge,heatpipestransportthehighnetheatinputregion
tocooleraftsurfaces,raisingthetemperaturethereabovetheradiationequilibriumtemperatureand
thusrejectingtheheatbyradiation.
AdiagrammaticrepresentationisshowninFigure71.13.1,Ref.[7138].
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Figure71.131Heatpipe:Operationprincipleforleadingedgecooling
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71.13.2 Shuttle-type heat pipe cooled wing leading edge

Thisisanearlytype,producedcirca.1973.Aonehalfscaleheatpipecooledwingleadingedgetest
modelwasconstructed.Thedimensionswere150mmspan,560mmchordlengthand330mmhigh.It
consistedof12sodiumfilledheatpipesbrazedtoeachotherandtotheinnersurfaceofathin0.5mm
HastelloyX skin. The heat pipes were circularsection HastelloyX with a 12.7mm outer diameter, a
wallthicknessof1.27mmandawickthicknessof0.88mm.Thewickconsistedofsevenalternatelayers
of100and200meshstainlesssteelscreeninaconcentricannulusdesign.Theskinwascoatedwitha
highemissivityceramicpainttofacilitateheatrejectionbyradiation.
71.13.3 Sodium-Hastelloy-X heat pipe for advanced space

transportation system
A heat pipe 1.82m long was constructed for orientation normal to the leading edge as depicted in
Figure71.13.2,Ref.[7139].Thisconceptdatesfromcirca.1986.
Theheatpipewasintendedtoreduceleadingedgetemperaturesfrom1925Cto980C.
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Figure71.132Heatpipe:Wingleadingedgedesignforadvancedspace
transportationsystem
71.13.4 Refractory metal-CMC heat pipe for NASP

Within the NASP programme (from 1991), the concept moved to embedding refractory metal heat
pipesinaCMCstructure.
ThetotalpackageisthenprotectedfromoxidationbyaSiCoverlaycoating.Additionalhydrogenfuel
coolingcanbeincorporatedinconjunctionwithaheatexchanger,asshowninFigure71.13.3,Ref.[71
38].
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Figure71.133Heatpipe:NASPwingleadingedge
Theconcepthasbeenmodelledextensively,Ref.[7139].Tungstenheatpipesembeddedin3DC/SiC
aretheinitialpreferredmaterials.Alternatively,Mo47Realloywassuggestedinsteadoftungstenfor
theDchannelsectiontubes.
71.14 Cooled panels
71.14.1 General
Convection cooling is a method of limiting structural temperatures by circulating a coolant through
the vehicle structure. The majority of expertise lies in the USA through development programmes
suchastheX15andNASP,Ref.[7140].
Convectioncoolingisaccomplishedbycirculatingcoolantthroughpassagesinthestructuretoabsorb
theaerodynamicheating.Almosttheentireincidentheatingistransferredthroughtheouterskininto
thecoolant.Iftheheatistransferredtothefuelbeforeitisburned,thesystemiscalledaregenerative
coolingsystem.
Intheotheractivecoolingmethods,[See:Figure71.2.1],bothtranspirationandfilmcoolingoperate
on a principle similar to that of ablation; coolant ejected from the surface blocks most of the
aerodynamic heating from reaching the structure. These two concepts use an external pumping
systemtobringcoolantfromaremotereservoirandejectitfromthesurface.
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Transpirationcoolinginvolvesejectingthecoolantthroughaporoussurface,whereasinfilmcooling
the coolant is ejected, from discrete slots, parallel to the aerodynamic flow. The mass penalties
associatedwiththeexpendablecoolantusuallylimittheseconceptstosmall,highlyheatedregions.
TwodifferentconvectivecoolingsystemsareshowninFigure71.14.1,Ref.[7140].Bothtransferheat
tothefuelbuttheindirectversionismorecomplex.
Figure71.141Convectivecoolingsystems
71.14.2 Demonstrator units

TheUSAhasproducedaseriesofdemonstratorsoveraperiodof30years,Ref.[7140]:
1960s:
610mmx1220mmhydrogencooledHaynesL605nickelalloypanel.
510mm x 760mm regeneratively cooled ramjet combustion chamber and nozzle in
brazedHastelloyandRene41alloys.
HRE(hypersonicresearchengine)hydrogencooledstructures.StudiesusedWaspalloy,
HastelloyX,Inconel617,625and718,andNickel201.TheconceptsareshowninFigure
71.14.2,Ref.[7140].Thematerialsexperiencedtemperaturesupto870Contestpanels
355mmx460mm.ThePalnirofamilyofgoldpalladiumnickelbrazingalloyswereused.
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1970s: AISD (airframe integrated scramjet) produced the development of HRE concepts to
extend life and maximise efficiency. Studies centred on full depth superalloy honeycomb
structurewithabrazedcoolingjacketadjacenttothehotgases.
1980s: Scramjet engine fuel injection strut was in Inconel 718 and Nickel 201. The strut has a
300mmstreamwisechordx730mmlong.
Obtainingsufficientfatiguelifeforstructuresofthistyperemainsaproblemastheintendedvehicle
Machlevelsincrease.
Figure71.142Cooledstructure:Designconcepts
71.14.3 Active cooling on NASP
71.14.3.1 General
A variety of concepts are being studied for active cooling at a number of locations on NASP, [See:
Figure70.7.1].Numbersrelatetoascentconditions.
71.14.3.2 Titanium D-groove panels

Itwasdesignedforaninletrampasanintegralmetallurgicallybondedcombinedheatexchangerand
structuraldesign,asshowninFigure71.14.3,Ref.[7140].
Theconstituentpartsandmaterialswere:
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PanelDimensions:584mm610mm.
Outerfacesheet:SiC/Ti(TMC).
Etchedsheet:Ti14Al21Nb.
Honeycomb:Ti15V3Cr3Sn3Al.
Manifoldedge:Ti6Al2Sn4Zr2Mo.
Innerfacesheet:SiC/Ti(TMC).
Asummaryofthemainfeaturesandperformanceincluded:
Design:100Btu/ft2sec,();100lb./in.(17.5N/mm);2000psi(13.8MPa)LH2coolant.
Failed:Priortotest,duringpanelprecoolingwithN2.
Conditions:0Btu/ft2sec,0lb./in.,340psi(2.3MPa)N2at2040F(6Cto4.4C)
Residualstress:55ksi(379MPa);Criticalcracklength:0.040in.(1.02mm)
Figure71.143NASP:SiCTiTitaniumaluminideDgroovepanel
71.14.3.3 Beryllium skinned tube panels

These are activelycooled panels for an external nozzle application. This concept has a nonintegral
beryllium skinned tube heatexchanger, mounted onto a foursheet titanium SPF/DB sandwich
structure.
A 9slide mechanism is used to compensate for differential thermal expansion between the heat
exchangerandthetitaniumsubstructure.Dimensions:Berylliumskin/tubepanels533mm584mm,
withSPF/DBtitaniumsubstructure533mm584mm.
71.14.3.4 Beryllium platelet components

Aseriesof55Dshapedgrooveswerechemicallymilledintoa1.78mmberylliumplate.Anorificewas
electricaldischargemachined(EDM)intotheendofeachchannel.
A 0.76mm closeout sheet was brazed to the chemically milled plate. A variable area manifold was
then brazed to each end of the heatexchanger panel, along with a beryllium eggcrate structure.
Manifoldinletandoutlettubeswerebrazedtothemanifold.
Dimensions:Components150mmx150mm.
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71.14.3.5 Graphite fibre-reinforced copper panel
The Cu/Gr panel was made from two mated, symmetrical, grooved panels. Each half panel used a
symmetrical ply layup consisting of an outer copper foil layer, two plies of Cu/Gr (90) and three
pliesofCu/Gr(0).
Intotal56nickeltubeswereembeddedwithinthetwohalfsheetstolimitthediffusionofhydrogen
intothecoppercomposite.ThegraphitefibrespecifiedwasthehighthermalconductivityP130X.
Dimensions:Panel150mmx150mm.
71.14.3.6 C-SiC/Refractory metal tube heat-exchangers

Mo50Re tubes were combined with CSiC skins for a very high temperature, nonintegral cooled
structure.Thematerialshaveverysimilarcoefficientsofthermalexpansion.
71.15 Beryllium TPS
71.15.1 General
Beryllium has excellent mechanical efficiency in terms of stiffness to weight, good thermal
conductivityandcanbeusedattemperaturesintherange600Cto800C,[See:Chapter51].
Inconjunctionwiththehighspecificheatcapacity,suchcharacteristicsrenderberylliumsuitablefor
heatsinkTPSconcepts.
Beryllium is appropriate for shortduration thermal loads and moderate heat fluxes such as those
experienced on some atmospheric reentries, e.g. CassiniHuygens probe exploration of the Saturn
moonTitan.
71.15.2 Cassini-Huygens heat shield: Phase A configuration
71.15.2.1 Main components

Themaincomponentsarethe:
Forwardheatshieldoftheforeconeandnosecap(total21.75kg),
Rearsectionaftercone(9.3kg),maximumdimension1.65m,
Insulation(8.7kg),
Nosecapdiameter650mminonepiececonstruction.
TheforeconeinsixassembledpiecesisshowninFigure71.15.1andFigure71.15.2,Ref.[7141].
Thetwoalternativedesignconceptsconsideredwere,Ref.[7141],[7142]:
Solution1:Hotstructurewithoutadditionalsupport,
Solution2:Additionalsupportprovidedbyaconnectiontothemainplatform.
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Figure71.151CassiniHuygens:Explodedview

Figure71.152CassiniHuygens:BerylliumTPSdesignsolution
71.15.2.2 Material selection

Theberylliummaterialsselectedwere:
StructuralgradeS200F,
HotrolledsheetgradeSR200E.
71.15.2.3 Operating conditions

Theconditionscanbesummarisedas:
Heatfluxof0.46MW/matstagnationpointfor60sduration,
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+13.8gonlaunchand25gdecelerationonreentry,
Designgoalfrequency24Hzminimum,
Nosecaptemperaturebelow530C(6mmwallthickness),
Noseconetemperaturebelow770C(3mmwallthickness).
A carboncarbon TPS design for the same application had a total mass of 41.2kg compared with
39.75kgfortheberylliumversion.
71.16 Aerobrakes
Insomereentryvehiclestheforwardfacingsurfaceisdesignedtoprovideadditionalvehiclebraking
inadditiontoactingasTPS,Ref.[7143],[7144].
Thetermaerobrakeisusedtodescribethisthermostructuralentity.
[See:70.21]
71.17 Heat shields
71.17.1 General
With the significant developments in CC, CSiC and SiCSiC technologies for spaceplanes, uses for
thesematerialsarebeingexpandedtoitemssuchasheatshieldsforreentryvehicles,Ref.[7145],[71
46],[7147].ACMCheatshieldisbeingstudiedfortheMARSNETentryprobe,[See:70.13].
71.17.2 SEPCORE TPS concept

ThedesignandfeasibilityofaCSiCprobeheatshieldhasbeenstudiedbySEPusingtheSEPCORE
TPSconcept,Ref.[7159].
AsanextensionofthetechnologydevelopedundertheHermesprogramme,alowmassheatshield
wasconceivedcombiningathinablativelayerona2mmthickCSiCstructurewhichprotectsfibrous
insulation.
The Comet nucleus sample return (CVSR or Rosetta) mission provided the performance parameters
foranERC(Earthreturncapsule,[See:70.17].Thereentryconditionswerespecifiedas
Initialvelocity15km/s.
Reentryangle11.
Peakdeceleration55g.
Peakheatfluxatstagnationpoint10MW/mat50kPapressure.
Theablativematerialwasadense,charring,highdensitycarbonphenoliccomposite.Theproperties
were:
Emissivity:0.85to0.90.
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Density:1480kg/m.
Specificheatat2500K:277J/kg.K.
Conductivityat2500K:7.59W/m/K.
The CSiC components were to be made by liquid resin infiltration and pyrolysis followed by CVI.
BehindthiswastobetheIMIinternalmultiscreeninsulationfromHermes.Thefullheatshieldlimits
themaincapsulestructureto27C(300K).
The baseline TPS concept comprised of an ablative and an insulator to give a total mass of 190kg.
WhereastheSEPCOREdesignproducedanarchitecturemassbudgetof120kg,comprisingof40kgfor
the CSiC, 70kg for ablative heatshield and 10kg of insulation. This produced a 70kg (37%) mass
saving.
A1/5scalemockupwasproducedwithadiameterof300mm.Considerationwasgivento120radial
Tstiffenerconfigurations,fixationpointsandablativebondingwithRTVsiliconematerial.
71.17.3 Ceramic heatshield assembly (CHA)
71.17.3.1 General
From 199496, as part of the MSTP programme, a demonstrator CHA (ceramic heatshield assembly
wasdesigned,manufacturedandtested,Ref.[7170],[7171],[7172].
The concept was applied to a Apollotype Viking capsule in the form of a reusable shingletype
constructionthatevolvedfromtheHermestechnologyprogrammes.
SuchtechnologycanbeappliedtotheCTVcrewtransfervehicle.
71.17.3.2 Design concept

The design was a development of the shingle REI (rigid external insulation) technology developed
undertheHermesprogramme,Ref.[7165].
Themainelementsare,Ref.[7180]:
thin,rigidouterCMCpanel:
CSiCSEPCARBINOX27201(SEP).
LPIC/SiC(MANTechnologie).
moderateweight,fibrousinsulation:alumina(Al2O3)andsilica(SiO2).
attachment,interpanelcloseoutsandseals:
Waspalloybolts(toprimarycapsulestructure).
Thetwospecificpanelconfigurationsselectedfordetaileddesign,analysis,manufacturingandtesting
were,Ref.[7180]:
Corner edge: A doublecurved, integrally stiffened designed for a maximum heat flux of
1050kW/m2andsurfacetemperaturesof1700C.Dimensions:450mmx450mmx50mm;2mm
membrane;108mmradius.
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Cassette panel: Trapezoidal shaped, bidirectionally curved panel with a suitcase internal
flange:Incidentheatfluxes600kW/m2andsurfacetemperaturesof1600C.Dimensions:352mm
to427mmx345mm;2mmskinthickness.
The TPS concept was subjected to detailed analyses of the thermal, thermomechanical, dynamic,
stress,flutter,aerothermalandhumiditybehaviours.Themainperformancespecificationisstatedin
HTTSG1MSM: Thermal Protection System Technical Requirements and Environmental
Specification.

Thesecanbesummarisedas:
Thermalloads:Forthestandardelement,dimensioningwasbasedonthestagnationareaheat
load. With a safety factor of 1.5, the resulting flux of 600kW/m2 and an emissivity more than
0.75givesanequilibriumexternalsurfacetemperatureof1630C.
Mechanicalloads:DerivedfromtheAriane5launcher.
Staticlongitudinalacceleration:4.25g.
Maximumsinusoidalexcitation:2.5g.
Maximumacousticload:144dB.
Aerodynamicsurface.
Maximumallowablestepsbetweenadjacentelements:+3/2mm.
71.17.3.4 Detailed design

ThethreezonesorTypicalDesignAreaswereassessedwithrespecttotheheatshieldgeometryand
thermalloadsasawholewerethe:
standardarea(withstagnation).
cornerarea(includingleadingedge).
centralarea.
Figure 71.17.1 shows the 5400mm diameter CHA heat shield assembly. It was segmented into one
centreelement,fivecircularpanelrowsofstandardelements(124elementsintotal)andanouterrow
of36cornerelements,whichcontaintheleadingedgeandformtheinterfacetotheconicalareaofthe
capsule,Ref.[7165].
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Figure71.171CHACeramicheatshieldassembly
71.17.3.5 Standard panel configuration

Theprincipalfeaturesare:
Doublecurvatureofthesurface,closedsidewallsandinwarddirectedflanges.
Panelheight:50mm.
Overallheatshieldthickness:80mm.
CSiCthicknesses:2mm(membrane)and3mm(flanges).
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71.17.3.6 Insulation
Three different insulation layers of highflexibility aluminasilica mats were established as the
optimum configuration, as shown in Figure 71.17.2, Ref. [7165]. This took account of conductive,
radiatedandconvectiveheattransfer,i.e.:
Highdensity (125kg/m3) HKM 1650 insulation keeps the heat pulse away from the fixation
points.
Lowdensity (25kg/m3) Saffil LD intermediate layers provide a boundary layer at the panel
flangesandassistwithassembly.
ThelowerlayerSaffilHD(75kg/m3density)reducesheatflowintothecoldstructure.
The fibrous insulations were each characterised across the temperature range for heat conductivity,
specificheatcapacity,ageingeffectsandbulkdensity,Ref.[7163].
Figure71.172CHA:Insulationandboltassembly
71.17.3.7 Fittings
Contradictorystructuralandthermaldemandsmadethechoiceofattachmentsdifficult.
SixWaspalloyboltswerechosen,each32.5mmlong,withthreadedconnectionstothecoldstructure
andpanelflanges.
Thenearedgeconfigurationoftheattachmentsminimisesthedeflectionofthepanelmembrane.Four
bolts were deemed to provide inadequate support to resist dynamic and static displacements.
Whereaseightboltsinducedexcessiveheattransferandstiffnessdisadvantages.
71.17.3.8 Mass breakdown

Table 71.17.1 summarises the mass contribution of the various CHA subcomponents produced by
MANTechnologie,Ref.[7180].
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Thecontributorstothemassofthesystemwerebroadly:
panel(47.5%);
insulation(47.5%);
fixings(5%).
Giventhatthetotalareaofshieldwas28.3m2andhadatotalmassof355kg,theaveragesuperficial
arealdensitywas12.55kg/m2.
Table71.171CHA:Subcomponentsmassbreakdown
Subcomponent Unitmass(kg/m2)
Panel Configuration Corner Edge Cassette
C-SiC shingle + coatings 5.52 6.33
Insulation (HKM1650+ Saffil-25/-75) 5.90 5.66
Joints, fasteners & supports 0.54 0.60
TOTAL: 11.96 12.59
71.17.3.9 Verification by analysis

Theresultsofthevariousanalysescanbesuammarisedas:
Thermal analysis revealed that the aluminium substructure remains below 170C and the
fastenersbelow900Cduringthespecifiedheatloadofthereentrytrajectory.
Stressanalysistookaccountofthermalexpansion,vibrationandacousticloads.Staticpressure
tests demonstrated that the panels surface deformation was within specified tolerances; local
stress concentrations at bolt seatings left sufficient safety margins with respect to material
strengthpropertiesandmaximumstressesdidnotcoincidewithmaximumtemperatures.
VentingandgasflowanalysiswasundertakentoassesshotgasflowinsidetheCHAelement
duringascentandreentry.
Aerothermal computations revealed heat fluxes were lower than originally specified at the
corner element so lowering maximum temperatures. The pressure gradient on a panel was
loweranda3mmstepbetweenpanelswasnotcriticalwithrespecttoatransitionfromlaminar
toturbulentflow.
Humidity analysis assessed the significance of humid launch environments at Kourou on the
behaviourofthefibrousinsulation.
Flutteranalysisrevealeditcanberegardedasnegligible.
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71.17.3.10 Panel manufacture
Thenumberofpanelsmanufacturedfortestandevaluationwere:
Onefeasibilitypanelusedtodetectandresolveanymanufacturingproblems.
Oneprototypepanelusedforhumiditytests.
Fourconceptualdesignpanelsusedforfunctionaltests.
Each baseline panel was trapezoidal in shape; 500mm x 300mm x 400mm. The external CMC
subcomponentmanufacturingprocesswas:
SEP used a combined liquid resin impregnation with pyrolysis, followed by CVI chemical
vapourinfiltration,Ref.[7172].
MANusedaLPIlowpressureinfiltrationprocess,Ref.[7180].
Fibrous preforms were made in the shape of the respective components, costs being lower than
classicalCVIprocessingwithgraphitetooling.
Aquasiorthotropiclayupof0/90/45wasused.ThemaincharacteristicsofSEPCARBINOX272
01aregiveninTable71.17.2,Ref.[7172].
[Seealso:Table71.7.3forpropertiesofMANLPIandCVICSiCmaterials]
Table71.172SEPCARBINOX27201:Properties
At23C At23C At1500C
Property
Asmade Aged* Asmade
Tension 200 MPa 195 MPa 300 MPa
0.85% 0.85% 0.65%
E0 70 GPa 60 GPa 85 GPa
Compression 210 MPa 150 MPa -
0.32% 0.38% -
E0 70 GPa 55 GPa -
ILSS 20 MPa 15 MPa -
Translaminar shear 100 MPa 75 MPa -
500C 1000C 1500C
Thermal expansion l/l 0.065% 0.19% 0.36%
Key: *=Agedat1500Cfor15minutes.
71.17.3.11 Panel testing

The test programme assessed the effect of load combinations at various mission stages to give a
comprehensive insight into CHA behaviour. These covered launch (vibration + acoustic), reentry
(thermoacoustic+thermal)andlaunch+reentry(staticpressure).
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ThedetailsofthefunctionaltestsarelistedinTable71.17.3,Ref.[7170].
Table71.173CHA:Functionaltestmatrix
Functionaltest Testobjectives Testconditions
Modal analysis:
- speckle
pattern Low power
Measurement of panel
interferometr excitation from 70
eigenmodes
y to 2000 Hz
- hammer
pulse
launch & re-entry loads: Vibration in three
- measurement of vibration directions:
Sinusoidal vibration
responses and strains 0, 45, 90 up to
- damping effects of insulation 3g.
156 dB. 162 dB @
Acoustic: nominal, Exposure to specified launch
RT. & 144 dB @
overload and and re-entry loads (include.
1100C for four
thermo-acoustic safety factors)
mission lives
Re-entry loads @
Exposure to specified launch
1650C with low
Thermal tests and re-entry loads (include.
and atmospheric
safety factors)
pressure
200 hPa external
Identify strength and stiffness and internal
Static pressure
values overpressure on
panel membrane
Effect of Kourou climate 15 days Kourou
Humidity conditions and possible temperature and
condensation humidity cycles
Arc jet up to
Investigate hot gas flows and 1200C with
Plasma
convective heating surface pressure
gradient
Vibration, acoustic,
Mission load Combined mission life cycle
thermal and static
sequence loads
pressure loads
ThethermaltestsrevealedthetemperatureagainsttimeprofilegiveninFigure71.17.3,Ref.[7170].
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Figure71.173CHAelement:Temperatureprofilesduringfullmissiontesting
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Theresultsoftheothertestingcanbesummarisedas:
Nocriticalloadsweregeneratedinvibrationandacoustictests.
The200hPastaticpressureappliedonthepanelmembraneresultedinareversiblemembrane
deformation of 7mm, with no material degradation. Stresses between 86MPa (tension) and
82MPa(compression)wereinduced.
GasflowtestsdemonstratedsufficientventingoftheCHAelementduringascentandreentry.
A15dayperiodoftemperatureandhumiditycyclesequivalenttoaKourouenvironmentdid
not induce a condensation buildup, once an equilibrium amount of 28g within each CHA
elementhadbeenreachedafter5days.
The CHA element subjected to a single mission acoustic load spectrum heated for a total of
59mins.upto1200Csurvivedwithsomedegradation.
Plasmaoxidationtestsverifiedthematerialscapabilityofwithstanding4reentrycyclesinthe
range 1600C to 1650C, whilst retaining integrity. Hot gas ingress and sneak flows into the
CHAelementdidnotcompromiseintegritydespiteinducingsmalltemperaturerises.
The testing confirmed the CHA singlemission capabilities and optimism that it can be reused,
providedthatexternalsurfaceoxidationprotectionisusedandsuitableNDItechniquesareavailable
foranintegratedCHA.
71.17.3.12 Leading edge element

The leading edge is highly loaded during reentry, with heat fluxes on the middle part of the small
radiusexpectedat700kW/m2(or1050kW/m2whena1.5safetyfactorisapplied).
Owing to these high fluxes, internal radiation in a free cavity behind the CSiC outer skin was
adopted. This was a means of reducing temperature buildup from insulation in direct contact with
theCSiC.Theoptimumcavityarrangementwasdetermined.
Themainfeaturesoftheleadingedgewere:
The maximum deformations occur 550 seconds into reentry, with a 2.17mm displacement in
the radial direction and 1.6mm thermal expansion in the circumferential direction. These are
withinacceptablelimits.
Maximumstressesinthepanelmembraneareintherangeof51MPa.
At300secondsintoreentry,maximumstressesintheCSiCflangereach205MPa(tensile)and
198MPa(compressive);themaximumallowablebeing198MPa.
Maximumcomputedinplaneshearstressesare58MPa,againstanallowableof100MPa.
71.17.4 MIRKA - Micro re-entry capsule
71.17.4.1 General
TheMIRKAcapsuleisa1mdiametersphereof150kgmass.piggybackedontotheFOTONcapsule,
asshowninFigure71.17.4,Ref.[7173].ItisservicedbyFOTONandseparatesfora(ballistic)reentry,
Ref.[7178],[7179].
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Figure71.174MIRKA/FOTON:Configuration
The flight mission (1997) included instrumentation of both the heat shield and the capsule to
investigatetheenvironmentalconditionsandtheverificationofpredictivetools.
71.17.4.2 Design concept

ThemaindesignfeaturesoftheSPA,anonreusablesurfaceprotectedablatorheatshieldcapsuleare:
TwononmetallichemispheresformingtheloadcarryingstructureandSPAheatshield,which
consistedof:
Carbon fibre laminate (1mm thick) with a thin copper mesh (on CFRP) for static
discharge,localreinforcement(higherwallthickness)andstringers.
Honeycomb core filled with ablator material (Dornier DO 31/F); coretoablator 30mm
thickinfrontand20mmonrearhemisphere.
Externallayer:CSiCCMChemisphere,nominally1.3mmthickbutincreasedto3.5mm
locallyatthestagnationpoint.Theparachutecoverhasthesameconstruction.
Equatorialaluminiumframe.
Rearsidecoverhousingthecylindricalparachutebox.
Connection of hemispheres at the equator by steel screws (inner CFRP shells) and TZM
molybdenumalloyscrews(ceramichemispheres).
During reentry, the CMC layer separates from the ablator, but remains in place at the
stagnationpoint(byapressuresensortube)andattherearbyflexiblefixationelements.
Gases liberated by the ablator during reentry cool the backface of the CMC layer. They are
channelledtoventatthecapsulesequator(fronthemisphere)andcollar(backhemisphere).
Comparedwithatraditionalablatorconcept,SPAhasareducedablativematerialthickness,so
reducesmass.Thiscanbeintheorderofa20%massreductionforanoptimisedSPA.
Mass of heat shield, including reinforcements for equipment attachment and interfaces with
FOTON:~60kg.
Intendedformissionswithsteepreentry(highheatflux,shortduration).
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71.17.4.3 Test programme
Varioustestsamples,forbothdevelopmentandverificationtests,werepreparedandtestedbyISAS
andTaAGI(Moscow),Ref.[7179].Thetestsandmainobservationscanbesuammarisedas:
Initial test (40mm thick sample): 3.8MW/m2 cold wall heat flux, 0.7bar: After 80 seconds, no
surfaceregressionwasseen.Maximumbackwalltemperature:80C.
MIRKAconceptsamplessufferedfromearlyCMClayerseparationduetointernalpressureand
thermalexpansion.Furthertestsamplessufferedfromblowthroughbetweenthefixingbolts
andtheheatshieldsample.
Finalpredevelopmenttestsample:
WithstoodMach3with0.5bardynamicpressureand2500C(stagnationpoint)withno
visiblerecession.
About0.1mmoftheoriginal1.4mmthickCMCwasoxidised.
Resisted2.3MW/m2appliedin0.1second.
Rearsurfacetemperature100C.
Temperature gradient: 2400C over a distance of 130mm, plus resistance to thermal
shock.
Ablatorchar:~9mm.
Qualificationtests,Ref.[7178]:
Prevents burnthrough at 1.4MW/m2 and 500mbar dynamic pressures for more than 80
secondswithoutsignificantdegradation.
71.17.4.4 Flight performance

MIRKAwaslaunchedinOctober1997,spenttwoweeksinLEO(inactive),reenteredandlandednear
Orsk.Theheatshieldsurvivedreentrywithoutdamageorburnthroughandwasintactonlanding.
Therearsidedamage,visibleafterrecovery,wasduetoparachutedragoverroughground,Ref.[71
78],[7179].
71.17.4.5 Proposed applications

Potentialapplicationsinclude:
Scientificearthreentryprobes.
Planetaryprobes.
Mannedrescuecapsules.
Lowcostinterchangeablepartsforhighlyloadedareasofreusablevehicles.
71.17.5 ALSCAP - Alternative low-cost, short-manufacturing-cycle

ceramic assessment programme
71.17.5.1 General
AmajorconcernwithCMCsisthehighcapitalcostofprocessequipment,highmanuallabourcosts
and longduration processing cycles for composite densification. ALSCAP, the alternative low cost,
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shortmanufacturingcycleceramicassessmentprogrammewasundertakenaspartofMSTPbetween
1994and1996,Ref.[7180].
71.17.5.2 Materials and manufacturing

ItcentredontheMANTechnologieliquidphaseinfiltration(LPI)andpyrolysis(PIP)processesforC
SiC,withanoptimisedfibrecoating.PrepreglayupwasachievedusingthePRTplacementofrelaxed
fibretechnique.TheprogrammeaimedtoimproveexistingresinpyrolysisCSiCmaterialsproduced
byMANpre1994,Ref.[7161].Themainaimswere:
Target properties: Tensile strength of 200MPa, a Youngs Modulus of 60GPa, with strain to
failureof0.3%.ILSSof10MPaforamaximumusetemperatureof1600C.
PerformancematchingofcomparablematerialproducedbyCVI.
ThematerialwascomparedwithCSiCmaterialsmadebyAerospatialeandSEPusingresinpyrolysis
and CVI, and Dornier using repeated resin impregnation and pyrolysis. The nonreusable capsule
heatshieldwasusedasthedemonstrator.
AcceptablematerialperformanceisstatedinHTSOWG4011HPD.
71.17.5.3 Characterisation and testing

Theprogrammeproduced:
Characterisation samples: 3mm 0/90 T800 CSiC, before and after thermal ageing (1500C in
argon),156samples.ThetestsmethodstoCENTC1848usedwere:
Tensionandcompression,
Shear,notchedandthreepointbend,
Fourpointbending,
Tensionandcompressionfor0/90drilledsamples.
Conceptualdesigntesting(120samples)for:
Tension,bend,shearandpulltestsonTstiffenertoskinjointspecimens,
Bendtestsonanglespecimens,
Tensiletestsofdrilledbearingsamples,
Tensiletestsonvariablethicknesssamples.
Thermophysicaltests(30samples)aresummarisedinTable71.17.4.
Oxidationtests(48samples):
UndertakenbyDLR(L2Kplasmaarcwindtunneltest)andONERA(BLOX3oxidation
testsbyradiativeheatingwith1700WCO2laser).Thesegavesimilarresults.
Heatingbetween800Cto1500Cinairpressurerange10mbarto200mbar,formultiples
of5minutes.
Low mass loss (~3%) at high temperature (10 minutes at 1500C), but loss increases as
atmosphericpressureincreasesfrom10mbarto100mbar.
CSiCdoesnotneedoxidationprotectionforasinglereentry.
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Slurryoxidationcoatingapplicabletomannedvehicleswithanadditionalmanufacturing
costof20%incurred.
Flightdemonstrators,2unitsof200mmdiameterforARD.
CHAleadingedgepaneldemonstrators,2panels:
Mediumsizes,doublecurvatureandcomplexdesign,
AluminiumtoolforpanelandGFRPintermediatetoolforstringer,
NDIbyultrasonictransmission.
Table71.174ALSCAP:ThermophysicaldataforC/SiC
Fibre Measurementdata
Property
orientation 100C 1000C 1500C
Parallel 730 489 461
Thermal diffusivity (cm/s)
Transverse 334 210 198
Coefficient of thermal Parallel 1.16 2.19 2.68
expansion (x 10-6/K) Transverse 4.06 5.72 6.23
Specific heat (kJ/kg K) - 0.9 1.4 1.6
Thermal conductivity (W/m Parallel 11.33 12.62 12.18
K) Transverse 5.24 5.48 5.29
71.17.5.4 Programme conclusions

Themainconclusionscanbesummarisedas:
Materialperformance:30%betterthanexpectedandcomparabletoCSiCproducedbyCVI.
Materialproperties:
Tensilestrength:270MPa;
YoungsModulus:84GPa;
Straintofailure:0.5%;
ILSS:20MPa.
Excellenthightemperaturebehaviourwithoutageing.
Suitableforcomplexandlarge,hotstructuralparts.
Manufacturingcostaround3timesthatforCFRPpolymercompositestructuralcomponents.
Lowcostslurryoxidationprotectionapplicable.
Shortmanufacturingcycleof8weeksfordemonstratorleadingedgepanels.
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71.18 Aeroshell
71.18.1 General
Anaeroshellistheforwardfacingshieldofanatmosphericentryvehicle,suchasMarsLander,Ref.
[7148]. It withstands a short aerothermodynamic heating period followed by a hard or semihard
landing.
Theaeroshellshapeisimportantindeterminingtheaerodynamicandheatfluxcharacteristicsduring
reentry,Ref.[7148].
Figure71.18.1showsadesignconceptinvestigatedbyESAandDassaultAviation,Ref.[7148].
Figure71.181Aeroshell:Designconcept
71.18.2 Semi-integrated aeroshell TPS (S.I.A.T)

SIAT was a cooperative programme between DassaultAviation and DASA/Dornier, covering
activities from 1994 to 1996 on the design of future Mars landing probe aeroshell and thermal
protection concepts, Ref. [7167], [7168]. This continued the investigations initiated in a previous
STAMPprogramme;thestudyontechnologyofaerobrakingforMarspenetrators.
The design which was assessed was a front aeroshell based on an ablatorprotected CFRP cold
structureforthefrontshieldandanonprotectedCSiChotstructurefortheaerodynamicdecelerator.
Theaimoftheprogrammewastodemonstrate:
TheabilitytomanufacturetheasdesignedselfstiffenedCSiCpart.
Thepreventionofhotgaspenetrationatthefrontshieldtodeceleratorinterface.
Confirmation of the ability to withstand thermal shock, thermochemical environments and
dusterosionintheMartianatmosphere.
71.18.3 Demonstrator aeroshell design
71.18.3.1 General
A 1/3 scale demonstrator was produced, using scalereduction principles to preserve the validity of
thetests:
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Fullscalethicknessofmaterialsections(skinthicknessesandinsulation)wereappliedtoretain
thesamethermalresponse.
Asimplescalereductionofmeshwidthandcurvatureradiiwasnotusedasthiswouldhave
modifiedtheloadlevels.
Thescaleddowndemonstratorretainedthesamecurvatureforthesphericalandconicalparts
as the fullscale design and the same mesh width for the decelerator. This required a shape
modification,thehalfconeanglebeingopenedfrom60to80.
The demonstrator was reduced to one conical mesh whereas the full scale decelerator would
havethree.
The internal edge of the scaled conical CSiC part was still suitable for assessing the stiffener
integration.
Theresultsofacoustictestingwererepresentativeoftheskinlocalmodeexcitations.
71.18.3.2 General architecture

General features of the design are shown in Figure 71.18.2 and Figure 71.18.3, Ref. [7167], some
notablepointsare:
ThesphericalablatorcoveredCFRPcentralshell,terminatinginanattachmentring.
A decelerator represented by a nonprotected CSiC conical outer part fastened to a primary
metallicstructurewithintegralcircularstiffenerandsemiflexibletitaniumattachmenttabs.
AsimplifiedsealarrangementwithareducedpartscountandaflexiblesealbetweentheCSiC
partandtheInconelsealsupport.
Figure71.182Aeroshell:SIATtestmodelassembledcrosssection
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Figure71.183Aeroshell:Downscaleddemonstratordesignfeatures
71.18.3.3 Thermal
Thermalanalysiscoveredallformsofheattransfer,i.e.:
conductioninsolidparts,
naturalconvection,
radiationforcriticalareas.
ThepredictedandactualtemperaturedistributionsareshowninTable71.18.1,Ref.[7167].
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Table71.181Aeroshelldemonstrator:Predictedandactualtemperatures
Predicted temperatures for demonstrator
Area: Actual Plasmatron Nominal Actual
Material Solar test Nominal heating. Actual heating.
Backface or behind measured test heating. C-SiC heating. C-SiC
allowable samples Theoretical C-SiC Theoretical
shield temp. (C) samples thickness + thickness +
thickness C-SiC thickness
15% 30%
1.8mm C-SiC right side 1500 978(1) - - 1064 - - -

skin middle other sides 1500 805/857 - - 1064 1018 966 919

stiffener top other sides 1500 633/694 690 551(4) 867 802 733 676

stiffener top other sides 1500 306/319 - - 401 365 361 356
1.5mm CFRP shell centre 250 96 100 180 148(2) 158 - -
Inconel seal support 800 240/260 - - 495(3) 419 392 370
Aluminium structure 175 70 - - 71 - - -

Key (1) Right side of demonstrator experienced slight overheating as it was introduced into the solar spot.
(2) Ablator thickness sized for CFRP to reach 250C under ultimate levels (test levels were limit levels only).
(3) A conservative hypothesis for modelling, assuming inadequate sealing from hot gases.
(4) A low temperature explained with low observed catalycity rate for C-SiC.

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All temperatures were within the capabilities of the respective materials. The Mars entry heating
profile is very rapid, taking less than 60 seconds in total. This prevents the surface materials from
reaching equilibrium conditions. Hence the actual temperatures experienced at any point on the
structureareverysensitivetotheappliedheatfluxagainsttimeprofile.
Structural analysis showed stress levels from combined thermal and pressure loadings to be within
thematerialallowables.
The only problem revealed by analysis was a significant opening (0.9mm), under thermal loading,
betweentheablativelayerandtheCSiCinneredgeoverlappingringontheinterfacearea.
Toavoidanylocaloverheating,thelengthoftheoverlappingringwasreducedinthefinaldesignto
restrict the opening to 0.4mm. Gas tightness was maintained by the flexible seal between the CSiC
andInconelsealsupport.
71.18.3.4 Critical load cases

Thesewere:
Adiffusenoiseacoustictest(142dBOASPL)simulatedlaunch(INTESPACEtestcentre,France).
A differential pressure test (P = 140mbars) simulated the pressure loading of the aeroshell
duringtheaerobrakingphase(testedatDornier).
Athermalshocktest(heatupandcooldowntoamaximumof440kW/m2)wascarriedoutat
themainsolarfurnaceofthePlataformasolardeAlmria,Spain.
71.18.3.5 Material samples test campaigns

Thermoopticalpropertymeasurements(emissivityandsolarabsorptivity)andthermalshocktestson
CSiC and ablatorcovered CFRP disks were carried using solar furnace heating (ETCOOdeillo test
centre,France).
Thedetailscanbesummarisedas:
ThedisksconsistedofCFRPwith5mm,10mmor15mmablativelayers.
Theheatfluxprofilewassimplifiedto:
alinearheatingphaseof15seconds,
staticheatingfor7.5secondsatmaximumlevel(440kW/m2forlimitlevel,560kW/m2for
ultimatelevel)and
alinearcoolingphaseof15seconds,
thisapproximatedtothestagnationpointheatingprofile.
Thistestingshowedthat:
Optimalablatorthickness(givingatemperatureof250CintheCFRP)wasfoundtobebetween
5mmand10mm,whichcomparedwellwiththepredictionof8mm.
Surfacerecessionoftheablatorwaslow,~0.1mm(0.1g/cm2).
Plasmatron testing was conducted at TSNIIMASH (Russia); a 1MW highfrequency induction gas
heatingfacility,withhighenthalpyCO2plasmasimulatingMarsatmospherepenetration(97%CO2).
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ThebackfaceoftheCSiCreached550C,comparedwith760Cduringsolarfurnacetests.Therear
surfaceoftheablatorcoveredBMIdiscreached180C,comparedwith100Cforthesolarfurnace.
Higher mass losses of0.29g/cm2 were recorded. The underheating of the CSiC was explained bya
lowcatalycityrate.HighratesofCO2dissociationreducedthepeakheatfluxvaluefrom400kW/m2
to150kW/m2.
Dust impacterosion testing was carried out at the Max Planck Institute, Heidelberg, Germany. This
simulated an entry velocity of 6km/sec with dust particles from 0.2m to 20m, at altitudes up to
60km:
Anelectromagneticacceleratorwasusedtoprojectironparticleswithameandiameterof1m
inavacuumat7km/sec.
Equivalenceruleswereappliedastheironparticlesdidnothavethesamesizeanddensityas
thoseanticipatedonMars
Using thin gold witness layers applied to the surfaces of the CSiC and ablator it was possible to
predict erosion levels of 12m for CSiC and 700m (0.7mm) for the ablator during entry. An
additional1mmofablatorthicknesswasfoundtobenecessary.
71.18.3.6 Manufacture
Dorniermanufacturedtheaeroshelldemonstratorunit.Theproceduresusedwere:
CSiCselfstiffenedpartproducedbylowcostpolymerinfiltrationandpyrolysis(PIP)process:
T800 fibres applied in 6k rovings with a thin film coating of approximately 150nm to
200nmofcarbonpriortoprepregmanufacture.
Afterautomatedprepreglayupandvacuumbagging,thegreenpartwascuredat15bar
and110C.
BMI CFRP (M40 fibres) front shield assembly allowing temperatures up to 250C. Layup of
0/60producedbyplacementofrelaxedfibretechnique(PRT).
A moulded 10mm AblaDor DO31F lightweightphenolicablative layer was bonded to the
front shield using a heatstable resin. This ablative is a flexible honeycomb core, filled with
phenolicmicroballoonsandsilicafibres.
71.18.3.7 Testing
Forthedemonstratortestcampaign,limitloadlevelswereapplied(i.e.flightloadsx1.1).Testingwas
conductedintheorderofcriticality.
Staticdifferentialpressuretest:
Achievedbycontrolledairpumpingofabackcavityadaptedtothedemonstratorshape.
Outer edge of decelerator was free to preserve the normal load path through the
demonstratorstructure.
Progressiveloadingandunloadingsequencewasappliedevery20mbarsupto140mbars,
withverticalmeasurementstakenatthecentre,attheCSiC/ablatorinterfaceandatthe
deceleratoredgeevery120.
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No structural damage was recorded, although the overall stiffness of the CSiC was lower than
predicted,by25%.Thiswasattributedtoachangeinthecarboncoatingappliedtothecarbonfibres
priortocompositepyrolysis.
Air leakage through the central heatshieldtoCSiC decelerator interface seal was measured at 0.8
litres/second at a pressure of 110mbars for a seal length of 1150mm. A solution was proposed
modifyingthesealsupporttoreduceleakage.Thisdidnotimpairproofofconcept.
Acousticnoise,simulatingtheAriane4fairing:
The testing assessed the structuralskin dynamic response, which was considered to be
themostsensitivepartoftheconstructionwithrespecttothedeceleratorfixingsystem.
GoodqualityacousticexcitationwassoughtforestablishingtheCSiCskineigenmodes.
The INTESPACE 1100m reverberating chamber was selected to provide pure diffuse
noiseover200Hz.
Thedemonstratorwashardmountedonarigidbodyandfittedwithaccelerometersand
straingauges.
Hammerexcitationtestsestablishedtheeigenfrequencies,withthefirstataround160Hz.
No noticeable damage resulted from acoustic excitation and the stress levels were well below the
materialallowables.
Thermalshocktest:
Concentratedsolarfluxwasprojectedperpendiculartothefrontsurface
Side reflectors were added around the test item to correct the incident heatflux at the
edgesandtosimulatethelocalaerodynamicoverheatingexpectedduringflight.
Therequiredeffectiveheatfluxof440kW/m2ontheCSiCwasachievedwithasolarflux
of 600kW/m2, once allowance was made for solar absorptivity, heliostat uniformity and
angularcorrections.
Ablator pyrolysis produced abundant smoke, but no consequential damage or overtemperatures
wererecorded.
Local thermal inertia was significant because of the short thermal exposure, and higher than
anticipatedtemperatures(by200C)wererecordedatthermocouplesbecauseoftheuseofaceramic
cementtobondthethermocouplestotheCSiC.
71.18.3.8 Conclusions
Thebasicvalidityofthedesignwasproved.
Seal leakage during static pressure tests showed the need for a slight redesign of the seal
support.
ThelowsurfacecatalycityofCSiCmaybeimpairedbysurfacecontaminationresultingfrom
ablatorpyrolysis.
TheuseofanoxidationprotectioncoatingontheCSiCwasshowntobenecessary.
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71.19 Cryogenic tanks
71.19.1 General
Themajorityoffuturelauncherprogrammesareconsideringtheuselightweight,reuseablepropellant
tanks.LHliquidhydrogenisthemostlikelychoiceoffuelforsuchvehicles,[Seealso:29.11,70.12]
Cryogenictankprotectionsystemsneedtoresistthevariousrigorousconditionsencounteredduring
launch,flightandreentryfortheintendedlifeofthetankstructure.
Theconceptoftheoverallcryogenictankprotectionsystemcomprises:
Thermalprotectionsystem,duringreentryintotheatmosphere.
Cryogenicinsulation,toreduceboiloffofLHpropellantandavoidfrostorsolidairformingon
thetanksurface,soincreasingvehiclemassduringprelaunchandaccentphases.
BoththeTPSthermalprotectionsystemandthecryogenicinsulationandthecontributetotheoverall
heattransferacrossthetankwall.
Cryogenic insulation and TPS concepts were investigated within the European reuseable launcher
programmes,FESTIPandFTLP,Ref.[7192],[7193].
71.19.2 European programmes
71.19.2.1 FESTIP
The integration of TPS with cryogenic tank constructions for future reusable space transportation
systemswaspartoftheFESTIPprogramme.ItconsideredtankssuitableforLHandLOXfuelsmade
fromCFRPmaterialsoraluminiumlithiumalloys,Ref.[7162],[7164],[7166].
[Seealso:29.11,70.12]
Theresearchanddevelopmentimprovedthesupportingtechnologiesforprolongedflightoperations
usingTPSsystemsbasedonCSiCrigidexternalinsulationormetallicconstructions.
71.19.2.2 C-SiC oxidation protection

The features of CSiC internal and external oxidation protection systems for use up to 1300C
included:
OuterCVDSiCcoatings.
Thermoviscousexternalandinternalsealinglayerswithrefractoryparticles.
Fabricationtechniquesusinginfiltration,slurryandsolgelprocesses.
Examinationofthehightemperatureeffectsofhydrogenandwatervapour.
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71.19.2.3 IMI internal multiscreen insulation
Some of the features of the highlyreflective ceramic IMI internal multiscreen insulation (IMI)
included,[Seealso:71.10]:
Designedforimprovedoperationaluseabove1200Ctowards1700C.
Variablethicknessplatinumcoatings,300nmto1000nm.
Yttriuminterlayers,platinumalloysandvariationsinPVDcoatingconditions.
71.19.2.4 Refractory metals and aluminide oxidation protection

Oxidationprotectivecoatingsforrefractorymetalsandtitaniumaluminidesconsidered:
Overlayanddiffusionbarriercoatingsforniobium,tantalumandmolybdenumalloys.
Preoxidation,siliconising,aluminisingandCoCrAlYcoatingsforTiAl.
71.19.2.5 ODS alloys

SomeODSoxidedispersionstrengthenedaluminiumalloyswereconsidered.
71.19.3 Concepts: TPS panel array

The concept is shown in Figure 71.19.1, Ref. [7180].It was developed by DLRand MAN,[See also:
Chapter52].
Themainfeaturesare,Ref.[7180]:
CSiCintegrallystiffenedpanel,producedbyLPIC/SiCprocess.Panelsize:400mm400mm;
skinthickness1.5mm;mass3.72kg/m2.
CSiComegashapedstandoffattachments,producedbyLPIC/SiCprocess.
CSiCfastenersandcentralpost(rivet).
Testingofmultipanelarraystookintoaccounttheintegratedpanelperformanceandtheintegrityof
allofthesubcomponents.
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Figure71.191TPSpanelarrayconcept:Cryogenictanks
71.19.4 Concepts: LH tank cryogenic insulation

The research work, a FESTIPfunded project between ESTEC and DaimlerChrysler (Bremen),
investigatedseveralcommercialpolymerfoamsforcryogenicinsulationofLHtanks.Oneaimwasto
providearankingsystemforpotentialpolymerfoamsforcryotankinsulation,[See:71.22].
General technical considerations for the polymer foam materials are giveninTable71.19.1, Ref. [71
92].
[See:71.22forevaluationofsomecommercialpolymerfoamgradesforcryotankinsulation]
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Table71.191Cryogenicinsulation:TechnicalconsiderationsforLHtank
concepts
Cryoconcept1 Cryoconcept2
(external (internal Comment
insulation) insulation)
Maximum pressure static and dynamic
1 bar
difference loads from LH.
Where +150C is the
temperature of the
Thermal cycles Large range, e.g. 253C to +150C
structure underneath the
TPS.
Maintenance and
Low Low Between flights
repair
Foam compressive
0.1 0.3
strength (MPa)
Foam not brittle at low
Strain High
temperatures
Foam strength is affected
by density. A lower end
Foam density (kg/m3) - 40 to 100
value can provide mass
saving.
where: Thermal efficiency =
(density thermal
Foam thermal
Low value conductivity). Ranking
efficiency
parameter to aid mass
optimisation
Foam thermal To cope with CTE mismatch
expansion coefficient between 35 and 55 between foam and tank
(/K) structure
Indicates the need for a
Foam gas
Low Low high closed-cell content, e.g.
permeability
>90%
Other CFC-free processing of foams
Figure71.19.2showstwoconceptsforLHcryotankprotection,Ref.[7192].
Figure71.192Cryogenicinsulation:LHtankconcepts
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Whilstbothconceptsmetmostofthethermaldemands,amaindifferencebetweentheconceptsisthe
locationoftheinsulationfoam,formechanicalreasons,i.e.:
Cryoconcept 1, where the foam is on the external surface of the tank wall. The foam
experiencesatmosphericpressureandvacuum.Anopencellfoamwasfirstconsideredforthis
concept because of the low forces involved. It also offered sufficient flexibility to cope with
thermal expansion mismatch at the tank wall interface and enabled venting under vacuum.
However,aircondensingintheopencellsatlowtemperatureswasproblematical.
Cryoconcept2,wherethefoamisontheinternalsurfaceofthetankwall.Itmeantthatthetank
wall acts as a heatsink, enabling the insulation thickness and mass to be reduced. The foam
needs to support both static and dynamic loads from the fuel. A closedcell foam was
considered because of its higher strength and also because closedcells limit the migration of
hydrogenintothefoamandevaporation.Purging,topreventhumidity,usingdryairorheated
nitrogeninsteadofheliumwasseenasanadvantage.Amainconcernwasthatanyparticlesof
foam that became detatched for the insulation were likely to contaminate the fuel delivery
system.
71.20 TPS mass budgets
71.20.1 Allocation
The design of TPS systems is highly mission dependent. Some of the factors which determine the
designsandmaterialsallocatedare,Ref.[7149],[7150],[7151]:
Reusabilityrequirements,
Anticipatedheatfluxes(MW/m),
Durationofthermalloading,
Totalheatinput(MJ/m),
Peaksurfacetemperatures,
Locationsofhotspots,e.g.leadingedges,stagnationpoints.
71.20.2 Examples
Mass budgets for TPS systems used in the past have ranged between 6% and 44% of the total
structural mass of the spacecraft. The 44% figure is exceptional, resulting from the very high heat
fluxes anticipated for that particular mission. However, typical mass budgets are in the 5% to 20%
range,sothereisstillaconsiderableincentivetosavemassbytheuseofefficientprotectionsystems.
Thermostructural TPS performs a joint role and therefore complicates these mass budget figures,
[See:Chapter70].
TheexamplesofTPSdesignsgiveninChapters70and71illustratetherangeofprotectionmethods
available.
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71.21 TPS verification

The precise flux conditions found during each reentry cannot be predicted with total certainty.
Sufficientmarginisthereforemadeindesigntocopewiththeunknownfactors.
TheverificationoftheseTPSdesignsbyanalysisandgroundtestingisthereforeimportant,Ref.[71
52]to[7157],[7161],[7163],[7165]to[7167],[7170],[7173],[7174].
[Seealso:86.7forsomeEuropeantestfacilities]
71.22 Polymer foam cryogenic insulation
71.22.1 General
71.22.1.1 Expendable single-shot launchers

Polymeric foams are commonly used as insulation on the external surfaces of cryogenic tanks for
expendablelaunchers.Whencomparedwithotherpotentialmaterials,polymericfoamswerechosen
onthebasisofmechanicalstability,costandsimplemanufacturingandapplication.
71.22.1.2 Reusable launchers

Forreusablelauncherswithfastturnroundtimes,degradationcausedbyrepeateduseandreentry
cyclesmeansthatinsulationmaterialspreviouslyappliedtoexpendabletankscannotbeusedwithout
reevaluationoftheirlongtermperformance.AstudyconductedundertheFESTIPprogramme,Ref.
[7192],[7193],evaluatedanumberofcommerciallyavailablepolymerfoamsaspotentialinsulation
inreusableLHcryotankconcepts,[See:71.19].
71.22.2 Polymer foam characteristics

Whilstofferinglowdensityandlowthermalconductivitycharacteristics,polymericfoamsgenerally
have poor mechanical performance, high gas permeabilityandhigh thermal expansion/ contraction.
Their high CTE can provoke problems, such as cracking or disbonds where polymeric foams are
bondedtometals.
Polymericfoamscanbeclassedbypolymertypeandcellstructure,Ref.[7192]:
Thermoplastics, which tend to soften between 70C and 120C. In many cases they become
brittle at cryogenic temperatures. Polymers commonly used for foams include polystyrene
(rigid)orPVCpolyvinylchloride(flexible).
Thermosetting,whichincludeureaformaldehydeandphenolic(bothrigidwithpoorproperties
at low densities), and polyurethane (flexible). Of these, flexible polyurethanes retain good
propertiesatcryogenictemperaturesandtendnottobecomebrittle.
Rigidity,whichdependsonthepolymerstructurewithintheprocessedfoamalongwithfoam
related characteristics, such as cell morphology. In general, a rigid foam is one in which the
polymerisinacrystallineoramorphousstate,i.e.belowitsTg.Consequently,aflexiblefoam
hasapolymerabovethecrystallinemeltingpointoraboveitsTg.
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Cells, whichdecrease both the density andstrength compared with the nonfoamed polymer,
but provide a higher flexural modulustodensity. Cells within foams can be open or closed.
Opencellfoamsareusuallyflexible,whereasclosedcellfoamstendtoberigid.Incommercial
foams,mixturesofclosedandopencellsareoftenpresent.Dependingontheprocessing,cells
cancontainair,agasoramixtureofboth.
The properties of materials at extreme low temperatures are often poorly quantified. Even less is
knownwherethethermalcyclingrangeisverywide,e.g.from253Cto+150C,whichisanexpected
temperaturerangeforsomecryotankconcepts,Ref.[7192].
[See:Table71.19.1]
71.22.3 Properties
71.22.3.1 Mechanical
Themechanicalpropertiestoconsiderforpolymerfoamcryogenicinsulationmaterialsinclude,Ref.
[7192]:
compressivebehaviour,includingstrength,modulusanddeformation.
tensilebehaviour,includingstrength,modulusanddeformation.
temperaturerelated effects on the mechanical properties, such as operational temperature
range,thermalcyclingandthermalshock.Ingeneral,bothmodulusandstrengthincreasewith
decreasing temperature. This tends to produce brittle fracture in tension and progressive
crushing in compression. At very low temperatures, when the gas condenses in the cells, the
resulting pressure change can deform the cellular structure and modify the deformation
behaviour.
71.22.3.2 Physical
Themainphysicalcharacteristicsofinterestinpolymerfoamcryogenicinsulationmaterialsare,Ref.
[7192]:
Thermal conductivity, which is a combination of the polymer thermal properties and the gas
andaircontainedwithinthefoamcellstructure.Atcryogenictemperatures,thegasescontained
inthecellscancondense,affectingthethermalconductivity.Thisisknownascryopumping.
Removingtheairinthecells,byvacuumorbypurgingwithanothergas,suchashelium,can
affect thermal conductivity. Helium is used because it has a lower condensation temperature
thanhydrogen.
Thermal expansion coefficient, which is important when materials with differing CTEs are
joined. In the case of polymer foams bonded to metal tank structures which undergo wide
thermal cycling, mismatch of CTE can provoke shear failures along the bondline at the tank
metalsurfaceorcrackingintheinsulationnormaltothetanksurface.Reductionofcrackingby
useoffoamscontainingalowlevelofshortfibrereinforcementhasbeenconsidered.
Gaspermeability.Wherethefoamisindirectcontactwithhydrogen,hydrogenabsorbedbythe
foamcanaffectthethermalconductivityorembrittleit.
Flammability. Some foams have a fire retardant component added to improve self
extinguishingcharacteristics.Thiscanbenecessarybecauseatlowtemperaturesthepresenceof
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oxygenrich condensate within an oxidisable organic foam could provoke an explosion. The
type of fire retardant used needs to ensure that a burning foam material does not have
increasedtoxicity.
71.22.4 Materials
71.22.4.1 Material selection

Mostcommercialpolymerfoamsaredevelopedforindustrialneedsratherthantherigorousdemands
ofreusablespacesystems.Afirstscreening,largelybasedonmanufacturersdata,forgoodthermal
insulation at high and low temperature, identified materials for further investigation. These are
Table71.221Cryogenicinsulation:Polymerfoamcandidatematerials
SOLIMIDE ELASTOPOR
AIREX
Jehier Elastogran
AlusuisseAirexAG(CH)
Properties(1) Spatial(F) GmbH(D)
PI -
Polyisocyanura
PEI - polyetherimide polyimide
te
Type (densified)
Thermoplast
Thermoplastic Thermoplastic Thermoset
ic
217 217
Tg (C) (2) 150 (4)
amorphous amorphous
Cell structure (% closed
>95 >95 60 to 90 >97
cells)
Foaming agent (6) not stated not stated not stated not stated
Density (kg/m3) (5) 80 110 70 62
Elastic-
Elastic-plastic Elastic-plastic Elastic-plastic
Mechanical response plastic
Rigid Rigid Rigid
Flexible
Modulus, compressive, RT
54 94 - -
(MPa)
Modulus, tensile, RT
52 78 - -
(MPa)
Strength, compressive, RT
1 1.7 0.14 (3) 0.32
(MPa)
Strength, tensile, RT
1.8 2.7 0.53 0.5
(MPa)
Thermal conductivity, RT
37 27 15 23
(W/mK)
Key: (1)Manufacturersdata
(2)NoTgormeltingbeforethermaldecompositionatabout500C
(3)40%deflection,parallel.
(4)softeningpoint
(5)Commerciallyavailabledensities.
(6)Proprietarymanufacturersinformation(notdisclosed)
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71.22.4.2 Evaluation
Eachcandidatematerialwassubjecttoaseriesofevaluations,including,Ref.[7192]:
Microscopy to determine the internal structure of the foam, e.g. cell distribution, cell shape,
averagecelldimensions,cellwallthickness,variationsincellstructurethroughoutthefoam.
Mechanical properties, at 197C (liquid nitrogen), 23C and 150C, to determine elastic limit,
tensileandcompressivemodulus,tensileandcompressivestrengthandelongationtofracture
(usingISOstandardtestprocedures).
Mechanicalproperties,postthermalcycling,usingcompressiontestsonly.
71.22.4.3 Foam structure

Fromthemicroscopy,theinternalstructureofElastoporpolyisocyanuratefoamappearedsomewhat
anisotropic due to the presence of elongated cells in the foaming direction compared with the
perpendiculardirection.BothAirexgradesandSolimidefoamsshowedanisotropicinternalfoam
structure.
71.22.4.4 Foam mechanical properties

Table71.22.2providesasummaryofthemechanicaltestresultsforthecandidatematerials,Ref.[71
92].ThevaluesdeterminedduringtestingbyESTECtendtobelowerthanthemanufacturersdata.
For the intended LH cryotank concepts, [See: 71.19], Elastopor polyisocyanurate and Airex
polyetherimide grades met the necessary strength between 196C and 150C, i.e. the target
compressivestrengthof0.3MPa.Theresultsat196Careonlyindicativeofthematerialperformance
atthetrueservicetemperatureof253C.Hence,forcontactwithLH,thebrittlenessandhighstiffness
oftheAirex110kg/m3gradeandElastoporcouldbeproblematic.
Solimide densified polyimide, whilst exhibiting good elongation characteristics, did not have
sufficientstrengthforuseininternalcryotankinsulationapplications.
Nosignificantchangeswerenotedinthecompressivemechanicalpropertiesofmaterialsafterthermal
cycling between 180C and +150C. No microcracks or other damage was observed visually in
specimensafterthermalcycling.Aconcernwasthatbrittlematerialsexperiencingthermalshockwere
likelytocrack.
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Table71.222Cryogenicinsulation:Polymerfoammechanicalproperties
Commerciallyavailablepolymerfoamgrades
AIREX AIREX
SOLIMIDE ELASTOPOR
80kg/m 3 110kg/m3
R82.80 R82.110 H2130/14
PEI PEI PIpolyimide
Polymertype Polyisocyanurate
polyetherimide polyetherimide (densified)
Compressiveproperties(4)
Modulus (MPa):
196C 20.08 27.20 0.51 15.81
+23C 19.18 24.25 0.31 12.99
+150C 13.02 20.23 0.24 7.33
Strength (MPa):
196C 1.61 2.48 (3) 0.05 (3) 0.99
+23C 1.13 1.95 0.03 (3) 0.67
+150C 0.60 1.07 0.02 (3) 0.40 (3)
Elongation (%):
196C 5.35 7.20 14.64 4.25
+23C 4.55 6.55 14.10 3.70
+150C 3.73 4.68 12.80 3.50
Tensileproperties(4)
Modulus (MPa):
196C 47.03 70.13 2.77 14.36
+23C 32.74 44.99 1.86 5.62
+150C 14.25 26.18 2.43 -
Strength (1) (MPa):
196C 1.70 2.49 0.18 0.21
+23C 1.86 2.96 0.19 0.19
+150C 1.18 1.70 0.20 -
Elongation (2) (%):
196C 5.13 3.87 6.87 2.80
+23C 7.27 7.83 10.60 4.05
+150C 18.27 26.47 12.73 -
Key: (1)UTS (3)Strengthat10%compression
(2)Ultimateelongation (4)Averagevaluesofatleast3samples
71.22.5 Ranking of polymer foam cryogenic insulation
71.22.5.1 Criteria
A number of interrelated characteristics of polymer foams need to be considered for their use as
insulation materials in reusable LH tanks. These characteristics are proposed as criteria for use in
ranking potential materials for cryotank applications; where, in general, the higher the number the
better.
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The criteria, known as quality grade numbers, along with the values obtained for the materials
investigated,aresummarisedinTable71.22.3,Ref.[7192].Thevaluesgivenareforroomtemperature
andneedtobedeterminedatbothhighandlowtemperatures.
Theclosedcellcontentoffoamsisimportantinbothexternallyandinternallyappliedinsulationfor
LHtanks.Forinternalinsulation,hydrogenpenetrationofthefoamcanaffectthermalconductivity.In
cases where interaction between hydrogen and the insulation results in embrittlement, a surface
coatingappliedtothefoamisanoption,butthisincreasesthemassandcomplexityoftheinsulation
system. It also complicates the quality assurance, inservice inspection, maintenance and repair
activities.
Table71.223Cryogenicinsulation:Rankingcriteriaandvalues
Criteria(1)
1 Indicator for light-weight, high-performance
1
insulation.
f comp As for criteria 1, but also takes into account the
material compressive strength, e.g. applicable to
2 internal tank insulation supporting loads from
fuel.
Low-to-high Indicator of resistance to structural degradation
temperature over a wide temperature range; usually measured
3
resistance (C) by DSC dynamic scanning calorimetry or TGA
thermogravimetric analysis techniques.
Closed-cell content Indicator of material cell stability and gas
4
permeability.
Key: (1)where:fcomp =foamcompressivestrength(MPa);=materialdensity(kg/m3);=thermal
conductivity(W/mK)
Rankingofpolymerfoamsat23C:
AIREX AIREX
Criteria(1) SOLIMIDE ELASTOPOR
80kg/m3 110kg/m3
1 0.34 0.34 0.95 0.70
2 0.38 0.66 0.03 0.47
3 190 / 180 190 / 180 250 / 250 * / 180
4 high high low high
Key: *notstated (1)Criteria1and2usemanufacturersdatafordensityandthermal
conductivity
71.22.5.2 Summary
Basedontheexperimentaldata,themainconclusionswerethat:
Airex80gradeappearedthebestsuitedforinternalinsulation.
Airex110grade,althoughhavinghighstrength,wasbrittleatlowtemperature.
Elastoporshowedadequatestrengthforinternalinsulation,butwasbrittleatlowtemperature.
Solimidehasinsufficientstrengthandstiffnessforinternaltankinsulationbutisacandidate
forexternaluses.
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71.22.6 Further work

Furtherworkwasproposedforthetwobestmaterialsfromtheinitialevaluationstagetocompletethe
data for actual service temperatures, i.e. mechanical and thermal performances at liquid hydrogen
temperatures.
Foractualapplications,someotherimportantfactorstoconsiderinclude:
Selectionandperformanceofbondingmaterialsandsuitableprocessesforattachinginsulation
totankstructures,eitherinternallyandexternally.
Longterm effects of liquid hydrogen contact on foam materials (internal insulation), e.g. to
establishifasurfacecoatingisnecessaryandtheimplicationsfortheoverallconcept,e.g.mass
andcomplexity.
Effects of space or other environmental interactions on the longterm performance of foams
appliedexternallytotankwallsandbeneathTPS.
Means of inspection, maintenance and repair for the overall cryotank protection system, i.e.
tankinsulationplusTPSsystem.
71.23 High temperature insulation (HTI)
71.23.1 Background
IntheX38noseconeandchinstrapdesigndevelopment,theneedwasidentifiedforflexiblefibrous
insulation, under the CMC shell, to protect the substructure. External temperatures of up to 1750C
arereachedinthestagnationareaduringreentry.ThedevelopmentoftheoverallTPSsystemforthe
nose assembly was a collaborative exercise conducted by Astrium SI (now EADSST GmbH), DLR
StuttgartandMANTechnologieinGermany.
TheoverallX38nosecapTPSsystemcomprised,Ref.[7195],[7196]:
RigidC/SiCpanels(externalsurface).
Flexible insulation blankets, which were used to fill the remaining volume between the
substructureandtheC/SiCnoseshell.Differenttypesofinsulationwereused,Ref.[7195],[71
96]:
IFI (internal flexible insulation) on the cold substructure. This was an spinoff from
existingFEIblankets,[See:71.11].
HTI(hightemperatureinsulation)ontheouterregions,whichwasanewdevelopmentto
providehigherthermalperformancethanexistingFEIandIFIproducts.
TheflexibleinsulationcomponentsweredevelopedbyAstriumSI(Bremen),Ref.[7195],[7196];[See
also:70.24X38nosecap].
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71.23.2 Development factors
ThedevelopmentaimoftheHTIwastoproduceaninsulationmaterialthatkeptthetemperatureat
theinner,IFIinterfacewithinthespecifiedlimits.HTIneededtobeflexibleandtoretainitsflexibility
atelevatedtemperatureswithpotentialmultipleusecapabilities,Ref.[7195],[7196].
Any gaps that form due to shrinkage will reduce the insulation performance, so, to meet the
objectives,thishadtobeavoided.Testsfocussedmainlyontheselectionofappropriatematerialsto
avoidshrinkage,Ref.[7195],[7196].
HTIdevelopmentinvolvedsomedifficultandcomplexchallenges,whicharediscussedfurther,Ref.
[7195],[7196].
71.23.2.2 Technology-related
Thevarioustechnologyrelatedfactorsincluded,Ref.[7196].
Fibrousceramicmaterialstendtobecomebrittleandbegintolooseflexibilityattheextremely
hightemperaturesexperiencedintheX38noseskirt(upto1550C)andnosecap(1750C).
Potential multipleuse capability: If feasible, large areas of reusable HTI can be a means of
reducingrefurbishmentcosts.
Complexmanufacturingduetocomplexshapesandsmallradii,i.e.3Dgeometries,manycut
outsandradiiaround500mm.
71.23.2.3 Technical-related
Varioustechnicalfactorsareconsideredincluding,Ref.[7196]:
Sizerestrictions:UnlikeFEI,bothHTIandIFIblanketsarenotonlyrestrictedattheirsides(x
and ydirection), but also in thickness. Hence, manufacturing tolerances are stricter because
thereislessroomtocompensateformanufacturinginaccuracies.
Large number of sensors: The HTI design had to accommodate a multitude of sensors, some
penetratinginsulationlayers,e.g.
standardthermocouples,
acousticemission,fromKayserThrede,
PYREXsensors,fromtheInstituteforSpaceSystemsIRS,StuttgartUniversity,
Large number of interfaces: Several crucial structural hardware items interface with the
insulation,e.g.
Standoffsforsideandchinpanels.
Nosecapattachments.
Pressureports.
Feedlines.
Complexnoseassemblyintegrationprocedure:Owingtolimitedaccessfromtheinsideofthe
X38 vehicle for integration, special care was needed during design to ensure access to all
relevantcomponentsateachstepoftheintegrationprocedure.
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71.23.2.4 Configuration-related
Thevariousconfigurationfactorsincluded,Ref.[7196].
Largenumberofinternationalpartnersinvolvedintheproject.
Insulationpartswerelastinthechain,soanydesignchangewithinthenoseareausuallyhada
directaffectontheinsulationdesign,e.g.crucialitems,suchasthepositionsofthesidepanel
standoffs and the routing of the pressure port feed lines, were changed several times,
comparativelylateintheproject.
71.23.3 Development apoproach
71.23.3.1 Test philosophy and plan

Thevariousdevelopmenttestsperformedincluded,Ref.[7196]:
Characterisation of a range of materials, e.g. resistance to thermal ageing, shrinkage, strength
(compressiveandtensile).
Materialselection,basedontheresultsofcharacterisationtestsidentifiedthosebestsuitedfor
theapplication.
Additional tests in different configurations, e.g. additional thermal cycling and compression
tests, a plasma test, a random vibration test and a temperature gradient and thermal
conductivitytest.
Table 71.23.1 summarises the development tests for HTI. The flow diagram for testing is shown in
Figure71.23.1,Ref.[7196].
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Table71.231TPS:HTIdevelopmenttestsforX38nosecapassembly
Test Objectives TestParameter TestArticle Facility
1300C < T <
Characterisation of HTI Various Al2O3-
1750C
Thermal materials (shrinkage, and ZrO2-based EADS-ST
Various time
Stability compressibility, tensile duration (20 min < t felts, fabrics, Bremen
strength) threads
< 2 h)
Characterisation of
Thermal 1300C < T <
additional HTI
Stabilityof protection layers 1750C Hafnia-based EADS-ST
Protection (shrinkage, 3 temperature felts Bremen
cycles
Layers compressibility)
Characterisation
Random X-38 Random Selected Al2O3-
(structural integrity) EADS-ST
Vibration after Random vibration Vibration Design and ZrO2-felts
Trauen
Test Environment and fabrics
loads
1200C < T <
Characterisation of HTI 1900C
PlasmaTest blankets (shrinkage) HTI blankets DLR Cologne
pstatic = 2-4 mbar
pstagn. = 53 mbar
Thermal
Characterisation of HTI
Conductivit
core material (thermal T < 1750C Al2O3-based core TsAGI,
yatHigh conductivity at high 3 Pa < p < 105 Pa material Russia
Temperatur temperatures)
es
Functional verification
1350C < T <
Temperatur by exact HTI blankets
1750C EADS-ST
eGradient characterisation of HTI 3 temperature
(final
Bremen
Test shrinkage at various configuration)
cycles
temperatures
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Development Tests
X-38 Nose Cap assembly
HTI
Components Blankets
Thermal
Stability and
compression
Random
tests (fabrics,
Vibration Test
core material,
threads)
Configuration Plasma Test

Pre-Selection
Components Baseline
(Option) Configuration
Selection
Loop only if
necessary
Thermal Stability of
Protection Layers Temperature Gradient
Test
Measurement of
Option Thermal Conductivity
Yes/No
Finished Product
EADS TsAGI DLR
Figure71.231TPS:FlowdiagramofHTIdevelopmenttestingforX38nosecap
assembly
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71.23.4 Materials
Therangeofdifferenttypesofceramicfibrefelts,fleeces,fabricsandthreadsexaminedatthestartof
theHTIdevelopmentaregiveninTable71.23.2,Ref.[7196].
Table71.232TPS:HTIcandidatematerials
Name Composition Density(kg/m3)
ERN-CV-5A
ERN-CV-7A
FibreFelts Alumina-based 30-120
ERN-CV-11A
andFleeces
ERN-CV-12A
ERN-CV-13Z Zirconia-based 300
- Hafnia-based 300
ERN-CT-10A6 Alumina-based -
Fabrics ERN-CT-11Z4 Zirconia-based -
- Hafnia-based -
Threads ERN-CF-7A3 Alumina-based -
71.23.5 Testing
71.23.5.1 General
TheresultsfromtwoimportanttestshadamajoreffectonthefinalHTIdesign,Ref.[7196]:
Thermalcyclingtest,whichwasthebasisforthematerialselectionprocess.
Temperaturegradienttest,usingHTIblanketsamplesintheirfinalconfigurationunderquasi
realistictemperaturecycling.
71.23.5.2 Thermal stability

Thermalstabilityandcompressiontestsweredividedintothesemajorsteps,Ref.[7196]:
Step 1: Shrinkage and compression behaviour after thermal ageing at elevated temperatures
(between1400Cand1750C)ofdifferentfibrefeltmaterials.
Step 2: Test parameters adapted to X38 mission conditions and applied to materials selected
fromthepreviousstep.
Step3:Influenceofthedurationofthermalageingandthevarioustemperaturecyclesonfelts.
Samplesofceramicfabricsandthreadswereagedundersimilarconditionsandlatersubjected
toatensilestrengthtesting.
Step 4: Hafnia (HfO2) felt and fabric was also examined as a possible protective layer for the
actualHTIblanket,intheareawheretemperaturesexceed1600C.Itwasnotconsideredasan
HTIcandidatematerialbecauseofitshighprice.
Table 71.23.3 summarises the results of the thermal stability evaluation of candidate HTI materials,
Ref.[7196].
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Table71.233TPS:HTIthermalstabilitytestresults
T(C) Result Comment
Shrinkage: Virtually no effect on ERN-CV-13Z was excluded from
samples was detected. further thermal testing due to
1400 Embrittlement: ERN-CV-13Z is embrittlement at 1400C. Data
slightly affected at the from the Random Vibration Test
temperature. confirmed decision.
All samples show high shrinkage, Shrinkage levels indicate test
especially perpendicular to main conditions are critical for
1600 fibre direction (20% - 40%). materials.
ERN-CV-13Z (zirconia-based) Test conditions adapted to
1 exhibits high embrittlement. simulate better the foreseen
mission, i.e. duration of thermal
ageing reduced to 60 min (3 re-
entry cycles, qualification);
Detailed temperature grid for
1750
Shrinkage increased (20% - 70%) testing was chosen.
C
Thermalstabilityteststep(1)
Detailed recording of test sample

dimensions for precise material
shrinkage data, i.e. before and
after thermal ageing.
Shrinkage: Alumina-based (ERN-
-11A and -12A: ~1-2% even
Below CV-11A) virtually none; Alumina-
negative shrinkage, i.e. increase
1550 based (ERN-CV-5A; ERN-CV-
in thickness, measured in some
C 12A) less shrinkage than in Step
cases.
1
2 At 1750C, shrinkage of all
Shrinkage: ERN-CV-11A loss of
Above samples is drastically reduced
advantage seen <1550C; ERN-
1550 compared with Step 1 (about 2-3%
CV-5A and -12A appear best
C in x- and y-direction, 13-23% in z-
suited for the application.
direction).
ERN-CT-11Z4 (zirconia-based)
1400 ERN-CT-11Z4 omitted from test
fabric lost nearly all its
C programme.
mechanical strength.
3 Alumina-based fabric: tensile

(2) strength reduced to 30% of the Alumina-based fabric and thread:
1450
value at RT. Alumina-based Maximum use temperature below
C
thread: tensile strength reduced 1450C.
to 25% of original value.
Similar to the zirconia-based
Hafnia-based material: very low
fabric, impossible to test after
4 - tensile strength at all
exposure to temperatures of
temperatures
1600C due to high brittleness.
Key:(1)Table71.23.2Materials;(2)Fabricsandthreads(Step1andStep2).
71.23.5.3 Material selection based on thermal stability

Theresultsofthethermalstabilitytestprogrammeenabledselectionofthemostsuitablematerialsfor
HTI, along with observations relating to the design and integration of insulation for the intended
application.Thefindingscanbesummarisedas,Ref.[7196]:
Zirconiabased felt (ERNCV13Z) exhibits high embrittlement and shrinkage at temperatures
aslowas1350C.Despiteitssuperiorinsulationproperties,itwasomittedfromfurthertesting.
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Aluminabased materials (ERNCV5A, 11A and 12A) appear suitable for the application as
flexible seals and was considered best suited as core material. They were subjected to further
testing.
Aluminabased ERNCV11A was not considered suitable for the HTI because of the higher
silicacontent,whichcauseshighshrinkageatelevatedtemperatures.
ERNCT10A6 fabric (aluminaborosilicate) exhibits far better residual strength after thermal
ageingthanzirconiabasedfabric(ERNCT11ZA),whichwasomittedfromfurthertesting.
The material needs to be precompressed to prevent excessive shrinkage. Owing to the
integration sequence and geometrical restraints, the HTI cannot be compressed during
integration.Therefore,ERNCF7A3threadsareusedtocompressthecorematerial.Apartialor
completefailureofthethreadsduringthehotphasedoesnotaffecttheperformanceoftheHTI,
sincetheblanketcanexpandonceitisintegratedintotheceramicstructure.
Theblanketdensityneedstobeashighaspossibleinordertoreducetheradiativeconduction.
However,manufacturingrestraintsmeantthatthedensitywaslimitedto140kg/m3.
71.23.5.4 Temperature gradient test

Basedonthefindingsofthestabilitytestinthegeneralmaterialselectionprocess,theobjectiveofthe
gradient test was to define the HTI blanket configurationand refine the test parameters tooptimise
testinginthecriticaltemperaturerange.
To accurately simulate reentry conditions, both the maximum temperatures and the temperature
gradientsthroughtheinsulationarereproduced.
Figure 71.23.2 shows the gradient test experimental setup, the parameters and the sample
configuration,Ref.[7196].
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Control thermoelements (blanket
surface and blanket backside)
Heaters
HTI-Sample
Heat sink (alumina-

fibre boards)
Gradient test sample holder configuration (schematic)
Parameters:
Temperature levels Temperature levels Temperature
Run No. Duration, (min)
at upper surface (C) at lower surface (C) gradient (C)
0 1255 792 to 879 465-375 10
1 1625 1271 to 1349 355-275 10
2 1725 1430 to 1500 (1) 295-225 10
3 1725 1529 to1650 (1) 195-0 30
4 1725 1725 (2) - 30
5 1650 1650 (2) - 10
Key: (1) extrapolated; backside thermocouple removed at 1360C; (2) without test fixture
Sample configuration:
Outer and Core density Dimensions
Test Sample Thread Core
inner fabric (kg/m3) (mm)
HTI-903
HTI-904
HTI-905 No fabric ERN-CF-8A3 ERN-CV-5A 142 150 150 20
HTI-906
HTI-907

Figure71.232TPS:HTItemperaturegradienttestsetup,parametersandsample
configuration
Theresultsofthegradienttestscanbesummarisedas,Ref.[7196]:
Noshrinkagefortemperaturesupto1250C
At1625C,decreaseinthicknessamountedtolessthan0.5mm.Shrinkageinthemainblanket
planewasuptoabout1mmineachdirection.
Decrease in thickness at higher temperatures remained below 1.5 mm, even after prolonged
exposure(30minat1750C).
Thematerialattheedgeswasnotcompressedtothesamedensityasthemajorityoftheblanket
duetothesewingpattern.Therefore,trueshrinkageisprobablylessthanthemeasuredvalue.
Shrinkageinthemainblanketplaneincreasesastemperatureincreasesfrom1mmat1625Cto
about2mmafter30minat1750C.However,adisproportionateamountofthisshrinkage,is
probably due to the reduced density at the blanket edges. Therefore, larger blankets, having
relativelyreducededgeeffect,couldshowlessshrinkage.
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71.23.6 Summary
Considering all of the factors described, HTI, in its present baseline configuration, i.e. core material
only, no blankets and compressed by sewing with aluminoborosilicate thread, is suitable for
operationonasingleusevehiclesuchasX38.
Usingashrinkagetolerantdesign,i.e.anoversizedIFI(internalflexibleinsulation),[See:71.11],along
with compression of the insulation materials during integration, the decrease in thickness can be
compensatedforandtheformationofgapscanbeavoided.
Inplaneshrinkageislesscrucial.IfagapformsinHTI,thesubstructureisstillprotectedbytheIFI,
which is only locally overheated for a short time. This generally only results in a local increase in
stiffnessandembrittlementofthecoverfabricinthesmallareaaffected.
Verification of HTI, along with the overall insulation concept, formed part of the X38 NSA nose
structureassemblyqualificationtest.ThequestionofwhetherHTIcanbepartiallyorcompletelyre
usedwasdeferreduntilafterdisassemblyoftheNSAqualificationsample.
[Seealso:70.24X38Nosecap]
71.24 References
71.24.1.1 General
[711] ThermalProtectionforHypersonicTransports
AerospaceEngineering,July1991,p911
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ThermalProtectionDevelopmentofReentryVehiclesatNASDA.First
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SystemsESTEC,Noordwijk,57May1993.ESAWPP053(August1993)
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FabricationofPrepackagedSuperalloyHoneycombThermalProtection
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[7128] K.Handricketal
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ProceedingsofHTCMC1,BordeauxSept.1993.ISBN1855731436,
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forHermesSpaceplane.ESASymposiumonAdvancedMaterialsfor
LightweightStructures,March1992.ESASP336,p277284
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MaterialadvancesforlightweightTPS.ESASymposiumonAdvanced
MaterialsforLightweightStructures,March1992.ESASP336,p285290
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Systems.ProceedingsofECCM6,BordeauxSept.1993.ISBN185573142
8,p371378
[7132] J.Antonenkoetal:DASA/ERNO,(D)
AdvantagesandRestrictionsofFlexibleThermalProtectionConcepts.
Noordwijk,57May1993.ESAWPP053(August1993)p295301
[7133] C.Petiau
TheChallengeofHermesTPSShingles.ProceedingsoftheInternational
Conference:SpacecraftStructuresandMechanicalTesting,ESTEC,2426
April1991
ESASP321,p299308
HermesReorientationProgramme:PresentStatusandMainObjectives
forHotStructuresandThermalProtectionMaterialsandTechnologies.
FirstESA/ESTECWorkshoponThermalProtectionSystems,ESTEC,
Noordwijk,57May1993
[7135] A.Lacombeetal:SEP,(F)
StatusonC/SiCThermalStructures.FirstESA/ESTECWorkshopon
ThermalProtectionSystemsESTEC,Noordwijk,57May1993
[7136] K.H.Weber:MANTechnologie,(D)
ApplicationsofCeramicInsulationforWeightReductionofReentry
VehicleThermalProtectionSystems.FirstESA/ESTECWorkshopon
ThermalProtectionSystemsESTEC,Noordwijk,57May1993
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[7137] C.Petiau&A.Ajarrista:DassaultAviation,(F)
ConcurrentDesignofThermalProtectionSystems.FirstESA/ESTEC
1993.
[7138] T.D.Swanson
AdvancedTwoPhaseHeatTransferSystems.ProceedingsofaNASA
Workshop:CurrentTechnologyforThermalProtectionSystems,1112
Feb1992,LangleyResearchCentre,Virginia.NASAConferencePub.
3157,p251290
[7139] C.J.Camarda&D.E.Glass
ThermostructuralApplicationsofHeatPipesforCoolingLeadingEdges
ofHighSpeedAerospaceVehicles.ProceedingsofaNASAWorkshop:
CurrentTechnologyforThermalProtectionSystems,1112February
1992,LangleyResearchCentre,Virginia.
[7140] H.N.Kelly&M.L.Blosser
ActiveCoolingfromtheSixtiestoNASP
Virginia.
[7141] H.Lederetal
BerylliumThermalProtectionTechnology.Proc.International
April1991.
ESASP321October1991,p399404
[7142] A.Newerla&G.Wierheim:ESA/ESTEC/SiemensKWU
BerylliumComponentsforThermalProtectionSystems.First
LargeThinCompositeThermostructuralParts.Proc.International
April1991.
ESASP321October1991,p283291
[7144] Ch.Bonnetetal
StretchedSkinConceptfortheEntryAerodynamicDeceleratorSystem
ofPlanetaryProbesProceedingsoftheInternationalConference:
SpacecraftStructuresandMechanicalTesting,ESTEC,2426April1991.
ESASP321,p393398
[7145] T.Haugetal:DASA/Dornier,(D)
ShortManufacturingCycleCMCHeatShieldsandHotStructures.First
278
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[7146] U.Trabandtetal
DesignofHotStructuresofShortcycleManufacturedCMC.
ProceedingsofHTCMC1,BordeauxSept.1993
ISBN1855731436,p751758
[7147] U.Trabandt&J.Heitzer
DesignConceptsforLoadcarryingHotStructuresforReentryBodies.
[7148] G.E.E.Scoon,K.Keller&C.Bonnet:
ESA/ESTEC/DassaultAeroshellConceptsforMarsLanders.First
[7149] N.W.Dunbar:BAe,(UK)
InfluenceofTPSPerformanceonFutureSpaceTransportationConcepts.
[7150] C.Cornault&A.Paret:DassaultAviation
NonlinearAnalysisforOptimisationofThermalProtectionSystems.
[7151] H.K.H.Grallert&K.Vollmer:DASA,(D)
TPSMassEstimationforAdvancedTSTOVehiclesbymeansofa3D
SurfaceIntegrationofTemperatureDistribution.FirstESA/ESTEC
1993.
[7152] N.A.Anfimov&V.B.Knotko:Tsniimash,(Russia)
TestingandVerificationofReentryVehicleThermalProtection.First
[7153] K.K.O.Br&W.W.Jarzab:IABG,(D)
QualificationTestingofThermalProtectionSystemsTestTechnologies
andtheirApplications.FirstESA/ESTECWorkshoponThermal
ProtectionSystemsESTEC,Noordwijk,57May1993.
[7154] A.Ajarrista&C.Petiau:DassaultAviation,(F)
VerificationandAcceptanceofThermalProtectionSystems.First
Noordwijk,57May1993
[7155] J.M.Bouilly&D.Guerrir:Aerospatiale,(F)
279
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EntryTestingofAQ60forHuygens.FirstESA/ESTECWorkshopon
ThermalProtectionSystemsESTEC,Noordwijk,57May1993.
[7156] M.Kornmann&D.Richon:BattelleEurope,(CH)
ASimpleRigforThermalTestsofTPSinRealisticAtmosphere.First
[7157] E.Semeradetal:FS/ARC,(Austria)
ProgrammeofMaterialAssessmentRelevantforThermalProtection
Systems.FirstESA/ESTECWorkshoponThermalProtectionSystems
[7158] H.Stockflethetal:DASA/Dornier,(D)
C/SiCSurfaceProtectedAblatorforHighHeatFluxes.FirstESA/ESTEC
1993.
[7159] T.Arnoldetal
TheSEPCORETPSConcept:ALightweightModularThermostructural
HeatshieldforAtmosphericandPlanetaryEntrySystems.Proceedings
oftheInternationalSymposiumonAdvancedMaterialsforLightweight
Structures94.
ESAWPP070,March1994,p227234
[7160] H.Hald&P.Winkelmann
CeramicTileExperiment(CETEX)fortheEXPRESSCapsule.
ProceedingsoftheInternationalSymposiumonAdvancedMaterialsfor
LightweightStructures94
ESAWPP070,March1994,p621626
[7161] DornierGmbH/Battelle,(D/CH).
IntegrityControlforHighTemperatureStructuralApplications.
Europe/Aerospatialecombined programme,Phases1and2,ESTEC
Contract8807/90/NL/PP(SC),Finalreports1993&1995
[7162] FESTIP9596:TechnologyDevelopmentsinMaterials
MidTermReview,28&29May1996,ESTEC
[7163] G.H.Fauvel
Experiencesinexperimentalinvestigationsonthermalcharacterisation
oflightweightfibrousinsulationforreentryspacecraftTPS.Conference
onSpacecraftStructures,Materials&MechanicalTesting,Noordwijk,
NL,2729March1996.ESASP386,Vol.3,p10491056
[7164] H.Haldetal
DesignofaCMCbasedthermalprotectionsystemforthecryogenictank
ofareusablespacetransportationsystem.ConferenceonSpacecraft
Structures,Materials&MechanicalTesting,Noordwijk,NL,2729March
1996.ESASP386,Volume3,p10571064
[7165] D.G.Sygulla
280
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Experiencesindesignandtestingofceramicshinglethermalprotection
systems:Areview.ConferenceonSpacecraftStructures,Materials&
MechanicalTesting,Noordwijk,NL,2729March1996.
ESASP386,Volume3,p12571266
[7166] FESTIPYearlyWorkshop:Compilationofpresentations,17thand18th
October1996atESTEC,Noordwijk,NL.
[7167] DassaultAviation&Dornier,DaimlerBenzAerospace,(D)
SemiIntegratedAeroshellTPS(S.I.A.TStudy)FinalReport.Document
DGTNo.67933,September30th1996
ESAContract11208/94/NL/FG
[7168] DassaultAviation&Dornier,DaimlerBenzAerospace,(D)
SemiIntegratedAeroshellTPS(S.I.A.TStudy).FinalPresentations&
ExecutiveSummary,October4th1996.
[7169] DeutscheAerospaceStudyonThermalProtectionforAdvanced
LaunchersESAWLCTSTOconfiguration.
Finalreportforperiod199293forworkconductedbyDASART
(formerlyMBBOttobrunn);DASARS(Dornier),DASACentral
Laboratories(Ottobrunn);IABG(Ottobrunn);ARCAustrianResearch
Centre(Seibersdorf);Alenia(Turin).
[7170] MANTechnologieAG,(D)
MannedSpaceTransportationProgramme(MSTP)CeramicHeatshield
Assembly(CHA).TechnicalSynthesisReportHTTNG4020028MAN,
October1996.
[7171] MANTechnologieAGetal.,(D)
MannedSpaceTransportationProgramme(MSTP)CeramicHeatshield
Assembly(CHA).ExecutiveSummaryReport.MANTechnologieAG
withSEP;Dassault;IABG;IMFTMacaero;ZAEWrzburg;OEFZ
Seibersdorf;NPOMolniya;TSAGI.September1996
[7172] SEPSocitEuropenedePropulsion,(F)
ManufacturingofCSiCPanelsfortheCeramicHeatshieldAssembly
(CHA)forMSTP.ExecutiveSummaryGPE/DC9631369,June1996
[7173] DaimlerBenzAerospace,Bremen,(D)
MSTPTechnologyPhase1FlexibleExternalInsulation(FEI).Executive
SummaryReport,February1996.
ESAContractNo.11082/94/F/BM
[7174] DaimlerBenzAerospace,RaumfahrtInfrastruktur(Dornier).
AlternativeLowCostShortManufacturingCycleCeramicAssessment
Programme(ALSCAP)FinalReport:TestAssessmentReportHTFR
G401001DOR.November1996.ESAContractNo:AO/12897/94/F/BM
[7175] ALSCAPFinalPresentationsatESTEC:1stOctober1996.Contributions
from:
i)DaimlerBenzAerospace,Dornier&MANTechnologie
ii)SEP&Aerospatiale:Demonstrationpartmanufacturing
iii)DLR:Oxidationtests.
iv)M3D(Battelle):Mechanicaltesting
v)ONERA:BLOXoxidationtests
281
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vi)FZSeibersdorf:testingofthermophysicalproperties.
[7176] P.Demuysreetal
A.R.DStructuresDevelopmentandManufacturing.Conferenceon
SpacecraftStructures,Materials&MechanicalTesting,Noordwijk,NL,
2729March1996.ESASP386,Volume3,p13671374
[7177] ProceedingsoftheSecondEuropeanWorkshoponThermalProtection
Systems,Stuttgart,2325October1995.
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[7178] D.Scheulenetal:DornierSatellitensysteme,(D)
TheSurfaceProtectedAblatorHeatshieldofMIRKA:Development,
qualification&flightresults.ThirdEuropeanWorkshoponThermal
ProtectionSystemsNoordwijk,NL,2527March1998.
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Development,Performance&ApplicationPotentialoftheSurface
ProtectedAblatorConceptusedfortheMIRKAReentryCapsule
Heatshield.ThirdEuropeanWorkshoponThermalProtectionSystems
Noordwijk,NL,2527March1998.
[7180] M.Giegerichetal:MANTechnologie,(D)
FlightTestVerificationofCurrentGenerationCeramicbasedTPS.
ThirdEuropeanWorkshoponThermalProtectionSystemsNoordwijk,
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[7181] ProceedingsoftheThirdEuropeanWorkshoponThermalProtection
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[7182] B.Fornarietal.:AleniaSpazio,(I)
ALS051:AnAblativeMaterialforReentryCapsules.SecondEuropean
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nosecap.ThirdEuropeanWorkshoponThermalProtectionSystems
Noordwijk,NL,2527March1998.
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CMCElevonDesignConceptsforX33/RLV[Abstract].
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Design&ManufactureofCMCComponentsforReentryVehicles.
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NL,2527March1998.
[7186] H.Lange&M.Bickel:MANTechnologie,(D)
CMCfastenersforHotStructures.
NL,2527March1998.
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PrivateCommunication,April1997.
282
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[7188] J.Antonenkoetal:DaimlerBenz,(D)
RecentAdvancesoftheFlexibleExternalInsulation.
NL,2527March1998.
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CMCBodyFlapforNASAsX38TestVehicle.
NL,2527March1998.
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CMCHingeJointsforHotStructures.
NL,2527March1998.
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DynamicSealingofHotCMCControlSurfaces.
NL,2527March1998.
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[7193] Characterisationofpolymericfoamsfortheinsulationofcryogenictanks
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AMTTAerospaceMaterialsTechnologyTesthouse,Seidersdorf;
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SurfaceProtectedFlexibleInsulationSPFIAnewOxideCeramicbased
TPS
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HighTemperatureInsulationHTIandIFI:PerformanceanddataforX
38nosecapandnoseskirtapplication
[7197] TheColumbiaAccidentInvestigationBoardReport
108thCongressScienceCommitteeHearingSeptember2003
http://commdocs.house.gov/committees/science/
PublicationNo.:hsy89216.000
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72
SPF/DB titanium designs
72.1 Introduction
72.1.1 General
Superplastic forming is a singleshot manufacturing technique applied to complex designs usually
with integral stiffening. When combined with diffusion bonding, the process becomes particularly
versatile. Combined design, manufacturing and materials selection can produce costeffective
constructions.
Titaniumalloyshavebeenthepreferredmaterials,startingwithTi6Al4V.Aluminiumalloyscanalso
beusedbutthediffusionbondingismoredifficult,owingtothetenacityoftheoxidefilm.
72.1.2 Aircraft components

TherearenumerouspotentialapplicationsforSPF/DBtitaniuminaircraftconstructions.Whenithas
beenapplied,thecosteffectivenessoftheprocesshasbeenthemaindriverratherthananyinherent
need to use the hightemperature characteristics of titanium. The ability to use minimum gauge
sectionsinconjunctionwiththegoodstiffnessandstrengthcharacteristicsoftitaniumhasnegatedits
higher density compared with aluminium alloys or CFRP. The route has been identified as offering
technical solutions to some spacecraft requirements where stability, but not hightemperature
performance,isnecessary,Ref.[721],[722].
72.1.3 Space applications

Thehightemperaturecapabilitiesoftitaniummaterialsaremoreimportantinspaceplaneapplications
and the SPF/DB route is the preferred manufacturing method. In the drive to use materials at the
highestpossibletemperatures,moreadvancedalloysthanTi6Al4Vhavebeenemployed,including
titaniumaluminides.
ThischapterhighlightsthetypeofcomponentsandstructuresalreadymadebytheTiSPF/DBroute
andthepossibleapplicationsforthenewermaterials.
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72.2 Basic SPF/DB process
72.2.1 Superplastic forming

SPFusestheabilitytoslowlydeformandelongateamaterialbyseveralhundredpercent.Whenthe
materialinsheetformisclampedbetweenthefacesofasteelmoulditcanbepressurisedtoconform
to the internal mould profile. Titanium alloys deform in the temperature range 900C to 1000C.
Deformationstrainratesareslowandcontrolled,soprocessingcantakeseveralhours.
72.2.2 Diffusion bonding

Whentwosheetsarepressedincontactandheatedtoasufficienttemperature,diffusionbonding(DB)
occurs,givingajointwhichismetallurgicallyundetectable.Bondstrengthsareequivalenttothoseof
the parent alloy. If a masking material is used, only exposed areas are bonded. Stacks of masked
sheetsareprebondedbeforebeingplacedintheSPFmouldfacility.
Theprocesscanencompasstwotofoursheetconfigurations,asshowninFigure72.2.1,Figure72.2.2
and Figure 72.2.3. The four sheet construction enables complex integral stiffening and double wall
thickness to be produced by enabling additional bonding to occur in conjunction with the forming
cycle.ThesearefromtheThinSheetroute,however,Massivediffusionbondingcanbeusedonthick
plateforloadbearingstructuressuchasfirewalls.
Figure72.21SPF/DB:Twosheetconfiguration
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Figure72.22SPF/DB:Threesheetconfiguration
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Figure72.23SPF/DB:Foursheetconfiguration
72.3 Process attributes

TheessentialfeaturesoftheSPF/DBprocesswhichmakethemanufactureoftitaniumstructurescost
andweighteffectiveare:
theprocessemployssimpletitaniumstartingblankforms;
simultaneousformingandjoiningprocessesareindependentofcomponentsize;
partscountsarereduced;
fastenersandadhesivesareeliminated;
stabilisingfeaturescanbeintroducedatlowcost;
amaterialwithhighspecificpropertiesandcorrosionresistancecanbeused;
itisattractiveformediumproductionrunsofbetweentensandseveralhundredsofunitsper
annum.
These attributes have been defined by aircraft manufacturing practices, where the majority of the
experienceandfacilitiesarefound.
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72.4 Titanium alloys

ThetitaniumalloyTi6Al4VremainsthemostpopularchoiceforSPF/DBprimarilybecauseofits
wideavailability.ThereisnoreasonwhyotheralloyscannotbeusedasTable72.04.1indicates,Ref.
[723].However,availabilityofsheetinthedesiredthicknessisalimitingfactor.
Table72.41Titaniumalloys:Superplasticcharacteristics
Test StrainRate
Strainrate Elongation
Alloy temperature sensitivityfactor
(x104s1) (%)
(C) (m)
Commerciallypure 850 1.7 - 115

Ti
Alloys
Ti-6Al-4V 840-870 1.3 to 10-3 0.75 750-1170
Ti-4.5Al-5V 850 8 0.70 700-1100
Ti-6Al-2Sn-4Zr-2Mo 900 2 0.67 538
Ti-4.5Al-5Mo-1.5Cr 870 2 0.63-0.81 >510
Ti6Al-4V-2Ni 815 2 0.85 720
Ti-6Al-4V-2Co 815 2 0.53 670
Ti-6Al-4V-2Fe 815 2 0.54 650
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn 1000 2 0.49 420
NearandAlloys
Ti-15V-3Sn-3Cr-3Al 815 2 0.5 229
Ti-13Cr-11V-3Al 800 - - <150
Ti-8Mn 750 - 0.43 150
Ti-15Mo 800 - 0.6 100
A problem with the availability of the more advanced alloys was encountered during processing
studiesatDornier.Successfulformingtrialswereundertakenwith,Ref.[724],[725]:
IMI829,
IMI834(successortoIMI829),and
TimetTi1100.
[Seealso:Chapter47]
TheresultsoftheformabilitytrialsforIMI834,Ref.[726],aregiveninFigure72.04.1.
IMI834isbestformedat1000Cwithaformingpressureof2MPafor3hours.
[Seealso:Figure47.04.1]
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Figure72.41Superplasticforming:Strainratesensitivityinformabilitytrialson
TialloyIMI834
72.5 Aluminium alloys

TheSPFofaluminiumhasbeenappliedtoserialproductionofaircraftparts,Ref.[724].Supralisa
wellestablishedaluminiumsheetsuitableforforming.
Otheralloysformedinclude:
5083AlMgMn,
7475AlZnMgCu,and
Aluminiumlithium8090AlLiMgCu.
[Seealso:Chapter46]
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SPFpartsmadefromaluminiuminclude:
Dornier228aircraftpanels
AirbusA3207475fuselageinspectiondoor
A320tailcone
Aircraftfuselagesectionsin8090alloy
Sinewavesparsforverticalstabilisers
72.6 Access doors and ducting
72.6.1 General
ThefirstSPFtitaniumitemstobemanufacturedbyBAeforanAirbusaircraftwereTIGweldedslat
track and jack cans which were installed in the A310 aircraft in early 1982. These were followed in
1984byunderwingaccessdoorsforallsubsequentA320,A330andA340aircraft,Ref.[727].
72.6.2 Slat track/jack cans

ThesearelocatedinthefrontsparoftheA310aircraftattwopositionsineachwingwhere,uniquely
ontheA310,boththeslatoperatingtracksandjackendspenetratethroughthesparandintothefuel
tank,asshowninFigure72.06.1,Ref.[727].
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Figure72.61SPF/DBtitaniumalloy:SlattrackandjackforAirbusA310
This results in a space envelope requirement for the can of approximately rectangular cross section
500mmx250mmx120mm.Theunithastowithstandthecriticalconditionofresistancetofuelsurge
pressure in the wing associated with a crash landing. In this condition the unit has to remain fuel
tight,Ref.[727].
Thebasicconceptforthiscanisanintegrallystiffened,foursidedtaperedboxwitharadiusedend.
The starting thickness for the sheet titanium is 1.8mm which in places can be thinned to 0.7mm by
forming.Tolerancesofbetterthan0.25mmcanbemaintainedonthe500mmdimension.
72.6.3 Underwing access doors

The underwing access doors are full SPF/DB constructions. These doors are located at regular
intervalsalongtheundersideofthewingfueltanks,asshowninFigure72.06.2,Ref.[727].
Thereare24unitsontheA310aircraft.Thedoorsareeither:
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loadbearing,or
nonloadbearing.
Figure72.62SPF/DBTi:A310underwingaccessdoorlocations
The approximate door size is 500mm in length and 300mm in width, with an oval form and door
depthsvaryingaccordingtothelocalwingskinthickness.
Additionalrequirementswhichinfluenceddesignincluded:
fuelpressureloadingof4.5barinacrashsituation,
pressurefatigueresistance,
antifretperformance,
provisionofdoorclampingarrangement,
lighteningstrikeandfireresistance,
impactresistancefromrunwaydebris.
Initialblanksheetthicknesseswere0.8mm,givingminimumfinishedthicknessesof0.3mmto0.4mm.
Thedesignincorporatedseveralfeatures:
Integralstiffenersbetweenboltholesandacrosstheshortestspan,terminatingshortoftheseal
groovetoretainsealintegrity.
Peripheralbuttresses,locallythickenedtosupportboltloads.
Convolutions formed on the upper pressure face, which are more structurally efficient than a
flatskin.
Shortswagetypestiffenersaroundtheupperperipherytostiffenthepaneledges.
72.6.4 Other SPF/DB components

DuctingforTornadofighteraircraft.
Dornierpulleyboxforcommercialaircraft.
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72.7 Spars and stiffened panels

VariousaircraftcomponentshavebeenproposedformanufacturebySPF/DBtitanium,becauseofthe
ability to integrate stiffeners in whatever configuration is required in the available space, e.g. shear
panelsandsinewavespars.
ForNASPandSngertypeconstructions,thereisaheavycommitmenttothemoreversatiletitanium
technologiesforintermediatetemperaturestructures.
Stiffened skin panels in the higher performance and alloys and titanium aluminides are
candidatesforSPF/DB.
72.8 Struts and cylinders

BAeundertookastudyonthepossibilityofapplyingSPF/DBtothinwalledstrutsandcylindersfor
spacecraft,Ref.[722].
Theversatilityoftheprocesswasinvestigatedforflutedandcorrugateddesigns.
ItwasconcludedthatSPF/DBtitaniumdesignscancompetetechnicallywithmorewidelyusedCFRP
oraluminiumalloyconstructionsinsatellitestructures.
72.9 Leading edges and lateral fins

BAedemonstratedtheabilitytoproducetheir125series800aileroninSPF/DBtitaniumalloy.
Forinspaceplanes,bothDornierLuftfahrtandDassaultAviationhaveproducedwingleadingedges
inTi6Al4V,Ref.[724],[725].
Dornierusedamodifiedfoursheettechniquetocompensateforthechangeinsectiondepthmoving
inthedirectionawayfromthefrontsurface,asshowninFigure72.09.1,Ref.[725].
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Figure72.91SPF/DB:Principleoffoursheettechniqueforleadingedge
72.10 Firewalls
ThicksectionbulkheadsandfirewallshavebeenformedbySPF.
Theprimarybenefitsovermachinedplateversionsarethereductionsinmachiningcostsandmaterial
wastage.
72.11 Pressure vessels

Pressure vessel shells have been made by SPF with diameters up to 1000mm. The shells are
subsequently seam welded to form the full sphere. Such pressure vessels are used on the Shuttle
Orbiter.
SPFreplacedmachiningofshellsfromasolidblockofalloyonthegroundsofreducedcosts.
Thecoldrollingofalloys,suchasTi1533asundertakenbyMANTechnologie,canbeacheaper
processthanSPFbecauseitavoidshightemperatures(900Cto1000C).
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72.12 Cost aspects

SPF/DBtitaniumcomponentsarepromotedonthebasisofmassandcostefficiency.
For the serial production of aircraft components, cost savings of 40% to 50% are claimed over more
intensivemetalandcompositefabricationroutes.
The cost savings are application dependent, and mainly apply where complex integrallystiffened
designsareneededwithinrestricteddimensions.
72.13 European facilities

Within aircraft construction, SPF/DB technology tends to be applied only where other fabrication
routescannotproducecosteffectivedesignsbecauseofcomponentshapecomplexity.
Companies with the expertise and facilities to produce components of up to several metres in size
include:
AleniaAeronautica(Turin,I).
BritishAerospace(Filton,UK).
DassaultAviation(F).
DornierLuftfahrt(D).
Space applications requiring only a few items of any one design favour the SPF/DB method, in
particular,spaceplanedevelopments.
72.14 References
72.14.1 General
[721] A.K.Green
GuidelinesfortheUseofSuperplasticFormingofMetalsinSpacecraft
Construction
FulmerResearchLaboratories(FRL)ReportR878/3A/January1982and
supplementFRLReportR878/19/July1985.ESTECContract
5497/83/NL/PB(SC)
[722] C.R.Parkinson
ApplicationofSPF/DBtoSpacecraftStructures
BAeFiltonReport,July1985
ESTECContract5588/83/NL/PB(SC)
[723] MetalsHandbook,Volume2,TenthEdition
PropertiesandSelection:NonferrousAlloysandSpecialPurpose
Materials
ASMInternational,ISBN0871703785(V.2),1990
[724] G.Broden
SPF/DBAManufacturingTechniqueforLightweightStructures
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[725] AdvancedMaterialsforSpaceTransportation
DornierGmbHBattelleEuropeFinalreport,June1992
ESTECContract8807/90/NL/PP(SC)
[726] G.Broden
InvestigationofSPF/DBPropertiesoftheHighTemperatureAlloyIMI
834
DornierLuftfahrtGmbHReportSY20220/93,August1993ESTEC
Contract70/87/NL/PPWorkOrderNo.22
[727] M.H.Mansbridge
TheIntroductionofTitaniumSuperplasticallyFormedandDiffusion
BondedComponentsintoServiceonAirbusAircraft
22ndInternationalSAMPETechnicalConference,November691990,
p224236
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73
Propulsion technologies
73.1 Introduction
This chapter highlights the use of advanced structural materials in space propulsion system
programmes.
Forspaceplanes,moreadvancedpropulsionsystemshavebeenproposedwhichextendmaterialsto
thelimitsoftheircapabilities.Thebaselinematerialsformanysinglemissionandreusableenginesare
derivedfromgasturbinedevelopments.Thosematerialscoveredhaveeitherbeenappliedto,orare
intendedforusein:
Launcherengines,
ShuttleOrbiterengines(SSME),
AdvancedpropulsionforSSTOorTSTOspaceplanes,
Airbreathingengines,
RamjetsorScramjets,
Thrusters.
73.2 Propulsion unit requirements
73.2.1 Launcher engines
73.2.1.1 Ariane 5 single mission launcher

TheA5enginespecificationincludes:
singlecycle,hightemperatureexcursionwithLH/LOXfuelmixture,
capableoftestfiringsandmultiplestarts.
73.2.2 Shuttle engines

The SSME, along with its fuel turbopumps, has to withstand multiple firings equivalent to 50
missions,withsomerefurbishmentatdefinedintervals.
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73.2.3 Spaceplane engines

ForNASP,SngerandHOTOL,theseinclude:
ramjets,
turboramjets,
scramjets,and
airbreathingengines.
Thespecificationincludes:
extendedmultiplefirings,withreusefor50operations,
engineintegratedintotheairframeofthevehicle,
resolvegasflowandcoolingproblemsbyefficientdesign.
73.2.4 Thrusters
For orbit control of satellites and spacecraft, the thrusters withstand thousands of hightemperature
firingsofshortduration(afewseconds)withoxidisingcombustiongases.
73.2.5 Nozzles
The main combustion zone for engine designs experiences an extremely hot, highvelocity gas
environment.
73.3 Fuels
73.3.1 General
Thesearegroupedaseithersolidorliquidpropellants.Topropellargevehicles,suchasspaceplanes,
moreefficienthydrogenoxygen(LH/LOX)fuelsystemsareused.
73.3.2 Solid propellants

These are primarily found in launcher solid boosters. The booster casings are normally steel
constructions;reusedforShuttlelaunches.Atypicalpropellantmixtureis:
Ammoniumperchlorate,
Aluminiumpowder,and
Polymerbinder.
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73.3.3 LH/LOX
Eachfuelconstituentiskeptinseparatetanks.Aftermixing,theyareignitedandreleasehighenergy
exhaust gases. This usually requires using a twin turbopump arrangement which delivers the two
constituentstoathrustchamberforcombustion.
The combusted gas temperatures are extremely high; 2500C to 4000C. Gas flows are managed to
limittheengineinternalsurfacetemperatures.Activecoolingofenginesurfacescanbeneeded.
Materialselectionforengineconstructionconsidersboththeeffectsofhydrogenandoxidation.
73.3.4 Monopropellants
These,alongwithbipropellants,areprimarilyusedwithsmallerthrustersforspacecraftcontrol.The
fuelscombustspontaneouslywhenreleased.
73.3.5 Bipropellants
Atypicalmixtureis:
anitrogenoxide,e.g.nitrogentetroxide(NTO),and
monomethylhydrazine(MMH).
Combustiontemperaturesapproach2400C.
73.4 Ariane 5
73.4.1 General
Ariane 5 is the latest in the series of Arianespace launchers. The propulsion systems have evolved
fromtheAriane2,3and4systemstoprovideincreasedlauncherliftcapacity.
Themainunitsare:
MPSsolidrocketmotor
MainVulcainengine
HM7thirdstageengine
73.4.2 MPS solid rocket motor

73.4.2.1 General
TheboostersareassembledbyEuropropulsionatthelaunchsiteinKourou,FrenchGuiana.TheP230
versioncontains230tonnesofsolidpropellant.
Themaintechnologiesare:
Steelcases:D6AC(19.7tonnes),producedbyMANTechnologie,
EPDMrubberthermalprotection,withKevlarreinforcement(4.9tonnes),
Elastomersealsforjoints,
Nozzle:Carboncarboncompositethroat(1.5mdiameter).Totalnozzlemassis6.1tonnes.
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73.4.2.2 MPS specification

Thespecificationincludes:
Overalllength:26.7m,
Maximuminternalpressure:60bar,
Burntime:130seconds,
SpecificImpulse:272seconds,
Thrust:5250kN.
73.5 Vulcain engine
73.5.1 General
The Vulcain highthrust cryogenic engine uses a gas generator cycle, in which liquid oxygen and
hydrogenarefedtoitscombustionchamberbytwopumps,eachdrivenbyaturbinesuppliedwith
hotgasesbyasinglegasgenerator,Ref.[731].Thegasgeneratorisfedconcurrentlywiththemain
chamber,generatinggasesatarelativelylowtemperature.Figure73.5.1showsthemaincomponents.
Hightemperaturecombustiontakesplaceinthemainchamber,cooledbyliquidhydrogencirculating
throughchannelsinthedoublewall,nickelalloychamberbeforebeinginjectedforcombustion.The
divergentsectionofthenozzleiscooledbythedumpcoolingmethod,inwhichasmallfractionofthe
hydrogenfuelisusedasacoolingflowandejectedwithoutburning.
TheVulcainengineisaEuropeandevelopment,withSEPastheprimecontractor.
Figure73.51Vulcainengine:Schematicdiagram
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73.5.2 Specification
Themainfeaturescanbesummarisedas:
Fuel:Burns155tonnesofLH/LOXfuel,withtankedLHat20KandLOXat90K,
Thrust:1120kNinvacuum,
Chamberpressure:109bar,
Specificimpulse:430seconds,
Thrustchamberlength:3m,
Nozzleexitdiameter:1.76m
Totalenginemass:1500kg,
Turbopumps:
Hydrogen;34000rpm,developing11.3MWpower,
Oxygen;12900rpm,developing2.9MWpower,
LH/LOXratio:5.3:1,
Gasspeeds:4000m/s.
73.5.3 Materials
Thematerialsusedintheconstructionwithstandtemperaturesintherange253Cto+725C.Other
factorsinclude:
Thermalexpansionbehaviours,overtheextremetemperaturerange.
Materialembrittlementcanbecausedby:
cryogenictemperatures,and
presenceofhydrogen.
Nickel alloys are extensively used for the cold and hot regions, e.g. Inconel 600, 625, 718 and
Waspalloy.
Titaniumalloysareusedforthespinningpartsofthehydrogenturbopumps.
Three types of seals were developed (USEP, VSEP, RLSEP) for assembling the engine. These
gavegoodspringbackretentionandwereoftheenergisedvariety,[See:75.4]
The main expansion chamber consists of a helical hydrogen cooled Inconel 600 jacket that
sustains through its wall the full thermal gradient of 253C to +725C in a few tens of
millimetres. The immediate combustion chamber is nickel electroplated copper alloy (Narloy)
thatisalsoactivelycooledwithhydrogen.
Theengineusesanigniternozzle,Ref.[732].
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73.6 HM 7 engine
73.6.1 General
The HM 7 engine was used for the third stage of Ariane 4 with a thrust of 62kN and is in effect a
smallerversionoftheVulcainengine,Ref.[733].ThethrustchamberisshowninFigure73.6.1,Ref.
[733].
The immediate combustion chamber could be extended with a dump cooled nozzle consisting of
spirallyarrangedtubesmadefromInconel600weldedontheirouteredges.
Figure73.61Ariane4HM7engine:Thrustchamber
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73.6.2 Nozzle geometry

Thefeaturesincluded:
Length:1200mm,
Maximumdiameter:990mm,
Construction:242individualnickeltubes,
Nickeltubewallthickness:320m,
Welding:Atotalof13000operationson700mofweld,
Totalmass:31kg.
SEPmadeaCMCdemonstratornozzlefortheHM7engine.
73.7 Mage 2 motor

Themotorisusedtoplacesatellitesintoorbitandreliesonbipropellantfuel(MMH/N2O4)storedin
tanks,Ref.[734].
Themotorcasecomprisesoftwoisotensoid,geodeticallywounddomesandacylindricalsection.The
pressurevesselisconnectedviaanadapterskirtandflangetothesatellitestructure.Theigniterand
thecarboncarbonnozzlearefixedatthepolaropeninginterfacefittings.
Thematerialsusedintheconstructioninclude:
Metaltank:
maragingsteel(X218Ni8Co5Mo).
stainless steel (X12 17Cr 7Ni, AISI 301/X2 19Cr 11Ni, AISI 304L). Stainless steels are
cryoformed.
titanium(Ti15V3Cr3Al3Sn,Ti153,Ti6Al4V).
TheTi15V3Cr3Snalloyiscoldrolled.
Overwrapping:Kevlarreinforcedepoxy,[See:Chapter29].
73.8 Nozzles
Nozzles are largely based on graphite or carboncarbon constructions intended for shortduration
singlefirings,Ref.[736].
Inreusableengines,suchasramjets,whollycarbonbasedmaterialslackoxidationresistanceforlong
termexposuretooxidisinggasstreams.
RamjetnozzlesinCSiChavebeenevaluatedandshowthattheyhavethebasicstructuralintegrityto
survivethermalshock,buttheeffectsofhotgaserosionhaveyettoberesolved,Ref.[737].
Avarietyofnozzlecoatingshavebeenevaluatedfortheirabilitytowithstandhoterosivegasflows,
Ref.[738],includingthemoreexotichightemperatureceramics,suchashafniumoxide.
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73.9 Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME)

TheSSMEisareusableLH/LOXburningenginemanufacturedbyRocketdyne,USA.Itexperiencesa
similarthermalcycletothatoftheVulcainenginebutiscapableofreconditioningformultipleuses.
SSMEexperiencesacombinationofseverelowcyclefatigue(LCF)andhighcyclefatigue(HCF),ina
hydrogenenvironmentwhichcausesacuteconcern.
Typicalconditionsforkeycomponentsinclude:
HPFTP:Highpressurefuel(methane/hydrogen)turbopump,823Cat39MPafuelpressure.
HPOTP:Highpressureoxidiserturbopump,578Cat39MPa.
HPFTB: First stage high pressure fuel turbopump blade (uncooled) made in directionally
solidifiedMARM246alloyrotatingat36000rpm.
ExperiencewithSSMEassistsindesigningmoreadvancedpropulsionsystemsforSSTOvehicles,e.g.
NASP.
73.10 Air breathing engines
73.10.1 General
Variousconceptsforairbreathingengines,ramjetsandscramjetshavebeenputforwardforadvanced
propulsionsystems.
Alltheconceptshavesomemajorrequirementsandproblemstobetackled,includingRef.[739],[73
10],[7311]:
Howtousethefuelstoredonthevehiclemostefficiently.
How to optimise the amount of fuel carried and make best use of the oxygen in the earths
atmospheretominimisetheloadofoxygenfuelattheinitialpointoflaunch.
Designing engine configurations to handle extremely high gas flow velocities (4500+ m/s)
throughtheengineandoverthesurfaceofthespaceplane.
Havingtheabilitytopredictthosegasflowsanddefiningcoolingrequirements.
AdjustingengineinletprofilestocaptureairandthenswitchingtoLOXfuelintake.
Selecting lightweight materials to fulfil different functions in the engine, where expectations
are:
Maximumsurfacetemperaturesapproaching2500C,
Heatfluxesof17MW/m,and
Noiselevelsof180dB.
Most advanced propulsion systems are at an early point in their development and are confined to
smallscalebutexpensivenozzle,Ref.[7312],combustorandinletdemonstratorsinconjunctionwith
materialdevelopmentprogrammes,Ref.[7310].
TheNASPprogrammehasabaselineramjetconfiguration,asshowninFigure73.10.1,Ref.[7310].
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Figure73.101NASP:Modifiedgovernmentbaselineengineconfiguration
73.10.2 NASP nozzle development

Thenozzlehasavariablegeometryandusesthevehicleaftendasanexpansionsurface.Thenozzleis
highly overexpanded at low to moderate supersonic speeds and hence causes drag. The external
burningoffuelisonewayofreducingdrag.Thenozzlefunctionsinanexhaustgasstreamat1925C.
Smallscale ramjet designs are under development for hypervelocity military missiles, Ref. [7313].
TheuseofCFDanalysistechniquestopredictgasflowsisvitalinunderstandingenginedesign,Ref.
[7314].
73.10.3 European ramjet technology

BothTheNetherlands,Ref.[7315],andGermany,Ref.[737],haveramjettechnologydemonstration
programmes.Thishasresultedinthedevelopmentofahightemperaturevitiator(HTV)whichuses
methanecombustiontopreheattheairbeforeitenterstheramjet,Ref.[7315].
TheHTVismadeofAISI310stainlesssteelorTZM,withaMoSi2ceramiccoating.
Combustiongastemperaturescanreach1750C.
73.11 CMC rocket stator

SEPhavemanufacturedCMCstators,Ref.[7316].Thegeometryisequivalenttothatofthemetallic
versionsusedintheArianeHM7engine,[See:73.6].
TheCMCstatorsweredevelopedtoraisethegastemperaturesfrom625Cto1325Candsoincrease
thespecificimpulseoftheengine.
Eachstatorwasassembledfromtwoparts:
centralpart,whichincludedthehuband23vanes,and
externalring,whichinterfacedwiththeturbinehousing.
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Theringsarecarbonfibrecloth,densifiedwithSiCbyCVI.
TwovariantsoftheCMCstatorsareshowninFigure73.11.1,Ref.[7316].
Figure73.111RocketstatorCMCcomponents
Theringsweresuccessfullytestedwithakeroseneandairfuelmixturewhere:
thermalpowertransmittedtothevanesonstartupwas2.3MW/m,
accumulatedfiringtimesof3000secondswereachieved,
maximum calculated induced stress in the material was 110MPa, i.e. approximately 50% of
ultimate,
multiplefiringsweresustained.
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73.12 Metal thrusters

Spacecraftcontrolthrustersdeliveringupto6000Nareusuallymetallicconstructionswitharefractory
metal for the hot throat region. This has traditionally meant niobium alloy with a disilicide slurry
coating for oxidation protection. This construction is limited to operating temperatures of 1400C, if
prolongedlifeistobeguaranteedduringthousandsofthermalcycles,Ref.[7317].
Increasing the maximum operating temperature can improve the efficiency of the thruster and fuel
loadcombination.Thiscannowbeachievedbyusingiridiumcoatedrheniumconstructions,Ref.[73
18].
A15hourlifehasbeenclaimedwiththethroatoperatingat2200C,forover100,000thermalcycles,
withMMH/NTObipropellant.Theintentionistoscaleupfrom22Ntoa445Nthrustersystem.
73.13 CMC thrusters

ThefeasibilityofproducingspacecraftandHermesthrustersinCMCmaterialswasstudied,Ref.[73
19],tocomplementmetalthrusters,[See:73.12].
SEPhavemanufacturedanumberofthrustersinSEPCARBINOXCSiCandCERASEPSiCSiCfor
5N,20N,200Nand6000Nunits,Ref.[7318].Thesehavebeenfiredwithwalltemperaturesof1700C
73.14 References
73.14.1 General
[731] J.Gastal&J.R.L.Barton
VULCAIN:ACryogenicEngineforAriane5
ProceedingsoftheHydrogenConference,Paris,2225June1992EE92V
93022
[732] J.E.Buter&G.K.Troost
ResultsofPostfiringExaminationsofIgniterNozzlesoftheVulcain
Engine
[733] D.B.Wolf&R.C.Nicolay
WeldedNozzleExtensionforArianeLaunchVehicles
Meeting:WeldinginSpaceandtheConstructionofSpaceVehiclesby
Welding,Maryland,USA,2426September1991,p230246
[734] R.Forster
ApplicationofAdvancedStructuralMaterialsinPropellantTanksand
PressureVessels
[735] P.Donguy&J.Broca
HighTemperatureCompositeMaterialsforRocketPropulsion.
ApplicationofAdvancedMaterialforTurbomachineryandRocket
Propulsion
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AGARDConference,35October1988,AGARDCP449
Paper23,ISBN9283504984
[736] E.v.Gellhornetal
SiliconCarbideCoatedCarbonCarbonAnAdvancedMaterialfor
RocketSystems
ApplicationofAdvancedMaterialforTurbomachineryandRocket
Propulsion.AGARDConference,35October1988
AGARDCP449,Paper19,ISBN9283504984
[737] H.Hald
DevelopmentandRealTestofaRamjetNozzlemadeofLiquidsilicon
infiltratedC/SiC
[738] G.R.Adamczyk
ThermalProtectionUsingVeryHighTemperatureCeramics
Virginia.NASAConferencePublication3157p6376
[739] Aeropropulsion91
ProceedingsofaNASAConference,NASAConferencePublication10063
[7310] R.R.Weiss&D.S.MacKay
FutureofSpacePropulsion
AIAA921699
[7311] W.J.D.Escheretal
StatusofNASAsEarthtoOrbitPropulsionTechnologyProgram
SpaceTechnol.Vol.13,No.5,p457466,1993
AlsoPaperIAF91258,Oct1991
[7312] C.J.Trefnyetal
OverviewofNASPNozzleResearch
Paper7ofAeropropulsion91
[7313] AirbreathingPropulsionforMissilesandProjectiles
AGARDConference,1115May1992,AGARDCP526
ISBN9283506855
[7314] CFDTechniquesforPropulsionApplications
AGARDConference,2731May1991,AGARDCP510
ISBN9283506596
[7315] S.R.Birjimohanetal
VerificationofaHighTemperatureVitiator
[7316] J.Berque&J.M.Georges
TestofaCMCLiquidPropulsionRocketEngineTurbineStator
AIAA923131
[7317] ApplicationofAdvancedMaterialforTurbomachineryandRocket
Propulsion.AGARDConference,35October1988
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AGARDCP449,ISBN9283504984
[7318] R.H.Tuffiasetal
CVDFabricationAppliedtoAdvanced2200CChemicalRocket
CombustionChambers
SurfaceModificationTechnologiesIV,Eds.T.S.SudershanetalThe
Minerals,Metals&MaterialsSociety,1991,p855864
[7319] A.C.Mathieu&E.Soler
CMCMaterialsforaHighperformance20NThruster
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74
Protective coatings
74.1 Introduction
Protective coatings are important in hightemperature applications. As their development and
processingareapplicationdependent,theyformanimportantpartofcomponentdesign.
Coatings are applied to those surface areas of finished components experiencing arduous service
conditions.
[Seealso:47.10forcoatingsappliedtotitaniumalloys]
[Seealso:48.9,48.10,48.11,48.12,48.13and48.14forsuperalloycoatingtypesandtheirinfluenceon
design]
[Seealso:54.4forCCoxidationprotectionsystems]
The characteristics required of coatings are complex and interdependent. Some of the factors to
considerinclude:
easeofprocessing,
adhesiontothesubstrate,
protectivecoverageofthesubstrate,
desiredlifeexpectancy,
predictablebehaviour.
Most coatings perform a sacrificial role in protecting a substrate that cannot otherwise survive the
operatingenvironment.
Featuresofcoatingsinclude:
physicalandchemicalcoatingcompositionusuallychangesthroughitsworkinglife,
progressive coating consumption occurs by oxidation and environmental corrosive species in
theenvironment,
adiffusiontransitionzoneexistsbetweencoatingandsubstrate,
theyareexpectedtosustainthermalshockandcycling.
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Coating technology is an extremely complex subject; Ref. [741], [742], [743] discuss this in greater
depth.
Thischapterdetailscoatingsandhightemperatureapplicationsrelevanttospaceprogrammes,such
as:
Aerodynamicsurfacesofspaceplanes,e.g.
Ti,
TMC,
CCconstructions,and
CSiCandSiCSiC.
Propulsionsystemcomponents,e.g.
Timaterials,
Nialloys,
CMCs,and
CC.
[See also: Chapter 70 for thermostructural designs; Chapter 71 for TPS; Chapter 73 for propulsion
technologiesrequiringcoatings]
Most hightemperature coating development comes from the requirements of gasturbine engines.
Spaceprogrammesrelyheavilyonthataccumulatedexperience.
Thelifeofgasturbineenginesfarexceedsthoseofspacestructuresorpropulsionunits.However,this
isoffsetbyhigheroperatingtemperaturesinspacesystems.
74.2 Coating functions
74.2.1 General
Coatingfunctionsarelinkedtotheintendedapplicationsanddescribedhereinfairlysimplisticterms.
The substrate material and the coating functions drive its selection. The process technique for
depositingthecoatingisalsoimportantbecauseitdetermines:
coatingcomposition,
coatingthickness,
abilitytoapplymultilayers(multiplex),
overallcoverageinsurfacerecessesandcoolingpassages.
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74.2.2 Application requirements
74.2.2.1 Spaceplane aerodynamic re-entry surfaces

Theconsiderationsinclude:
oxidationprotection,
lowsurfacecatalicity,
highsurfaceemittance,
resistancetohighsurfacefluxes,typicallyupto10MW/m,
resistancetohighvelocitygaserosion,
thermalshockresistance,
lifeexpectancyof50hoursathighesttemperaturefor100thermalcycles.
74.2.2.2 Propulsion systems

Theconsiderationsinclude:
oxidationprotection,
resistancetohydrogenembrittlement,forLH/LOXsystems,
highsurfaceemittance,
resistancetohighsurfacefluxes,variable,butcanreach50MW/m,
resistancetohighvelocitygaserosion,
thermalshockresistance,
thermalinsulationofsubstrate,asinthermalbarriercoatings(TBC),
lifeexpectancydependentonsingleorreusablemissionrequirements.
74.3 Passivation
74.3.1 General
Passivationisthesimplestformofprotectivecoatingandreadilyoccurswithsomematerials.Itresults
from the exposure of the surface to an oxygencontaining environment whereupon the immediate
surfacelayerofthematerialoxidises.
The process is limited to a very thin surface layer (submicrometre) as the oxide formation inhibits
furtherpenetrationofoxygentotheunderlyingmaterial.
If the temperature of the substrate is raised sufficiently then the passivation can be overcome and
morepenetrativeoxidationresults.
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74.3.2 Materials
Bothtitaniumandaluminiumalloyspassivateimmediatelyonexposuretoairatroomtemperature.
Siliconcarbidewhenheatedabove800Cinairundergoesasurfaceconversiontosilica(SiO2),which
forms a protective layer to inhibit further oxidation. The formation of an oxide layer resists oxygen
penetrationtothesubstrate,andisanimportantpartofhightemperaturecoatingformulation.Some
protectiveoxidescalesoffergreaterpenetrationresistancethanothers.
74.3.3 Coating adhesion

Assumingthattheappropriatecoatingformulationtoinhibitoxidationandcorrosionisidentified,it
has to adhere to the substrate during the required operational life. Adhesion is best achieved by
diffusionbondingtothesubstrate.
As the coating can have a coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) very different from that of the
substrate,anintermediatebondinglayercanbeneededinordertoobtainamoregradualtransition.
Givenallthecombinedfunctionsofacoating,manyaremultiplex(multilayer)systemsdesignedfor
specificapplications.
Figure74.3.1indicatessomepropertiesofcoatingandsubstratecombinations,whichcanbecontrolled
toensureoptimumperformance,Ref.[741].
Propertiesarecontrolledtoensureoptimumperformanceforanygivenapplication.
Figure74.31Coatings:Propertiesofcoating,substrateandinterface
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74.4 Basic coating types
74.4.1 General
Thebasictypesofcoatingareviewedinconjunctionwiththeavailableprocessingroutes,Ref.[741],
[742].
[See:74.5]
74.4.2 Diffusion coatings

Theseareobtainedbydiffusinganelement,e.g.Al,Cr,Si,intothesurfaceofasubstrate,whereupona
reactionoccursandthesurfaceisconvertedtoacompound,e.g.NitoNiAlasinsuperalloysorCto
SiCinCCcomposites.
Thecoatingsarethinsoastocontroltheresidualstresses.Theyformanintegralpartofthesubstrate
andarewellbonded,[See:88.10].
74.4.3 Overlay coatings
74.4.3.1 General
Anoverlayresultsfromthedirectdepositionofacoatingformulationontoasubstrate.Atransition
existsbetweenthetwophasesunlessdiffusioncanbeinducedbetweenthetwobythermaltreatment.
Obtaininggoodadhesionbetweentwodissimilarmaterialsisessentialbutproblematical.
Overlaycoatingscanbeappliedtomostsubstratesbymanyroutes,e.g.PVD,CVD,thermalspraying,
asslurriesorsolgels.
74.4.3.2 MCrAlY type

Thesearespeciallyformulatedforapplicationtosuperalloys,usuallynickelbasedalloys,appliedas
overlaycoatings.Theircompositioncanbeadjustedtoassistdiffusionbondingandareformulatedfor
specificaggressiveenvironments.
74.4.3.3 Thermal barrier coatings (TBC)

TBCformulationsaredesignedtoprovidethermalinsulationtothesubstrateandareusuallyapplied
to superalloys. Their function reduce the operating temperature of the substrate so that greater
efficiencycanbegainedbyusingahighertemperaturegasstream.
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74.5 Coating processes
74.5.1 General
Mostcoatingprocesseshavebeendevelopedforgasturbineenginerequirements,Ref.[741],[742].
Theseinturnhavebeenadaptedinmanywaystoachieveimprovementsin:
coatingcomposition,
reducedresidualstresses,
reducedcoatingporosity,
massproductionrequirements,
surfacecoatingcoverage,and
costreduction.
Inmostcoatingprocesses,thecomponentsareplacedinacontrolledenvironmentduringdeposition,
e.g.withinavacuumchamber.Largeitems(severalmetresinsize)canprovedifficulttocoat.
[Seealso:Chapter88formanufacturingtechniques]
74.5.2 Slurry coating
74.5.2.1 General
Thesearethesimplesttoapplyandarefiredtogivethefinalcoating.Thefacilitiesrequiredarebasic,
butcontroloftheprocesstogiveevendepositioncanbedifficult.
The slurry is usually formulated from powders (coating composition), a binder and a solvent. The
routeissimilartothatforsolgelprocessing,[Seealso:88.16].
74.5.2.2 Applications
Theseinclude:
Glassyphase outer layer for CC protection systems, e.g. Tetraorthoethylsilicate (TEOS)
pyrolysedtosilica.
Disilicidecoatingsappliedtoniobiumandtantalumattitudecontrolthrusters.
74.5.3 Physical vapour deposition (PVD)
74.5.3.1 General
A coatingformulation is transportedfrom a sourcethrough a gas phase, or vacuum, and deposited
ontothesubstrate.Thisiscommonlyachievedby:
evaporation,
sputtering,or
ionimplantation.
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Complex shapes are rotated because deposition occurs adjacent to the source on the immediately
exposedsurfaces.Poorlyaccessibleregionscannotbecoated,[See:88.20].
CoatingnickelalloycomponentswithMCrAlYcompositions.
74.5.4 Enhanced physical vapour deposition (PVD)

ThelimitationsofthebasicPVDmethod,[See:88.20],canbereducedbytheintroductionofadditional
energysources,including:
plasmas,
lasers,
reactivesputtering,
argondischarge,
electronbeamevaporation,and
ionimplantation.
74.5.5 Thermal spraying
74.5.5.1 General
Thermalsprayingisthegenericnameforafamilyofprocessesusedtoproducethickoverlaycoatings.
A material, often in powder form, is heated rapidly in a hot gaseous medium and simultaneously
projectedathighvelocityontothesubstrate.Thewellknownprocessesinclude:
wirespraying,
electricarcspraying,
powderflamespraying,
Dgun(detonation)combustion,
highvelocityflamespraying(HVFS),and
plasmaspraying.
[See:88.19]
TBCsonnickelalloycomponents.
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74.5.6 Chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
74.5.6.1 General
CVD relies on a controlled a gasphase chemical reaction to deposit the desired element or binary
compound.TheclassicalCVDmethodisbythermalactivationoftheoptimumgascompositioninthe
optimumlowpressureenvironment.Ifthetemperatureistoohigh,pooradhesionresults,duetohigh
residualstressesinthecoating.
CVD has excellent throwingpower enabling comprehensive coating coverage on recesses and
channels,[See:88.21].
AsCVDislimitedtoelementsandsimplecompounds,itispredominantlyusedforoverlaycoatings
suchas:
depositionofSiCoverlaycoatingsonCCorCSiCcompositecomponents,
applyingconstituentsforamultiplexcoating,including:
TiB2,
Si3N4,
C,and
AlN.
applying refractory metal coatings for oxidation and erosion protection of nozzles and
thrusters,e.g.:
tungsten(W),
rhenium(Rh),and
iridium(Ir).
74.5.7 Enhanced chemical vapour deposition (CVD)

Owing to the temperature limitations of some substrate and coating combinations, an additional
energy source can be beneficial for some CVD methods in order to maintain lower substrate
temperatures.Theadditionalenergycanbeprovidedby:
plasmas,
lasers,and
microwaves.
74.5.8 Other processes

Theseinclude:
Packcementationprocessfordiffusioncoatings.
Electroplating,e.g.CuandNi
Electrolessdeposition,e.g.Ni
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74.6 Coatings: Titanium components
74.6.1 NASP
74.6.1.1 General
Titanium has been proposed for much of the exposed surface of NASP, Ref. [744]. For the life
requirementsofthespaceplane,surfacecoatingsareusedtoprovide:
oxidationresistance,
highemissivity,and
lowsurfacecatalysis.
The coating therefore has a thermal control function in addition to providing protection. Various
processrouteshavebeenstudiedforapplyingcoatings,Ref.[744].
74.6.1.2 Reactive slurry coatings

Thetypicalcoatingisanintermetalliclayer,25mto50mthick,formedbyfurnacebakingaslurry
ontothetitaniumsubstrate.
74.6.1.3 Multi-layer glass coatings

A more complicated system has a combined PVD/CVDdeposited thin reaction barrier (AlSiBX)
formed with the titanium. This is converted by heating to a twophase, selfhealing, solgel glass
containingsilicaandalumina.Duringtheconversion,thecoatingthicknessisreducedto2m.
Suchcoatingswereappliedtotitaniumaluminidematerials(Ti14Al21Nb)andtestedat982Cinair,
undercyclicconditions,andprovedveryefficient.
Similar coatings were applied to Beta 21S titanium alloy; the matrix material for Ti/SiC continuous
fibrecomposites(TMC).Testingat800Cunderthermocyclicconditions,demonstratedtheexcellent
oxidationresistanceofthisalloyandcoatingcombination.
74.7 Coatings: Superalloy components
74.7.1 General
Superalloycomponentsareprimarilyusedinthepropulsionsystemsoflaunchersandspaceplanes.
Thefamilyofalloyshaveworkingtemperaturesuptoabout900Cforprolongedperiodsandcanbe
operatedto1100Cforshortperiods.
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74.7.2 Aluminide diffusion coatings

Thesearewidelyusedtoprotectnickelandcobaltbasedsuperalloysforgasturbineapplications,Ref.
[745],[746].
The process is limited to aluminium as the diffused element, but it can be beneficial for other
elements,e.g.chromiumoryttrium.
Diffusion coatings are usually applied as pretreatments in conjunction with other coatings, [See:
48.10].
74.7.3 MCrAlY overlay coatings
74.7.3.1 General
These coatings now constitute the primary protection system for Ni, Coand Febasedsuperalloys,
[Seealso:48.11].
Inthecoatingformulation,Mrepresentsthebasealloy,Ni,CoorFe,whilsttheothersaretheoxide
scaleformers.Typicalcoatingthicknessesare40mto70m.
MCrAlYcoatingscanbeappliedundercontrolledconditionsby,Ref.[745]:
electronbeamphysicalvapourdeposition(EBPVD),or
plasmaspraying.
MCrAlYbondcoatsareusedwiththermalbarriercoatings(TBC),[See:74.8].
74.7.3.2 Oxidation resistance

TheoxidationbehaviourofMCrAlYcoatingsdependsonvariousfactors,including:
coatingcomposition,
temperature,
oxygenpartialpressure,
time,and
thermalcycling.
Atypicaloxidationsequencestartswiththeformationoftransientoxides,beforeacontinuousstable
oxidelayer(chromiaoralumina)hasformedunderneath.Thediffusionofoxygenandmetallicspecies
beingveryslowinchromiaandevenslowerinalumina,thislayerensurestheoxidationresistanceof
thealloy.
Thepresenceofchromium(10wt.%to20wt.%Cr)reducestheAllevel(10wt.%)necessarytoforma
protective alumina scale. Alumina scales formed within the coating lack adhesion under thermal
cyclingconditions.Toimprovetheadherenceofthealuminascale,anactiveelementsuchasyttriais
incorporatedinsmallamounts(lessthan1wt.%).
[See:Table48.11.1forcommercialcoatingformulations]
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74.7.3.3 Hot corrosion
Coatingdevelopmentsforgasturbinesalsocounterhotcorrosioneffectscausedbyfuelcontaminants
suchasalkalinephosphates.Thiscanbecombatedwithcobaltadditions(20wt.%Co)totheMCrAlY
formulation.
Fuel contaminants can be avoided in space applications by using purer fuel compositions, so
improvingthecoatingslifeexpectancy.
74.8 Thermal barrier coatings (TBC)
74.8.1 Ni-based superalloy components
74.8.1.1 General
Thebenefitsofapplyingthermalbarriercoatingstoextendperformanceinclude:
highergastemperatures,
lowercoolingflows,and
reducedtemperaturetransientsonthemetalsurface.
Thisprolongsthelifeofgasturbineenginesandimprovesspacepropulsionsystemsbyenablingan
increaseingastemperaturesandimprovedengineefficiency,Ref.[747]to[7413].
74.8.1.2 Coating formulation

TBCsareusuallyzirconiabased,eitherpartiallyorcompletelystabilisedbyadditionsofY2O3,MgO
or CaO. Zirconia(ZrO2) hasa good compromise between low thermal conductivity and ahigh CTE
closetothatofnickelalloys.A6wt.%to8wt.%Y2O3isoptimumforgoodthermalcyclingresistance.
Spallingistheprimarymodeoffailuretobeavoided.However,severalhundredthermalcycleshave
been sustained up to 1100C in air, with bondcoats of 100m and a topcoat of 200m, Ref. [7415].
Porositylevelsdeterminetheconductivityandthermalshockresistance,Ref.[7416],[Seealso:48.12].
74.8.1.3 Coating application

TBCscanbeappliedbyplasmasprayingorEBPVDoveraMCrAlYbondcoat,Ref.[749],[7414].
[Seealso:74.7forMCrAlYcoatings]
74.8.2 Shuttle Main Engine HPFTP blades

TBCshavebeenactivelystudiedforextendingthelifeofbladesinthehighpressurefuelturbopump
(HPFTP)onthespaceshuttlemainengines,Ref.[7426].
TestswereconductedwithLH/LOXfuelcombustionandthemetalbladetemperaturewasloweredby
somehundredC.
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74.8.3 Fibre-reinforced TBC's

PreliminaryworkonaddingfibrereinforcementstoTBCsisconsideredasameansofimprovingtheir
integrityunderthermalcycling,Ref.[7417],[7418].
Theconceptofgradedcompositioncoatingshasalsoshowntoimproveintegrity,Ref.[7419],[7420].
74.8.4 Coating technology

Improvementsarebeingmadeincoatingtechnologyfordifferentsubstratealloys,Ref.[7421],[7422],
enablingthickercoatingstobedeposited,Ref.[7423].
74.8.5 Seals
TBCs are also applicable to abradable seals between moving parts where gas seals need to be
maintained,Ref.[7424].Anultimateoperationgoalof1200Cissought,Ref.[7425].
74.9 Carbon-Carbon: Oxidation protection
74.9.1 General
CC composites are the only recognised thermostructural materials for prolonged use in the
temperaturerange1700Cto2500C,despitetheirneedforcomplexoxidationprotectionschemes.
Significantoxidationcanoccurattemperaturesaslowas500C.Theprotectionsystemsarecomplex
toguaranteecompletecoverageoftheCCsubstrateatalltemperatures.
[Seealso:54.4]
74.9.2 Applications
Typicalapplicationsinclude:
noseconesandwingleadingedgesofspaceplanes,
TPSandheatshieldsforreentryvehicles,
componentsforgasturbineengines.
[Seealso:Chapter70andChapter71]
74.9.3 Coating systems

Both the duration and number of thermal cycles in a hightemperature and oxidising environment
influencethecomplexityoftheprotectionsystem.
Gasturbinerequirementsareparticularlystringentbecauselifeexpectancyismeasuredinthousands
of hours with a similar number of thermal cycles. Whilst temperatures can be higher for space
applications,lifeexpectancyisconsiderablylower.
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Numerousprotectionschemeshavebeenproposed,developedandtested.Thegeneralconclusionis
thatamultilayercoatingschemeisessentialforanyguaranteeofextendedlife.
Commontermsforthesecoatingsystemsinclude:
Duplex,
PAO(protectionagainstoxygen),Ref.[7427],
OPS(oxidationprotectionsystem),Ref.[7428],
Multiplex,[Seealso:74.10]
74.9.4 Basic problem

CC composites have a very low CTE, conferred by the fibres. All applied ceramic, refractory or
inorganiccoatingscapableofsustainingthehightemperatureshavehigherCTEs.Consequently,the
coatingscrackwhencooled,enablingoxygentopenetratewhichcausesoxidationandspalling.
Sealing phases are used to fill the crack gaps and maintain a protective covering. Coating layers
resistanttooxygenpenetrationareessentialforlongerliferequirements.
74.10 Multiplex coatings
74.10.1 General
ThebasicconfigurationofamultiplexcoatingisshowninFigure74.10.1,Ref.[7428].Suchasystemis
appliedtotheentirefinalcomponent.
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Figure74.101Multiplexcoatings:Basicconfiguration
74.10.2 Constituents
74.10.2.1 Inhibited C-C substrate

Glassformingphasesinthecarbonmatrix,introducedatthetimeofcompositemanufacture,actasa
finaloxidationbarrierifoxygenpenetratestheexternal(primary)barrier.
Boronandsiliconadditionsarepreferred,astheyformlowmeltingpointglasses.
74.10.2.2 Surface treatment

Toprovideadhesionforthemainbarrier,aSiCdiffusioncoatingisusuallyplacedattheimmediate
surfaceofthesubstrate.
74.10.2.3 Primary oxidation barrier

Siliconcarbideisthepreferredoverlaycoatingforthegreaterpartoftheprimarybarrier.Additional
stableoxidescanbeapplied,foroxygenpenetrationresistance.Theprimarybarriercanbedeposited
asmanythinlayerstoreduceresidualthermalstresses,Ref.[7429].
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74.10.2.4 Outer glaze
The outer glaze is usually a special glass or sealant formulated to be fluid at intermediate
temperatures when cracks in the primary barrier are still open. Whilst fluid, the glaze remains
adheredtothelowercoatingunderhighgasflowvelocities.
ThecrackandsealingmechanismsofanoxidationprotectionsystemareshowninFigure74.10.2,Ref.
[7428].
Figure74.102CCmultiplexcoatings:Crackandsealingmechanisms
74.10.3 Application examples
74.10.3.1 Buran and Space Shuttle

Classical multiplex silicon carbide coating systems were used on the nose cones and wing leading
edges,Ref.[7430],[7431].
74.10.3.2 Hermes
The oxidation resistant CC INOX from Aerospatiale was proposed for the Hermes nose cone, Ref.
[7427].
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In addition to oxidation resistance, the coating system also had to conform with emissivity and
catalyticityrequirements.
Theproposedsequencewas:
SiCdiffusion(silicidation)coating,
adaptationlayerofaluminiumnitride(AlN),
externalaluminaoxygenbarrier.
These were intended to resist a maximum temperature of 1800C at 15mb pressure. At this high
temperature,aSiCoverlayisnolongeraviableoptionbecauseitvolatilises.
74.10.3.3 NASP
TheintendedCCmaterialistheACCversion,withorwithoutinhibitors,Ref.[7428].
Oxidationresistanceto1540Chasbeendemonstratedforthesequenceofcoatingmaterials,i.e.:
SiCdiffusion(conversion)coating,withorwithoutboron,
SiCoverlaycoating,
LowCTEceramicNZP(sodiumzirconiumphosphatefamily),
Boroncarbideprecursortogiveaboricoxideglaze.
Thiscoatingsystemislimitedtotemperaturesbelow1800C.Extendingtheoperationaltemperature
to2500Crequiresultrastableceramics,suchasHafniumcompounds,Ref.[7432].
74.11 Coatings: C-SiC and SiC-SiC
74.11.1 General
Whilst these composites contain a lower proportion of carbon than CC, they are still prone to
oxidation.
74.11.2 C-SiC
ThecarbonfibresarenottotallyencasedinSiCbecausetheCTEmismatchbetweenthetwomaterials
inducesmicrocrackinginthematrix.Thesurfaceissealedtopreventoxygeningressifthematerialis
tohaveaprolongedworkinglife.
ASiCoverlaycoatingfollowedbyaglazeisusual.Thetemperatureislimitedtoabout1800C.
74.11.3 SiC-SiC
This composite system contains a thin carbon coating on the fibre to maintain its toughness. In
addition,thefibreisunstableattemperaturesabove1200Candisprotectedfromoxygen.
The same protection system as for CSiC is advisable for prolonged use in the temperature range
1000Cto1300C.
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74.12 Carbon-Carbon: Surface coatings
74.12.1 Dimensionally stable structures
74.12.1.1 General
Owing to their low coefficients of thermal expansion, CC composites are of interest for structural
applicationsrequiringdimensionalstability,e.g.spacetelescopecomponents.
AerospatialedevelopedarangeofCCmaterialswithanapproximateCTEvalueof1.10x10
7/CundertheESADSSdimensionallystablestructuresprogramme.
Thematerials,knownasDSSCC,havebeenconsideredforthemanufactureofspacereflectors,e.g.
PLANCKandMASTERsatellitemirrors,Ref.[7433].
In addition to the longterm dimensional stability in the service environment, e.g. under combined
mechanicalloadsandthermaleffects(cyclingandgradients),otherimportantcharacteristicsforspace
reflectorsinclude,Ref.[7433]:
geometrical(shape)tolerances.
surfaceroughness.
Theasmanufactured,DSSCCcompositesdevelopedforthisapplicationdonotmeetthegeometrical
tolerancesorsurfaceroughnessimposedforPLANCKandMIRRORtypereflectors.
Consequently,methodsforimprovingthesecharacteristicswereinvestigated,Ref.[7433]:
Machining: This method is not appropriate because it cuts through the reinforcement fibres
nearthesurfaceandsoaffectsthe(quasiisotropic)propertiesoftheCC.
Coating: A coating system, of one or more layers, applied to the material surface can be
machinedtocorrecttheoverallshapedimensionsandmeetthesurfaceroughnessrequirements
ofthepart.
Use of a coating means that an evaluation of material + coating is necessary with respect to the
overallapplicationrequirements,including,Ref.[7433]:
Propertymismatch(betweencoatingandsubstrate)cancausedeformationduringmanufacture
orinservice,e.g.CTE,stiffness.
Processrelated effects: deposition of a coating can affect the substrate or cause deformation.
Thickness,coverageanddefectsformpartofthequalitycontrolofcoatings.
Chemical compatibility: at interfaces (substratetocoating) and the interface between any
intermediatelayerandexternal(reflective)coating.
Reliablebondingatinterfaces.
Abilitytomachinecoatingtomeetsurfaceroughnessrequirementsandreflectivity(polishing).
Longtermstabilityinservice.
Coatingtechnologiesdevelopedfortestsampleshavetobescaleabletorealreflectordimensions.
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74.12.1.2 Types of coatings
Ofthevarioustechnologiesevaluated,mostmaterialsconsideredforcoatingshaveagreaterCTEthan
the DSS CC substrate. Therefore the coatings modulus is kept as low as possible to avoid a bi
metallicstripeffect.
Figure74.12.1showsthebasicmultilayerconceptdevelopedbyAerospatiale,Ref.[7433].
This is capable of producing coatings of the necessary thickness, e.g. ~2mm for PLANCK/MIRROR
sizereflectors.
Figure74.121Coatings:Dimensionallystablecarboncarbonconcept
Thefunctionofeachlayerwithinthecoatingis,Ref.[7433]:
Felt (~2mm thick): A carbonbased material, with low CTE and low mechanical properties,
bonded to the DSS CC substrate. This is used to correct any geometrical deviations in the
substratesurfaceandcanbemachinedtothefinaldimensions.
Surfacecoating(~150mthick):Becausethemachinedsurfaceofthecarbonfeltistoorough,an
externalcoatingisappliedthatcanbepolishedtomeetthesurfaceroughnessandreflectivity
specification.
Figure 74.12.2 summarises the various materials considered for each part of the multilayer coating,
Ref.[7433].
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Multi-layer coating components
Substrate 2D DSS C-C
Short carbon fibres (T-800, 500m), impregnated with

Felt phenolic resin. Layer thicknesses: 0.5 to 3mm.
Glass Al [1] Ge [1]

Sb [1] Si [1] Ti [1]
Surface coating
SiC [2] SiO2 [2]
Carbides [3], e.g. TiC, TaC, Cr 3C2.
Key: [1] Selected only on their elemental properties: chemical stability, hardness, melting point and
(stiffness, E x CTE) factor, which indicates the stress level within the layer. Only Al coatings were
evaluated, using vacuum evaporation and PVD deposition techniques.
[2] Deposition using low-frequency CVD plasma processing techniques. Both evaluated.
[3] Deposition possible by PVD techniques. Not evaluated.
Figure74.122Coatings:DimensionallystablecarboncarbonPotential
materials
74.12.1.3 Reflective coating deposition methods

A consideration of the various possible outer surface coating materials and methods can be
summarisedas:
Glass provides high chemical stability, low CTE and the ability to polish the surface. It was
rejectedmainlybecauseofproblemsassociatedwithprocessingtemperaturesandsubsequent
effectsonthesubstrate.
PVD or an evaporation under vacuum technique were considered to be the most promising
techniquesforaluminiumdeposition.Afterfurtherevaluationthesewererejectedbecausethe
Aldepositinfiltratedtheporousfeltlayerandgavepoorsurfacecoverage.
PECVD (plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition) was identified from an evaluation of
potential coating techniques for SiC and SiO2. This process produced the required coating
thickness (by single or repeated depositions), but without affecting the substrate properties
becausePECVDusesalowprocesstemperature.
[Seealso:74.5CoatingProcesses]
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74.12.1.4 Reflective coating quality

Cracks,pooradherenceandpoorcoverageoccurredinthick(>50m)PECVDSiO2coatings.
PECVDSiC coatings 200m thick were deposited on substrate samples (60mm x 100mm). These
showedthepresenceofcracksafterpolishing.Crackingwasattributed,nottothepolishingstage,but
tostresseswithintheinitialcoatingarisingfromitsthickness.
Theoptionsexploredforrepairingthecrackswerethedepositionof,Ref.[7433]:
Aseriesofthinlayers(each80mto100mthick).
Anadditionalthinlayer(40m)tofillexistingcracksinthepreviouslyappliedthicklayer.
Of these, the second option successfully filled large cracks and produced an acceptable surface
roughnessafterpolishing.
74.12.1.5 Coated DSS manufacturing methods

Theproposedmanufacturingrouteforthemultilayeredsystem,i.e.DSSCCsubstrate+carbonfelt
(2mm)+reflectivesurfacecoating(150m);involved,Ref.[7433]:
Preimpregnatedfeltappliedtothe2DpreimpregnatedDSSmaterial.
Polymerisationundervacuumandcarbonisation(bothsubstrateandfeltlayer).
DensificationbyCVIcarbon(bothsubstrateandfeltlayer).
Surfacemachiningofthedensifiedcarbonfeltlayer.
Depositionofareflectivesurfacecoating.
Polishingofthereflectivesurfacecoating.
During the development of the manufacturing method a number of problems were encountered
whichwereresolvedbymodificationsintheinitialprocessingstages.
One major modification wasin the process timingsfor the CVI densificationstage to minimise CTE
differencesbetweenthesubstrateandfelt.
The final manufacturing process is summarised in Figure 74.12.3, Ref. [7433]. This requires some
furtheroptimisationbeforeitsvalidationondemonstratorparts.
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Figure74.123Coatings:DimensionallystablecarboncarbonManufacturing
method
74.13 References
74.13.1 General
[741] AdvancedSurfaceCoatings:AHandbookofSurfaceEngineering
Editors:D.S.Rickerby&A.Matthews.ChapmanandHall
ISBN0412025418,1991
[742] M.G.Hockingetal
MetallicandCeramicCoatings:Production,HighTemperature
PropertiesandApplications
LongmanScientific&Technical,ISBN0585033055,1989
[743] HighTemperatureSurfaceInteractions
AGARDConferenceProceedingsNo.461.Ottawa
2328April1989
[744] R.K.Clarketal
ThermalControl/OxidationResistantCoatingsforTitaniumBased
Alloys.ProceedingsofaNASAWorkshop:CurrentTechnologyfor
ThermalProtectionSystems,1112February1992,LangleyResearch
Centre,Virginia.NASAConferencePublication3157p169188
[745] R.Mevrel
HighTemperatureProtectiveCoatings:RecentTrends
Paper12,AGARDConferenceProceedingsNo.461.Ottawa,2328April
1989
[746] ApplicationofAdvancedMaterialforTurbomachineryandRocket
Propulsion.AGARDConferenceProceedings3to5October1988
AGARDCP449,ISBN9283504984
[747] W.J.Brindley&R.A.Miller
TBCsforBetterEngineEfficiency
AdvancedMaterials&Processes,8/89,p2933
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[748] M.F.Gruninger&M.V.Boris
ThermalBarrierCeramicsforGasTurbineandReciprocatingHeat
EngineApplications
ProceedingsoftheInternationalThermalSprayConference&Exposition,
Orlando,28May5June1992,p487492
[749] H.Lammermann&G.Kienel
PVDCoatingsforAircraftTurbineBlades
AdvancedMaterials&Processes,12/91,p1823
[7410] S.M.Meieretal
CeramicThermalBarrierCoatingsforCommercialGasTurbineEngines
JOM,43,(3),p5053,Mar1991
[7411] HD.Steffens&R.Kaczmarek
ThermalBarrierCoatingsforHeatEngines
WeldingintheWorld,Vol.28,No.11/12,p224230,1990
[7412] E.R.Novinski
THSPCoatingsSaveAircraftEngines
WeldingDesign&Fabrication,April1991,p2628
[7413] P.Vincenzini
ZirconiaThermalBarrierCoatingsforEngineApplications
IndustrialCeramics,Vol.10,No.3,1990,p113126
[7414] W.Lihetal
EffectofPreAluminizationonthePropertiesofZrO28wt.%Y2O3/Co
29Cr6Al1YThermalBarrierCoatings
OxidationofMetals,Vol38,Nos1/2,1992,p99124
[7415] J.A.M.Boogersetal
ThermalShockandOxidationResistanceofCeramicCoatings
Paper12,AGARDConferenceProceedingsNo.461.Ottawa
2328April1989
[7416] H.D.Steffensetal
ThermalBarrierCoatings:SomeAspectsofPropertiesDesign
Proceedingsofthe4thNationalThermalSprayConferencePittsburgh,
USA,410May1991,p289294
[7417] D.Harris
CompositeThermalBarrierCoatings
Proceedingsofthe4thNationalThermalSprayConferencePittsburgh,
USA,410May1991,p363369
[7418] R.P.Tolokan&G.P.Jarrabet
CeramicTBS/PorousMetalCompliantLayer
ProceedingsoftheCurrentTechnologyforThermalProtectionSystems,
USA,p8996
[7419] F.Jamaranietal
CompositionallyGradedThermalBarrierCoatingsforHigh
TemperatureAeroGasTurbineComponents
SurfaceandCoatingsTechnology,54/55(1992),p5863
[7420] J.Musiletal
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PlasmaSprayingDepositionofGradedThermalBarrierCoatings
ProceedingsoftheInternationalThermalSprayConference&Exposition,
Orlando,28May5June1992,p525530
[7421] J.Verrieretal
ImprovementsinThermalBarrierCoatingsforGasTurbine
Components
Proceedingsofthe4thNationalThermalSprayConference,LongBeach,
USA,2025May1990,p545550
[7422] A.FaureGeors&Z.Wang
ThermalCyclicResponseofYttriaStabilisedZirconiaMCrAlYThermal
BarrierCoatingProducedbyElectronBeamVacuumEvaporation
3rdInternationalSAMPEMetalsConference,October2022,1992pM253
M265
[7423] H.Wangetal
FlameRigTestingofThermalBarrierCoatings
ProtectiveCoatings:ProcessingandCharacterisation
TheMinerals,Metals&MaterialsSociety,1990,p155163
[7424] T.E.Strangman
ThermalStrainTolerantAbradableThermalBarrierCoatings
ASME91GT39
[7425] BoChenWuetal
PerformanceImprovingMechanismsofZirconia/Packaluminized
MCrAlYThermalBarrierCoatings.Part1:PerformanceofTBCs
Specimens
MRLBull.Res.Dev.,Vol.6,No.1(1992),p7180
[7426] J.A.Nesbitt
ThermalResponseofVariousThermalBarrierCoatingsinaHighHeat
FluxRocketEngine
SurfaceandCoatingsTechnology,43/44(1990),p458469
[7427] O.Franc&J.L.Macret
OxidationinhibitedCarbonCarbonMaterials
[7428] C.W.Ohlhorstetal
CurrentResearchinOxidationResistantCarbonCarbonCompositesat
NASALangley
Virginia.NASAConferencePublication3157p149168
[7429] W.Huettneretal
OxidationinhibitedCarbonCarbon:ACandidateMaterialforHot
Structures
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[7430] A.N.Gordeevetal
AnInductionPlasmaApplicationtoBURANsHeatProtectionTiles
GroundTests:PartI
SAMPEJournalVol.28,No.3,May/Jun1992,p2933
[7431] A.N.Gordeev&M.I.Yakushin
TheThermochemicalStabilityofCarbonCarbonusinganAntioxidation
coatingforBURAN:PartII
SAMPEJournalVol.29,No.2,Mar/Apr1993,p2731
[7432] H.G.Maahs
CarbonCarbonComposites
Chapter16ofProceedingsoftheFlightVehicleMaterialsStructuresand
DynamicsConferenceonAssessmentandFutureDirection.ASME
publication.Volume3,p307332,1991
[7433] T.Salmon:Aerospatiale,(F)
ImprovementoftheSurfaceStateofCarbon/CarbonCompositesfor
SpaceMirrorApplications
ReportNo.NT38112/SI/LRAQ.FinalReport(March1999).
WorkPackageonESAContractwithERATechnology,UK.
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75
Seal technology
75.1 Introduction
75.1.1 Uses
Sealsareusedintheassemblyofcomponentsinvolvedwithfluidfloworpressure,forbothstaticand
dynamicenvironments.Theirfunctionsdiffergreatlyintermsof:
Loads(staticanddynamic).
Temperatureperformance,
Compatibilitywithdifferent:
materials,
fluids.
Lifeexpectancy,
Easeofinstallationandmaintenance.
Thereliabilityofsealsoperatinginaggressiveenvironmentsisessential.Asealfailureusuallyresults
in a serious loss of performance or even endangers the integrity of a structure; as seen with
Challenger.
75.1.2 Structural assemblies

Some of the seal technologies for structural assemblies and particularly those experiencing high
temperatureexcursionsaredescribedbyexample,including:
GapfillingsealsbetweenTPStilesorshinglesonspaceplanes,
Structuralsealsbetweensegmentsofsolidboosters,
Slidinginterfacesofarticulatingenginepanels,
Assembliesincombustionengines,thrustersandnozzles.
Suchsealstendtobeeitherhightemperaturemetalalloys,oftennickelbased,orformsofceramics,
e.g.oftenbraidsorropes.
Twoimportantfunctionsofsealsareprovidingcomplianceandgapfillingunderthermalexpansion
mismatchconditions.
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75.1.3 Dynamic seals

Dynamicseals,asfoundwithrotatingshafts,arenotincludedinthischapter,withtheexceptionof
somereferencedocuments,Ref.[751],[752].
Siliconcarbideisaparticularlygooddynamicsealmaterialthatcanoperateathightemperatures.It
canbeusedasasurfacecoatingonaCMCcarrier.
75.1.4 Materials
Sealtechnologyusesarangeofmaterials:
polymers(elastomersorrubbers),inmetalhousings,[See:75.3].
metals,
ceramics.
Experience of elastomers and the design of seals that operate in aggressive industrial environments
provide useful insight of seal performance for some space applications, [See: 75.7]. The particular
demands of the space environment and operating conditions of elastomer sealcontaining systems
needsafullandthoroughevaluation,[See:ECSSQ7071].
Forextremehightemperatureapplications,suchaswithinTPSsystems,metalsorceramicsareused.
75.2 Structural seals

The structural seals that have received a considerable amount of attention are those used in the
assemblyofsolidrocketboosters.
Failure of such seals led to the loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger Orbiter during launch when
combustion gases forced their way through sealed joints in the casings. These seals are made of
elastomericmaterials.InthecaseoftheChallengeraccident,theylostflexibilityasaresultofthecold
launchpadconditions.Thesesealsexperience:
mechanicalload(transmittedbetweenboostercasings),
vibration(duringlaunch),
theinternalpressurecausedbyfuelcombustion,
athermaltransient,
relativemovement(betweencasings).
Thisisarepresentativegroupofrequirementsinmanysealingapplications.
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75.3 Seal materials
75.3.1 General
Sealapplicationsaredemandingandmaterialsselectionisgenerallybasedonmaterialformswitha
proven,predictableperformance.
Nickel alloys and ceramicbased seals are used in hightemperature applications. Some grades of
elastomericmaterialsaresuitableforspaceapplicationswhereasotherarenot,[See:ECSSQ7071]
Materialsusedforsealsinspaceapplicationscanbegroupedas:
Nickelalloysintheformofspringseals,[See:75.4].
Fibrousceramics,usuallyusedintheformofbraids,feltsorcloths,[See:75.5].
Siliconcarbideforrotating(shaft)sealwearfacings,[See:43.12].
Graphitesheete.g.Hermeswinglettoriderconnections(600C)andcontrolsurfaceassemblies
(400C),[See:75.6;43.10forgraphitematerials].
Elastomers, which have proven uses in both general engineering and severe industrial
environments.Therearetwobasicgroups:
Thermoset, commonly known as vulcanising, which are described in detail, [See also:
75.7forelastomericseals;30.14forAriane5vibrationmountexample].
Thermoplastic, which are processed like plastics, but are not cured (vulcanised) during
moulding. These behave broadly similarly to vulcanised rubbers, but they are not
widelyusedforengineeringapplicationsbecauseofsomepropertydeficiencies,e.g.low
softeningtemperaturesandconcernsovertheirlongtermstability.
75.3.2 Elastomers
75.3.2.1 Essential characteristics

Elastomers are a subgroup of the polymer materials. Polymer materials comprise long chainlike
molecules,formedbychemicallylinkinglowmolecularweightmonomersinrepeatedsequences.The
othermainsubdivisionofpolymerscomprisesthevariousplastics,i.e.thermoplasticsandthermosets.
Thetermselastomerandrubberaresynonymousforallpracticalpurposes.Bothtermscanreferto
eitherthe:
rawbasepolymer,or
finalfullyformulatedandvulcanisedmaterial,asusedinamouldedengineeringcomponent.
Elastomers are characterised by their elasticity, i.e. their ability to undergo easy, and essentially
reversible,deformationtohighstrains.Thisreversibilityneedstoberapidwhentheloadisremoved.
Elastomersaresofterthanothersolidmaterials,havingYoungsmoduligenerallyintherange1MPa
to100MPa.Mostpracticalengineeringrubbersarenearthebottomendofthisrange.
Except at very high stresses, elastomers maintain constant volume on deformation like a fluid.
Therefore, deformation of rubber components, is accompanied by significant changes in shape. The
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incompressibility is the result of the very high ratio between their high bulk modulus, and the low
shear modulus. A common misconception is that the incompressibility is due to their having a
Poissons ratio very close to 0.5. In fact, this is only true at very small, or classical, strains. For a
rubber band stretched by 100%, the Poissons ratio (the ratio of lateral contraction to longitudinal
extension)isabout0.3.Consequently,itisbettertousethebulkmodulus,ratherthanPoissonsratio,
incalculationswithhigherstresses(wherecompressibilitybecomessignificant).
75.3.2.2 Crosslinking
Polymers are made up by the intermingling of long chainlike molecules; not unlike a bowl of
spaghetti.Toconferthermalandelasticstabilityonthematerial,itisnecessarytointroducecrosslinks.
These are occasional chemical bonds between adjacent molecular chains such that a 3D network is
formed.
The introduction of the crosslinks prevents chains from just slipping past one another under stress.
Theprocessbywhichthecrosslinksareintroducedinvolvestheapplicationofchemicalsandheatand
isknownasvulcanisationorcuring.
Mostpracticalelastomersusedinengineeringarevulcanisedduringmoulding,theexceptionsare:
thermoplasticelastomers,
rubbertype compounds, which are not described here, e.g. potting compounds, sealants and
foams,whicheitherdonotcureorcureinplace,[See:ECSSQ7071].
75.3.2.3 Temperature effects and glass transition

Anunderstandingofthethermalpropertiesofelastomersisgreatlyassistedbyknowingalittleabout
theirbehaviouratthemolecularlevel.
Figure 75.3.1 shows a schematic diagram of a rubber network. It comprises long chain molecules,
joined together occasionally by crosslinks. Between the fixed points the chain molecules are in a
constant state of random motion and take up a highly kinked configuration which is constantly
changing.
Figure75.31Elastomers:Schematicofcrosslinkedrubbermolecularnetwork
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The large potential deformations in elastomers can occur because, under stress, these highlykinked
molecules are able to straighten out, perhaps to several times the kinked length. The chainlike
molecules themselves are highly flexible and offer little resistance to this, provided that the
temperatureishighenough.
Eachelastomerhasaglasstransitiontemperature(Tg)belowwhichthechainsarenolongerflexible.
BelowtheTganelastomericpolymerfeels,andbehaves,likeaglassorbrittlepolymer.AboveTg,the
polymerhasrubberyproperties.Inpracticethetransitionisnotsharp;transformationfromrubberyto
glassypropertiescantakeplaceoveratemperaturerange,whichvariesfromelastomertoelastomer,
butisoftenseveraltensofC.
ExamplesofTgrelatedelastomercharacteristicsare:
Natural rubber (cispolyisoprene); a general purpose elastomer with a Tg around 70C. It is
widely used in engineering applications and has a useful rubbery temperature range from
30Cto100C,approximately.
FEPM (tetrafluoroethylenepropylene) is a specialised high temperature and oil resistant
rubber with a Tg around 0C. Although its upper service temperature can exceed 200C, the
high Tg reduces its versatility because it loses its rubbery properties at and below normal
ambienttemperatures.
Table75.3.1givesTgvaluesforanumberofelastomers.
Table75.31Elastomers:Typicalglasstransitiontemperatures
Glasstransitiontemperature(1),
Polymertype Tg(C)
Cis-polybutadiene 108
Natural rubber (polyisoprene) 70
Butyl rubber (polyisobutene isoprene) 65
SBR (styrene-butadiene rubber) 61
Neoprene WRT DuPont 49
(polychloroprene)
Nitrile rubber (38.5% acrylonitrile) 24
FEPM (tetra-fluoroethylene/propylene) 0
Key: (1) Typicalvaluesbecausetheglasstransitiontemperatureisnotuniquelydefined.Tg
valuesdependonthemeasurementmethod.
In general, increasing the oil and chemical resistance properties of elastomers, and increasing their
hightemperature resistance, reduces their strength and decreases their elasticity at lower
temperatures.
Itisimportanttorealisethatelastomerpropertiesaremoretemperaturedependentthanthoseofmost
other engineering materials, and that the important inservice properties are those at the service
temperature. Manufacturers published data do not always make this clear, but it is a key
considerationintheselectionofmaterials,[See:ECSSQ7071].
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75.3.3 Types of elastomers
75.3.3.1 Formulation
Anengineeringelastomerisachemicallyandphysicallybondedcompositionofseveralingredients,
vulcanised(cured)together,usuallywiththeapplicationofpressureandheatinasuitablyshaped
mould.Broadlythecompositioncomprises:
Baseelastomer;thetypeofrubberwhichformsthebasisofthecompound,e.g.naturalrubber
ornitrilerubber.Itisoftenasingletype,butcanbeablendoftwoormorebaseelastomers.
Crosslinkingchemicals;theoriginalcrosslinkingchemicalfornaturalrubberwassulphur.This
isstillwidelyusedinnaturalandotherrubbers.However,manyotherchemicalscannowbe
usedtoproducecrosslinking.
Vulcanisation promoters (accelerators); chemicals designed to assist and speed up the
crosslinkingprocess,usuallyatelevatedtemperatures.
Antidegradants;chemicals,e.g.antioxidants,antiozonants,andUVabsorbers,whichreducethe
susceptibilityofthevulcanisedelastomertoatmosphericandotherformsofdegradation.
Extenders;usuallyoilsincorporatedinsmallamountstoeaseprocessing,orinlargeamountsto
conferspecialpropertiesontherubber,e.g.highspeedracingtyreswheretheoilcontentcan
exceedtheweightproportionofbaseelastomer.
Fillers; incorporated in the compound to increase the stiffness or strength and abrasion
resistance. Carbon black is by far the most common filler, which is why most rubber
componentsareblackincolour.Differentcarbonblacksarecharacterisedbytheirparticlesize
andbytheirstructure,i.e.thetendencyoftheparticlestoaggregateintogroups.Thechoiceof
carbon black type can have important consequences for the physical properties of the
vulcanisate.
Elastomers for use in space applications need careful consideration of the formulation details;
howeverthisisgenerallyclassedasproprietaryinformation,soisdifficulttoobtain.
The space environment can affect the constituents of elastomers, e.g. extending oils and plasticisers
canbeunstableundervacuum.
The compatibility of elasomers with contacting substances can only be established with a full
knowledgeofthosesubstancesandtheserviceconditions,e.g.temperaturesandpressures.Fillerscan
beleachedfromelastomersandcontaminateequipment.
[See:ECSSQ7071]
75.3.3.2 Base elastomer-types and characteristics

There are many different base elastomeric polymers from which engineering components can be
manufactured. A small number of the commonest elastomers and elastomertypes are described in
Table75.3.2.
[See:ECSSQ7071forelastomersnotsuitableforspaceuse]
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Table75.32Elastomers:Summaryofcommonmaterialsandcharacteristics
Material(1) Comments
Natural rubber High-strength, general purpose rubber. The high strength derives
(NR) (1) mainly from its ability to crystallise partially under strain.
High-strength, general purpose synthetic rubber; commonest trade
Chloroprene rubber
name Neoprene by DuPont, which can also crystallise under
(CR)
strain.
Styrene butadiene
Probably the commonest synthetic general purpose rubber. It needs
rubber
the incorporation of reinforcing fillers to achieve good strength.
(SBR) (1)
Nitrile rubber A rubber with high resilience and good wear resistance. It has good
(NBR) (1) aliphatic oil and fuel resistance at very modest cost.
An outstanding general purpose oil and chemical resistant rubber.
Hydrogenated nitrile
Temperature range depending on ACN content to 180C and
rubber
beyond. Often a better choice than more expensive specialist
(HNBR)
rubbers.
Fluorocarbon rubber Available in a number of grades, with good oil and chemical
(FKM) (1) resistance and good heat resistance up to above 200C.
Extremely expensive specialist rubbers with very high heat and
Perfluoroelastomer chemical resistance; up to about 300C. They have, however, a high
(FFKM) (1) minimum working temperature and poor physical properties
compared with the general purpose rubbers.
Key: (1)Tensileproperties,[See:Figure75.3.2(23C);Figure75.3.3(100C)]
75.3.3.3 Tensile
Figure75.3.2showsthetypicaltensilestrengthsoffivecommonelastomersatambienttemperature.It
can be seen that, as the heat and oil resistance of the elastomer increases, the tensile strength
decreases.
NR NATURAL RUBBER
SBR SBR
23C
NBR NITRILE
FKM FLUOROCARBON
FFKM PERFLUOROELASTOMER
0 5 10 15 20 25
Tensile strength - MPa
Figure75.32Elastomers:Typicaltensilestrengthat23
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Figure 75.3.3 shows that the tensile strengths at 23C have almost halved at 100C. Even at 100C,
which is at or near the highest practicable service temperature for natural rubber, it is still stronger
thantheheatresistantrubbersat23,andstillmaintainsitsleadintermsoftensilestrength.
It is important to appreciate that heat resistance in rubbers refers to resistance to chemical attack
(ageing). It does not refer to the maintaining of physical properties at high temperature. The
importanceofknowingthephysicalpropertiesattheservicetemperaturecannotbeoveremphasised.
Heatresistantelastomershaveimportantusesinextremeconditions,buttheycannotbeusedunless
theyareessential,becausetheirphysicalpropertiesaregenerallyinferior.
NR
SBR
100C
NBR
FKM
FFKM
0 5 10 15 20 25
Tensile strength - MPa
Figure75.33Elastomers:Typicaltensilestrengthat100C
75.3.3.4 Fluid resistance: Liquids

Contact between an elastomer and a liquid can have three different effects, possibly occurring
simultaneously:
swelling,whichistheabsorptionofliquidintotheelastomer,
leaching,whichistheremovalofchemicalspeciesfromtheelastomerintotheliquid,
chemicalattack(insomecases).
Insomesolvents,theswellingofsomeelastomerscanbespectacular,resultinginverylargeincreases
in volume, accompanied by weakening and possible disintegration. The potential for swelling can
generallybepredictedfromapropertyknownasthesolubilityparameter.Therubberandliquideach
has a solubility parameter, a thermodynamic property, and tables of these are given in standard
reference works. If the rubber and the liquid in contact with it have differing solubility parameters
then little swelling occurs. If, however, the solubility parameters are similar then swelling usually
occurs and tests are carried out to determine the extent and whether this is compatible with the
intendedservice.Wheresolubilityparametersarenotavailableintheliteraturetheyaremeasuredin
thelaboratory.
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Thesolubilityparameterofamixtureoftwo(ormore)miscibleliquidsisdifferentfromthesolubility
parametersoftheindividualcomponents.Thusarubbercanswellinamixtureoftwoliquids,even
though it does not swell in either of them alone. Other factors can reduce swelling even when the
solubilityparametersaresimilar,e.g.slinkdensity,Tgandfillerloading.
Many elastomeric components are used in contact with oil. All elastomers are swollen by oil but a
numberaredescribedasoilresistanttoagreaterorlesserdegree.Resistancedependsonthenature
oftheoil,andelastomermanufacturerspublishdataonthis.However,componentsizecanbejustas
importantastheintrinsicoilresistanceoftheelastomer.Naturalrubber(NR)isgenerallyregardedas
having very poor oil resistance and it is true that a thin strip of NR swells and becomes weak very
quickly,e.g.amatterofhoursinvehicleenginelubricationoil.Yetexperienceshowsthatautomotive
engine mounts can survive for many years in an oily environment. This is simply because they are
protectedbytheirbulk.Penetrationofoil,oranyliquid,intorubberisproportionaltothesquareroot
oftime.Forexample,treblingthethicknessincreasesoilresistance(intermsoftimetakentocomplete
swelling)byafactorofthreesquared,i.e.ninetimes.
Alowviscositymotoroilfullyswellsa1mmthickstripofnaturalrubberin70hours,butittakes20
years for the same oil to fully swell a 5cm thick block (given that the block is constantly and fully
immersedintheoilforthewholeofthistime).
Correctmaterialselectionforelastomerscanbecomplex,involvingasimultaneousreviewofseveral
propertiesandnotjustthepropertyofimmediateinterest.Forexample,inasituationwherecontact
with oil is intermittent, use of an oilresistant elastomer can actually reduce component life because
thesematerialsarelikelytohavelowerstrengths,particularlyatelevatedtemperatures.
75.3.3.5 Fluid resistance: Gases

Oxidation,byattackfromoxygenintheair,isthecommonestformofdegradationinrubbersunder
normal atmospheric conditions. Antioxidants are incorporated into most elastomer formulations to
combat this. The only other common gas which is aggressive to some elastomers is hydrogen
sulphide, H2S, which is encountered in offshore oil installations and attacks the elastomers
chemically.
Underpressure,rubberscanabsorbverylargeamountsofgas.Therateofdiffusionisgenerallymuch
higherthanthatforliquids.Theamountofgasabsorbedisproportionaltothepressure(uptoalimit
wheregasdensitiesapproachliquiddensities).Athighpressurethedissolvedgasvolume(measured
atstandardtemperatureandpressure)canbe100ormoretimesthevolumeoftheelastomer.Thereis
noproblemwhilstthegasremainsdissolvedbut,iftheexternalpressuresuddenlydrops,thegascan
come out of solution and expand with spectacular and devastating consequences. This is known as
explosivedecompression,[See:75.7].
75.3.3.6 Thermal cycling

Within the operating temperature range of an elastomer, the effects of temperature are normally
reversible. For example, if the stiffness of an elastomer is measured at 23C, and the measurement
repeated after excursions to its highest and lowest operating temperatures, the original stiffness is
unchanged.
Whenanelastomerisunderstress,e.g.inasealingring,temperaturecyclingtoelevatedtemperatures
canincreasetherateatwhichsealingforceislost.Thisisapurelyphysicaleffect,whereheatingthe
elastomer enables relaxation to take place which would occur much more slowly at lower
temperatures,Ref.[759],[7510].
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In the long term, temperature cyclingdoes not increase the total amount of sealing force lost, but it
occursmorequickly.
[See:ECSSQ7071;ECSSQSTST7004]
75.3.3.7 Radiation
Muchworkhasbeendoneontheeffectsofbothnonionizingandionizingradiationonelastomers;
particulary within the nuclear industry, Ref. [7511], [7512]. Although a full review is beyond the
scopeofthishandbook,ionizingradiationdamagevariesmainlywiththepolymer,buttosomeextent
alsowiththecompoundingingredients.Additives(antirads)canreducetheeffects.
Itisbelievedthat,toafirstapproximation,damageisindependentofdoserateandtypeofradiation.
Thus,damageisprimarilyafunctionofthetotalabsorbedenergy.
Ultravioletradiationisuniversallydamagingtoelastomerscausingbondcutting,similartoattackby
oxygen.InspaceUVisnotreducedbyabsorptionintheozonelayer,soshieldingisnormallyneeded
forelastomericcomponents.
[See:ECSSQ7071;ECSSQST7006]
75.3.3.8 Vacuum
Elastomers, in general use, usually contain an excess of compounding ingredients that remain
unreactedaftervulcanisation.Thesespeciesarenotboundintothepolymericnetwork,soarevolatile
toagreaterorlesserdegree.Thepresenceofvolatilesbecomesaprobleminavacuumenvironment,
astheydiffusetothesurfaceandcanbereleasedascontaminantsthatcanpotentiallydamageother
equipment.Vacuumconditionsgenerallyhavenoeffectonelastomerproperties.
Careful consideration of the compound formulation, and emphasis on complete vulcanisation can
reduceunreactedspeciestoverylowlevels.
Outgassingtestsmeasureboththelossofweightofasamplewhensubjectedtovacuumconditions,
andthecollectedvolatilecondensablematerial.
[See:ECSSQ7071;ECSSQST7002]
75.3.4 Visoelasticity
Elastomersarenotperfectlyelastic,theirpropertiesareviscoelastic.
Although rubber has many of the properties of an elastic solid it also behaves in a liquidlike, or
viscous manner. Under load, it flows with time albeit slowly. If rubber is held at constant
deformationtheinitialstressdecayswithtime.Theflowandstressdecayarereferredtoascreepand
stress relaxation. If a strip of rubber is stretched and then retracted, the retraction curve does not
follow perfectly the extension curve; as shown in Figure 75.3.4, where the area within the loop
representsenergylostwithinthecycle,i.e.hysteresis.
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Stress Extension
Retraction
Strain
Figure75.34Elastomers:Viscoelasticityhysteresiseffect
For many practical purposes in engineering design the nonelastic effects are ignored, so that, for
example,amodulusisquotedwhichenablesthecalculationofstiffnessforacomponent.
Whenconsideringthelongtermbehaviourofcomponentsunderstress,thenaccountneedstotaken
of viscoelastic effects. Viscoelastic considerations are also of much greater significance in dynamic
applications when the stresses or strains on the elastomeric component are varying constantly with
timeundercyclicloading.
Where appropriate, the viscoelastic nature of elastomers is mentioned with respect to their physical
properties.
75.3.5 Physical properties
75.3.5.1 General
Thephysicalpropertiesofelastomersmostlikelytobeimportantinengineeringapplicationsare(with
ISOstandardsrelatingtoeachproperty):
hardness(ISO48),
elasticmoduli(ISO48),
tensilestrengthandelongationatbreak(ISO37),
tearstrength(ISO34),
resilienceanddynamicproperties(ISO4662,4663,4664),
compressionset(ISO815),
stressrelaxationorcreep(ISO3384,8013).
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75.3.5.2 Hardness and elastic modulus
Thehardnessofanelastomerisusuallythefirstphysicalcharacteristicdescribed,e.g.75hardnitrile
rubbersealingring.Thehardnessismeasuredbyaspecialinstrumentwithasphericalindentorwhich
pushes into the rubber following a strict time regime, and which reads directly in hardness units.
Theseinstrumentsarehighlyaccurateandreproduciblewhenusedcarefully.
The units of hardness used are usually international rubber hardness degrees (IRHD). Previously
Shorehardnesswasused,andtheShoreAdurometerisstillinuseintheUSA.ShoreAandIRHD
scalesagreenumericallytowithinafewdegreesovermostoftherange.
Subjectively, an elastomeric specimen which feels soft to the touch and can be easily indented by a
fingerisprobably40IRHDorbelow.Commonrubberhosesortyresareusuallyintherangefrom50
to80IRHD.Harderelastomersarefrequentlyusedinseals,andshowonlyslightflexibility.
Hardnessisaveryusefulmeasureingeneraldiscussion,butforaccuracyitisnecessarytospecifya
modulus.Specificationsforengineeringcomponentsarebasedonmodulusratherthanhardness,but,
onnoaccount,specifybothbecausetheyarenotuniquelyrelated.
Youngsmoduluscanbemeasuredintensionatsmallstrains.However,asthestressstraincurvein
tensionis nonlinear itismore usualin engineering to use shear modulus (generally designatedG),
basedonthemorelinearshearstressshearstraincharacteristic.
Compression modulus is to some extent a function of the shape of the component, not simply a
materialproperty,[See:Design].
Inshear,therelationshipbetweenstiffnessandmodulusisasimpleone.TheshearstiffnessKsofa
blockofrubberofcrosssectionAandthicknesstisthusrelatedtotheshearmodulusby:
GA
Ks [75.31]
t
75.3.5.3 Tensile strength and elongation at break

Rubberisrarelyusedintensioninengineeringapplications.Itisusedalmostentirelyincompression
orshearorinacombinationofthetwo.Theultimatestrengthpropertiesare,however,bestmeasured
in tension, so tensile tests are important in quality control. These tests are frequently used to
determinechangesinpropertiesafterageing;anacceleratedmethodofdeterminingtheresistanceof
therubbertodeteriorationwithtime.
The test sample, to National or International standard dimensions, is usually dumbbell (or dog
bone) shaped, where the material under test is the narrow, straight, central section. The sample is
pulled by the test machine at a fixed rate, with stress and strain automatically recorded. The data
includes the stress at fixed points, e.g. 100%, 200%, 300%, elongation (incorrectly, but universally,
referredtoas,e.g.the100%modulus,200%modulusintherubberindustry),theextensionatbreak,
thestressatbreakandthetensilestrength.
Modulusmeasurementstendtobeveryreproduciblebetweennominallyidenticalsamples.Breaking
strain and tensile strength are, however, always rather variable because these properties depend on
thesizeanddistributionofnaturallyoccurringflawsintherubber,andthesealwayshaveastatistical
distribution.Todeterminerepresentativevalues,3to5replicatetestsareusuallynecessary.
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75.3.5.4 Tear strength
Fatigueduetorepeatedstressingisacommonmodeofultimatefailureincomponents.Aparameter
knownastearingenergyisusedincalculationsrelatedtosuchfailure,andthiscanbemeasuredinthe
laboratorybyteartesting.
Acommonlyusedtestisthetrousertearwhereaslitiscutinarectangulartestsampletakenfroma
thinsheetofrubber,sothatthetwosidesoftheslitlooklikethelegsofapairoftrousers.Theedgesof
thetwolegsaregrippedintheupperandlowerjawsofatestmachineandpulledapartsothattearing
occursatthestressconcentrationatthejunctionofthelegs.Ifthelegsarestiffenoughsuchthattheir
extension is negligible, then this shape of test sample gives a very simple method of determining
tearingenergy,T,because:
2F
T [75.32]
t
Where:
F = measured force to produce tearing;
t = test piece thickness
Thehigherthetearingenergythegreatertheresistancetotearing.
75.3.5.5 Resilience and dynamic properties

Ifanelastomerwasaperfectlyresilientmaterial,thenarubberballdroppedontoaveryhardsurface
wouldreboundtothesameheightfromwhichitwasdropped.Itsresiliencewouldbe100%.Infact,
rubberisaviscoelasticmaterialwithrealresiliencelessthan100%.Energyislostduringthecollision
oftheballwiththehardsurface,andmostofthislostenergyconvertedintoheat.
Thischaracteristicisofimportancewhenrubberisusedasaspringmaterial,e.g.invibrationisolators.
Generally in such applications, high resilience is needed, both to increase the effectiveness of the
isolation,andtopreventheatbuildupinthespring,[Seealso:Vibrationisolation].
Theviscoelasticnatureofrubberisalsoimportantunderdynamicloadingbecausetheresponseofthe
material is then dependent both on its elastic properties and its viscous properties, the latter
introducing a time dependence and energy loss. Although a detailed treatment of the behaviour of
elastomersunderdynamicconditions(cyclicloading)isbeyondthescopeofthishandbook,abroad
outlineofdynamicpropertiesisprovidedsothatvariousimportantparameterscanbedefined.
Metal springs are essentially linear in their behaviour, i.e. stress is proportional to strain. In shear,
gum elastomers, i.e. those not containing any fillers, are reasonably linear, but when substantial
quantities of filler are present, as in most engineering compounds, some nonlinearity occurs, and
damping(energyloss)increases.
The various dynamic moduli and other parameters defined are substantially accurate for
deformationsofconstantamplitude,butthevaluesaredifferentatdifferentamplitudes.
The parameter used to describe the amount of damping in a rubber specimen under sinusoidal
dynamicmotionistan,thelossfactororlosstangent,where:
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G"
tan [75.33]
G'
Where:
G : the in-phase or elastic component of the shear stress, known as the storage
modulus.
G : the out-of-phase or viscous component of the shear stress, known as the loss
modulus.
Theabsolutevalueofthecomplexmodulus,G*,whichisusedtoreplacestaticmodulusincommon
equations,isgivenby:
G* G '2
G ''2 1
2
[75.34]
Otherparameterswhichcanbeencounteredindescriptionsofelastomerbehaviourare:
Logarithmic decrement, , which is the natural logarithm of the ratio between successive
amplitudesofthesamesigninadampedfreeoscillation.
Damping ratio, u, which is the ratio between actual damping and critical damping. Critical
damping is the damping needed at the borderline condition between oscillatory and non
oscillatorybehaviour.

u
2 1 2
4 2
[75.35]
sin arctan 2
Thiscanusefullybeapproximatedastanforsmallvaluesof.
Reboundresilience,R,istheratiooftheoutputenergytoinputenergyforamovingmassimpactinga
rubberblock(orarubberballimpactingahardsurface).
AnapproximateequationrelatingRtotanis:
R e tan [75.36]
Further information on resilience and the dynamic properties of rubbers are found in standard text
books,Ref.[7513].
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75.3.5.6 Compression set
Compressionsetisameasureofthelackofrecoveryoftheoriginaldimensionsofarubbercomponent
whichhasbeenheldinadeformedstateforsometime.
Theoriginalpurposeofthetestwastoensurethatrubbersarefullyvulcanised.Ifamanufacturer,in
ordertosavetimeandcosts,undercuresanelastomer,thenthiscanbedetectedinacompressionset
test.
Inteststandards,acuredrubberpelletofaspecifiedsizeisplacedundercompression,usually20%,in
a special fixture. The fixture is then placed in an air oven at a fixed temperature, often 100C, for a
fixedtime,often1dayor7days.
At the end of this time the fixture is removed and dismantled. Measurements are made on the test
samplesafter30minutesrecoveryatroomtemperature.Lossofheightofthesamplecomparedwith
itsoriginalheightisthebasisforthemeasurementofset.
Compressionsetisexpressedas:
t0 t r
set 100% [75.37]
t0 t s
Where:
t0 : the initial thickness,
ts : the compressed thickness,
tr : the recovered thickness.
If the rubber was undercured, then further crosslinks form during the ageing under compression.
Whenthecompressionloadisremoved,thesecrosslinksopposerecoverytothefinalheight,andthe
sampleshowsmorecompressionsetthanonewhichhadbeencuredfullybeforethetest.
Compression set is also often used as a guide to the suitability of a component for its purpose;
particularlyforcomponentssuchassealingrings.However,inthiscontextitis,atbest,onlyaguide.
More sophisticated tests are generally necessary for sealing applications, involving measurement of
retentionofsealingforce;particularlyundervaryingtemperatureorpressureconditions,[See:75.7for
elastomerseals].
75.3.5.7 Physical creep and stress relaxation

Given that rubber is a viscoelastic material, it has both elastic and viscous properties. The viscous
propertiesarethosewhichleadtocreepandstressrelaxation:
Creepifarubbercomponentisheldunderconstantload,thestrainincreasesslowlywithtime.
Stress relaxation if the component is held at constant deformation, its stress decays slowly
withtime.
Ratesofcreepandstressrelaxationcanberelatedtooneanotherbyreferencetothelocalslopeofthe
stressstraincurveforthedeformation,Ref.[7514].
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Atnormalambienttemperatures,creepandstressrelaxationarepredominantlyphysicalphenomena,
associatedwithrearrangementandslippageofthemolecularnetworkunderstress.Therecanalsobe
chemical components to creep and stress relaxation when chemicals affect rubbers, these are
increasinglyevidentatelevatedtemperatures.
Quantitatively,creepandstressrelaxationareexpressedinthesameway;aspresentedinEq[75.38]
(creep)andEq[75.39](stressrelaxation):
e
creep % [75.38]
e0
Where:
e : change in strain,
e0 : initial strain
Similarly,

stress relaxation % [75.39]
0
Where:
: stress.
Theinitialvaluesofstressandstrainareusuallytakenasthevaluesatoneminute,butotherorigins
canbeused.Ratesofcreepandstressrelaxationareonlymildlytemperaturedependentinthenormal
rubbery range. In contrast to chemical effects, physical rates reduce slightly with increasing
temperature.
Figure 75.3.5 shows the result of a simple creep test where a weight is hung on an elastic strip at
ambient temperature and the change in extension is measured with time. It shows that the rate of
creepreducesrapidlywithtime.However,ifthedataarereplottedusingalogarithmicaxisfortime,
an interesting and usefuleffectis observed. Figure75.3.6 showsthe same data plottedagainst a log
time.
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Figure75.35Elastomers:Creepofaweightedrubberstrip
Figure75.36Elastomers:Creepofaweightedrubberstrip(logarithmictime)
Figure 75.3.6 shows that the plot is now linear, which is always approximately the case for plots of
physicalcreeporstressrelaxationofelastomersagainstlogarithmictime.
Thepercentagecreepisthesameforanyfactoroftenincreaseintime,say10minutesto100minutes,
or2monthsto20months.Thisprovidesaconvenientwayofexpressingcomparativecreep(orstress
relaxation)rates,assomanypercentperdecadeoftime,e.g.arateof3.4%perdecade(10years),as
statedonFigure75.3.6.
Totalphysicalcreepinthelifetimeofacomponentcanbeestimatedbyundertakingsimilartestsand
extrapolatingtheresultstotheservicelife.
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75.3.6 Chemical properties
75.3.6.1 Heat resistance

Degradationofelastomersatelevatedtemperaturesisusuallyoxidative.
Oxidation is a chemical reaction, and as such the rate approximately doubles for each 10C rise in
temperature.Oxidationrates,however,aregovernedbytheavailabilityofsufficientoxygentosustain
thereaction.Inbulkyelastomericcomponents,evenathightemperature,therateofreactioncanbe
diffusioncontrolled,i.e.therateofreactionisdeterminednotjustbythetemperature,butbytherate
atwhichoxygencandiffuseintothecomponent.
Figure 75.3.7 shows the relative oxidation rate at 110C for strips of natural rubber of varying
thicknessfrom0.25mmto7mm,Ref.[7515].
2.5
Relative oxidation rate
2.0
1.5
1.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Figure75.37Elastomers:Effectofsamplethicknessonoxidationrateat110C
Theshapeofthecurve(lefthandside)showsthat,at110C,therateisgovernedbydiffusioncontrol
evenforthethinnestspecimen.Theaveragerateofoxidationina7mmstripisonlyhalfofthatina
1mmstrip,andtherateisevenlowerforthickersections.
Someelastomersformaresinousskinduringlongtermatmosphericexposure.Thisskincantakeup
oxygen and protect the interior of the component, but this is normally only effective in static
applicationsbecausetheskincracksundercyclicconditions.
In selecting an elastomer for an application it is necessary to take a balanced approach. When

choosing a material for a substantially bulky component, it can be counterproductive to choose an
unnecessarily heatresistant elastomer. The gain in heat resistance is usually only achieved by
acceptingalossinphysicalpropertiesassociatedwithheatresistantrubbers,sothatthetwofactors
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heat resistance and physical properties need to be carefully balanced. Model tests, and the use of
pastexperience,canbeneededinordertooptimiseselection.
75.3.6.2 Low temperature resistance

Theeffectswhichlowtemperatureshaveonthestiffnessandresilienceofrubberwerebelievedtobe
responsible for the Challenger Space Shuttle disaster in January 1986, where leakage of fuel past
elastomeric Oring seals led to the fatal explosion, although issues with the design of the sealing
systemwerealsoquestioned.
Therearethreelowtemperatureeffectstobeawareof,i.e.:
glasstransition,Tg
contraction,
crystallisation.
ThestiffnessofelastomersbelowtheTgglasstransitioncanbeupto1000ormoretimesitsvaluein
therubberyregion,[Seealso:Elastomerstemperatureeffects].
Elastomers are generally not used at temperatures which are not comfortably above their glass
transition temperatures, both because of stiffening and because of increased creep and stress
relaxation.
The coefficient of thermal expansion (and contraction) of elastomers is generally around 10 times
greaterthanthatofsteel.Elastomericsealsinsteelhousingsthereforeshrinksignificantlyinrelation
tothesizeofthehousingwhenthetemperatureisreduced.
Thus, for example, the effects of contraction, reduction in resilience, and stiffening act together to
reducetheeffectivenessofanelastomericsealastemperaturesfall,[See:75.7].
Crystallisation is a completely separate effect. Elastomers can become partially crystalline under
strain, due to the lining up of molecular chains. The effect is most noticeable in natural rubber and
polychloroprenes,suchasNeoprenefromDuPont.Thesetwoelastomerscanbecomesignificantly
crystallineatlowtemperaturesevenintheabsenceofstrain.
Crystallisation generally occurs slowly, but can lead ultimately to a 100 fold increase in elastic
modulus, and a sharp increase in creep and stress relaxation rates. Crystallisation is reversible on
heating,althoughahighertemperaturecanbenecessaryforreversalthanthatatwhichcrystallisation
commenced.
Crystallisationinnaturalrubberisnotgenerallyaproblemuntiltemperaturesfallbelowabout15C.
It can occur in polychloroprene from about 0C downwards. The extent of the crystallisation is
stronglydependentonthechemistryofthevulcanisingsystem.Crystallisationproblemscanoftenbe
overcome by changes to the grade of the elastomer or the formulation of the compound, without
needingtochangeinthebaseelastomer.
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75.3.6.3 Chemical resistance
Chemicaldegradationofanelastomercanbecausedbyanumberofagents,including:
Oxidationinair,particularlyathighertemperatures.
Hydrogensulphidegas.
Liquids, of which many are detrimental, e.g. ionic attack by amines on some elastomers, free
radicalreactionsandevenattackbywaterathightemperatures.
Amethodofdeterminingtheextentofattackonaparticularelastomerisbytheuseofchemicalstress
relaxation (or creep) measurements. Chemical relaxation is brought about by chemical attack which
actuallybreaksthemolecularchains,orthecrosslinkswhichgivestabilitytothenetwork(crosslink
scission).
Physicalcreepandstressrelaxation,[See:Figure75.3.5],arenegligiblytemperaturedependentinthe
normalworkingrange.However,chemicalrelaxationislinearwithtimeandisstronglytemperature
dependent,increasinginratewithrisingtemperature,becauseitisachemicalreaction.
Inastressrelaxationtestthetotalrelaxationcanbeexpressedas:

A log t t 0 B t t0 [75.310]
0
Where:
A: is the physical contribution, given as physical rate in percent per decade.
B: is the chemical contribution, given by chemical stress relaxation rate in percent
per unit time (usually per minute).
TheresultofastressrelaxationtestcanbeanalysedbyfittingittotheexpressioninEquation[75.310].
The chemical rate can be most readily determined at elevated temperatures where the chemical
reaction occurs more quickly. It is usually impracticable, in terms of time taken, to measure it at
ambienttemperature.
Ifthechemicalrate,B,ismeasuredatanumberofelevatedtemperatures,andthelogarithmofthis
rate is plotted against the reciprocalabsolute temperature, thena straightline is normally obtained;
knownasanArrheniusplot.Thisconsistsofstraightlinesprovidedthattheprocessesinvolvedinthe
phenomenondonotchangefundamentallyasaresultoftemperaturechange,e.g.notappropriateif
thetemperaturechangedsomuchthatthematerialpassedthroughatransition.Figure75.3.8shows
anArrheniusplotinwhichagoodstraightlinewasobtainedbasedonfourmeasuredexperimental
points.Itshowsthetesttemperatures,i.e.195C,155C,130C,and100C,andthelineextrapolatedto
roomtemperature,23C.
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Figure75.38Elastomers:Arrheniusplotexample
Thecreeprateat23Ccanbereadfromthegraph(antilogof16.5i.e.6.8106%perminute).The
totalcreepatroomtemperatureforanygiventimecanthenbecalculated.
Arrhenius plots are a useful way of predicting the rate of processes which are slow at operating
temperature,butwhichcanbecomeimportantovertheservicelife.
75.3.7 Rubber-to-metal bonding

A large number of rubber components are bonded to metal. Plain rubber blocks slip at the loaded
surfaces,leadingtoanuncertaincompressionstiffness.Fixingtoothercomponentsisfacilitatedbythe
presenceofmetalendplatestotherubbercomponent.
Bondingaftervulcanisationispossible,butoftenuncertaininquality.Forthebestbonds,adhesionis
usually achieved during the vulcanisation process. Metal surfaces are prepared, usually by grit
blasting and degreasing, and then coated with adhesive; most often a twopart system comprising
primerandadhesive.Underthepressureappliedduringmouldingofthepartaverystrongbondcan
beachieved.
Specialpeeltestsamplesaremadetodeterminethestrengthofthebond.Astripofrubberisthen
pulled away from the bond and the force to do this is measured. For engineering purposes the
quantitative measure of the peel strength is less important than the mode of failure. For the best
bonds,tearingalwaysoccursintherubberandnotatthebondinterface.Thisistheultimatecriterion
asthebondstrengthcannotexceedthestrengthoftherubber.
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75.3.8 Engineering design with elastomers
75.3.8.1 Fundemental aspects

Elastomersarerarelyusedintensioninengineeringapplications.Mostcomponentsoperateinshear
orcompressionoracombinationofthetwo,occasionallyintorsionorbending.
Exceptforseals,washersandtyres,mostelastomericengineeringcomponentsarestronglybondedto
metal plates during the vulcanisation process to provide surfaces through which the load can be
applied,andtopreventtherubberfromslippingattheloadedsurfaces.
75.3.8.2 Shear stiffness of simple blocks

Theshearstiffness,Ks,ofabondedrubberblock,suchasthatshowninFigure75.3.9isgivenbyEq
[75.311]:
GA
Ks [75.311]
t
where:
A: the cross sectional area.
G is the shear modulus of the rubber.
t: thickness
Figure75.39Elastomers:Simplerubberblockinshear
Theexpressionappliesforanyplanshape,e.g.square,rectangular,circular.However,iftheratioof
thickness to plan dimension exceeds about 0.25, then the block acts as a column and allowance for
bendingneedstobemade.
75.3.8.3 Compression stiffness of simple blocks

Ifablock,[See:Figure[75.39]issubjectedtocompression,thecompressionstiffness,Kc,isgivenbya
similarexpression:
Ec A
Kc [75.312]
t
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Where:
Ec: compression modulus.
A: the cross sectional area.
t: thickness
The compressive modulus is not just a material property, but is dependent on both the intrinsic
stiffnessoftherubberandtheshapeoftheblock.
Rocardfirstdescribedcompressioncharacteristicsofrubberblocksofvariousshapes,e.g.circularand
ellipticalcylinders,rectangularblocks,andshortandlongparallelepipeds.Theexpressionsnowused
includeaparameterknownastheshapefactor,S,whichistheratioofoneloadedareaoftheblockto
the total forcefree area. This is key to all calculations involving the compression of elastomeric
components.
Circularsectionblock,Sisgivenby:
r 2 r
S [75.313]
2rt 2t
RectangularblockSisgivenby:
lb
S
2lt bt
[75.314]
Where:
l: length
b: breadth (width)
RocardsequationforcompressionmodulusEcisthengivenby:
Ec 3G (1 2S 2 ) [75.315]
Theequationisagoodapproximationformostengineeringrubbersinthehardnessrange60IRHDto
80IRHD,[Seealso:Physicalpropertieshardness].
Forshapefactorsaboveabout2.5,i.e.squatblocks,agoodapproximationis:
Ec 5G S 2 [75.316]
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AmoredetailedtreatmentofthecompressionstiffnessofblockscanbefoundinRef.[7516].
75.3.8.4 Compression stiffness of laminated blocks

Laminated rubber blocks comprise a number of discrete rubber layers divided by horizontal metal
platestowhichtherubberisstronglybonded.Theseareverywidelyusedinapplicationsfromsimple
antivibrationmachinemountingstoantiseismicbaseisolationsystemswhichprotectbuildingsand
other structures from earthquakes, [See also: 30.14 for the designdevelopment of Ariane 5: LEC
laminateelastomericcomponents].
The key advantage of laminated blocktype components is the ability to control independently, by
design,theshearandcompressionstiffnesses.Thecompressionstiffnessiscontrolledbythethickness
and number of the laminations, i.e. exploiting shape factor effects, while the shear stiffness is
controlledonlybytheareaandtotalheightofrubberintheblock.
Figure75.3.10showstwoblocksofthesameplansectionandhavingthesametotalheightofrubber,
hencethesameshearstiffness.BlockB,however,isdividedinto7layers.
Kc 49Kc
KS A KS B
Figure75.310Elastomers:Increasingcompressionstiffnessbylamination
Given that the compression stiffness of a squat block is approximately proportional to the shape
factor,S,squared.Toafirstapproximation,blockBhas72,i.e.49times,thecompressionstiffnessof
block A. This enables great versatility in design and this can be further exploited by using, for
example,anopposingpairoftiltedblocks.Theverticalloadthendeformsthelaminatedblockbothin
thestiffcompressionmodeandtherelativelysoftershearmode.Thus,bychangingtheangleoftilta
widevarietyofcompliancesinboththeverticalandhorizontaldirectionscanbeobtained.
Although elastomers have very high bulk moduli and so are relatively incompressible, the
compressibilitydoesbecomesignificantathighshapefactors.
When the compression modulus of a block exceeds about 10% of the bulk modulus, E, which is
typicallyfrom1000MPato2000MPa,thentheeffectivecompressionmodulus,Eeffbecomes:
Ec
Eeff
1 Ec E
[75.317]
75.3.8.5 Torsion stiffness

Torsionisalesscommonmodeofdeformationinengineeringapplications,butcanbeusefulinsome
vibrationisolationapplicationswhenarelativelysoftmodeofdeformationisneeded.Theassumption
ismadethattheendsofthetorsionannulusarestronglybondedtometalplates;asshowninFigure
75.3.11.
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D d
Figure75.311Elastomers:Elastomerictorsiondisc
Thetorsionalstiffnessisgivenby:
K
T

G 4
32t

D d4 [75.318]
Where:
T: torque,
: angular rotation in radians,
G: shear modulus as before,
t: thickness,
D: outer diameter,
d: inner diameter.
75.3.9 Finite element analysis

For many solid or laminated components made of rubber and steel, simple equations are adequate
andare probably preferred for designs wherestiffnessand deformation characteristics arenecssary,
[See:Engineeringdesign].
For components of complex shape, however, FEA finite element analysis methods can be needed to
determinethestiffnessanddeformationcharacteristics.Incaseswherethedistributionofstressesand
strainsisimportant,e.g.todetectstressconcentrations,FEAisusuallynecessary.Specialmethodsfor
FEAofrubbercomponentshavebeendeveloped.Itisavaluabletoolindesign,butneedsadifferent
approachfromFEAforsmallstrainelasticity.
Firstly,anFEAapproachneedsasuitablematerialmodelforthevulcanisedelastomer.Incontrastto
other solid materials, the strains are very much higher, and the stressstrain characteristics are non
linear.Thematerialmodelsarebasedonstrainenergydensityorpotential,whichisanexpression
fortheenergystoredintherubberperunitvolumeasafunctionofthestrain.Thereareanumberof
differentequationsinuseforstrainenergydensity;appropriatetodifferentcircumstances.Laboratory
testsarecarriedoutonsamplesoftherubber,identicalinformulationandcurecharacteristicstothose
ofthefinalproduct.Theteststypicallyincludeuniaxialtension,uniaxialcompressionandpureshear.
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Giventhehighstrainsinvolved,thematerialmodeliscalledahyperelasticmodel.Theinputfrom
the laboratory tests are used in the FEA program to generate the coefficients for the chosen
mathematicalstrainenergydensitymodel.FEAanalysiscanthenproceedasnormal,byreducingthe
componenttoasuitablemesh,andfollowingthedeformationintermsofstressesandstrains.
TherearesomespecialconsiderationswhichneedtobetakenintoaccountwhenusingFEAmethods
forelastomers,i.e.:
Anisotropy:Boththeclassicalequationsforstiffness,andFEAtechniques,assumethatrubberis
isotropic, and remains so under deformation. This is normally a perfectly acceptable
assumption. However, some elastomers, notably natural rubber and polychloroprene,
crystallise under strain. This leads to anisotropic properties which become important when
fracture analysis is undertaken, because the high strains at the tip of a crack lead to local
crystallisationinsuchrubbers(thesourceoftheirhighstrength),andhenceanisotropy.Incyclic
deformations of straincrystallising rubbers, the extent of crack growth in the rubber depends
on the minimum and maximum strains, and whether the cycle passes through a zero strain
condition.NotallFEAprogramscanaccountforthis.
Compressibility: The very high compressibility of rubber components can also lead to
complicationsinFEAanalyses.Bulkcompressionhasanimportanteffectonstiffnessforhigh
shapefactorlayers.Asanexample,despitethehighincompressibilityofrubber,approximately
onethirdofthetotalcompressionofabonded40cmsquareblockofthickness1cm(i.e.ashape
factorof10),isduetobulkcompressionandonlytwothirdsduetonormalbulging.Modern
specialised programs enable the input of true bulk moduli to give correct solutions for high
shapefactorconditions.
Creep or stress relaxation can be taken into account in some FEA procedures to enable some
allowancefortimedependenteffects.Laboratorydataisneededinordertosetratesofcreepor
stressrelaxationfortheactualmaterial.Insomecasesonlyasomewhatsimplifiedversionofthe
timedependent behaviour can be introduced into an FEA program, e.g. where both physical
andchemicalrelaxationarepresent.
Stresssoftening of elastomers (Mullins effect) is important under cyclic conditions. It is the
dynamicequivalentofcreep,andcanbetakenintoaccountinFEAanalysis.
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75.3.10 Applications
75.3.10.1 General
Industrial, general engineering and aerospace applications for elastomers are similar. Some typical
examplesinclude:
Vibrationisolation,e.g.antivibrationmounts,
Seals,suchasOringsandgaskets,[See:75.7],
Flexiblebearings,
Fuelhoses,
Fuelcells,
Deicingsystems,
Electricalinsulation,
Membranesandbladders,forfluidcontainment.
75.3.10.2 Vibration isolation

Amajorapplicationforelastomericcomponentsisinvibrationisolation.Vibrationisolatorswork,not
byabsorbingtheenergyofvibration,butbysimplyblockingtheincomingfrequenciesbydetuning.
Anymassonaspringhasanaturalfrequencywhichisdeterminedbythemassandthestiffnessofthe
spring.Themassreceivesmuchreducedenergyfromthevibrationifitismountedonaspringwhich
gives it a much lower natural frequency than the frequency of the disturbance. In this context
elastomershaveadistinctadvantageoversteelspringsbecauseoftheirinherentdamping.
Althoughdampingisnotthemainmodeofoperation,asmallamountofdampingisalwaysnecessary
toavoidresonanceincasestrayvibrationsoccurinthesystem,i.e.afrequencydifferentfromthemain
disturbance.Ametalspringisthereforenormallytwinnedwithadamper,buttherubbercomponent
combinestheseinoneisolator.
Vibration isolation, using this technique, has been applied sucessfully to buildings, e.g. in the
proximityofundergroundtrainlinesorinzonessuceptibletoearthquakes,Ref.[7517].
[Seealso:30.14Ariane5vibrationisolation;95vibrationcontrolusingsmartsystems]
75.3.10.3 Seals
Elastomersarewidelyusedinsealingapplicationsbecausetheyarebothsoftandresilient.Inmany
cases,noalternativematerialisavailable.
Thechoiceofelastomerforaparticularsealisgovernedprimarilyby:
workingtemperaturerange,
fluidstowhichthesealisexposed.
Theimportantfactorstobeconsideredduringthedesignofelastomercontainingseals,include,[See:
75.7]:
pressure,
dimensions,
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knowledgeofpossiblecausesofleakage,e.g.
temperature,
pressure,
changesinfluids.
explosive decompression; also known by rubber technologists as rapid gas
decompression.
75.3.11 Thermoplastic elastomers

As well as the wide range of vulcanised (thermoset) materials, thermoplastic elastomers (TPEs) are
anotherclass;socalledbecausetheycanbeprocessedlikeplastics.Theybehavebroadlysimilarlyto
vulcanisedrubbers,butwithoutbeingvulcanisedduringmoulding.
TPEs are a twophase system comprising a hard thermoplastic phase and a soft elastomeric phase.
Dependingontherelativeproportionsofthetwophasestheycanbehavemorelikeaplasticormore
like a rubber. They are usually precompounded, so that they are processed by raising the
temperature to the melting point of the system followed by a moulding process to form a suitable
shapewhichisretainedoncooling.
ThebestTPEshaveapplicationswhichoverlapwithvulcanisedrubbers,e.g.usedfortubinginfuel
linesandinaircraftglazing.
Ingeneral,TPEsdonotfiguregreatlyintechnicalengineeringapplications,asabriefexcursiontothe
melting temperature can lead to distortion. Owing to their nature, they also have high compression
set,creepandstressrelaxationcharacteristics,Ref.[7418].
75.4 Energised metal seals
75.4.1 General
Thisclassofsealsusesametalstripwhichisshapedinsectiontoprovideacompressiblespring,Ref.
[743].
The installed seal is preloaded insitu (energised) and any relative movement is taken up by the
elasticityofthespring.SuchasystemisbeingdevelopedforAriane5engineassemblies,Ref.[744],
andhasaCprofile,asshowninFigure75.4.1.
Analternativeserpentineprofileisalsoshown,Ref.[743]whichrequireslesscompressiveforce(pre
loading)thantheCseal.
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Figure75.41Metalseals:Cprofileandserpentine
75.4.2 Materials
Appropriatematerialsinclude:
Nimonic90,
InconelX750,
Inconel718,and
Elgiloy.
Sealsmadefromthesealloysareexpectedtoretaintheirspringcapacityupto800C.
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75.5 NASP engine developments
75.5.1 General
ThedevelopmentoftheNASPengineisanexampleofadvancedhightemperaturesealtechnology,
Ref.[755],[756].
NASPisreliantonahydrogenburninghypersonicengine,[See:73.10].
Designs similar to turbojet nozzles are being considered with movable panels. The extremely hot,
pressurised engine flowpath gases are prevented from escaping past the movable panels.
Consequentlythereisaneedfor:
Hingeseals,betweenadjacentmovablepanels,and
Paneledgeseals,alongeachsideofthemovablepanel.
Thebasicrequirementsare:
Preventionofleakageofflowpathgasesat0.7MPa(100psi),
Resistancetogastemperaturesgreaterthan2400C,
Allowanceforincreasesinpanelseparation(gap)of3.8mm.
To minimise leakage, the paneledge seals are sufficiently preloaded and compliant to seal against
enginewalldistortions.
75.5.2 Developments
75.5.2.1 Ceramic Wafer Seal

This concept consists of multiple ceramic wafers mounted in a closely mating horizontal channel
alongsidethemovablehorizontalenginepanel.Thesealispreloadedagainsttheenginesplitterwall
using an active preload system, such as a series of cooled pressurised metal bellows, as shown in
Figure75.5.1,Ref.[755].Thebellowspushagainstaflexiblemetalbackingplatethatdistributesthe
load to the wafers between the discrete circular bellows. The wafer seal conforms to engine splitter
walldistortionsbyrelativeslidingbetweenadjacentwafers.
Figure75.51NASP:Ceramicwaferseal
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75.5.2.2 Braided Ceramic Rope Seal
Figure 75.5.2 shows that the ceramic wafers can be replaced by a braided rope, Ref. [755]. This is
formed of aluminaboriasilicate (Nextel) fibres capable of sustaining 1260C. In high heat flux
environments,apressurisedcoolantgasflowsdowntheaxisofthesealinflatingtheseal,conforming
ittotheenginewallsandkeepingitcool.
Figure75.52NASP:Braidedropeseal
AllgradesofNextelfibre(Nextel312,440,550and610)werestudiedtoevaluatetheirdurabilityfor
theintended55hourshotexposure,Ref.[755].
Thesesealsaremodelledtopredicttheirperformanceunderthemostarduousconditions,whereheat
fluxlevelscanreach13.6MW/m2,Ref.[756].
75.5.2.3 'V'-ring and 'U'-ring Seals

Theseareusedtosealtheheatexchangerpanelstothenonintegral,backupstructure.
Nonintegral heat exchanger panels line the wetted surfaces of the NASP engine and expand while
heating up to operating temperature. The heat panels glide over thin gauge, flexible seals without
damagingeitherthesealorheatexchangerpanels.
Solid lubricants such as gold and nickel are under evaluation. Representative seal materials include
HS188andIncoloy909.
75.6 Fibrous seals

TheseareusedonbothShuttle,Ref.[757],andBurantofillthegapsbetweentheTPStiles,[See:71.5].
Similar requirements were in the Hermes design for intershingle seals, Ref. [758], [See: 71.12]. The
basicspecificationforthesewas:
Dimensions:height20mm;width4mmandlength300m,
Temperature:1300C(limit)and1450C(emergency),
Emissivity:>0.85,
Plasmaerosionresistance,
Elasticandcompliant.
Thesealsageingbehaviourneedstobewellunderstood.
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75.7 Elastomeric seals
75.7.1 Materials
75.7.1.1 General
Elastomersarewidelyusedinsealingapplicationsbecausetheyarebothsoftandresilient.Inmany
cases,thereisnoalternativematerialthatcanbeused.
Thechoiceofelastomerforaparticularsealisusuallygovernedprimarilybythe:
workingtemperaturerange,and
thefluidstowhichthesealisexposed.
[See:ECSSQ7071formaterialandprocessselection]
75.7.1.2 Aerospace
Although some elastomers are now claiming hightemperature resistance to 325C or more, there is
often a lack of information with respect to their physical performance at these temperatures.
Temperatureresistanceoftenreferstosurvivalratherthanretentionofgoodphysicalproperties.
Agooddesignensuresthatthecomponentcontinuestoserveitsfunctionunderallserviceconditions,
rather than simply choosing an elastomer that survives high temperature or chemical attack. It is
essentialthatthisabilitybeverifiedbylaboratoryandfieldtesting.
[See:75.3]
75.7.2 Design aspects

Thedesignofthesealanditshousingisprincipallygovernedbythemaximumpressuretobesealed.
For example, back up rings ofa stiffer thermoplastic can be incorporated ina design to prevent the
relativelysoftelastomericsealfrombeingextrudedintotheinevitablegaparoundthesealhousing.
The size of the seal is also very important as it can govern the rate of absorption of fluids. It is
important not to overspecify in terms of heat resistance or fluid resistance. Elastomers with higher
heat or fluid resistance almost invariably have poorer physical properties, particularly at higher
temperatures, and they lose their rubbery properties at lower temperatures. A safety factor for
temperatureorfluidresistancecanbecomeadangerfactorforsealing.
Averysmallamountoffluidcan,insomecases,actuallypenetratethoughthethicknessofthesealby
diffusion. This is only of importance in extremely critical applications, but the possibility cannot be
ignored.Significantleakagenormallyoccursduetoseepageoffluidpasttheouterfacesoftheseal,
because the retained force in the seal has reduced excessively, or because of physical damage, or
becauseofchemicaldegradation.
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75.7.3 Causes of leakage
75.7.3.1 Static seals

Staticseals,whendesignedcompetently,rarelyleakincontinuoususe.Leakagealmostalwaysfollows
achangeinconditionsattheseal,e.g.
temperaturechange,
pressurechange,
changeincompositionofthefluidbeingsealed.
Undercontinuoususe,sealsactuallyperformratherbetterthansimplepredictionsforecast.Thereare
probablytworeasonsforthis:
adhesionofthesealtothematingsurfacesoverextendedperiodsoftime,
asmallamountofswellingofthesealduetocontactwiththesealedfluid.
Althoughsealsarechosenonthebasisofnoabsorptionofthecontactingfluid,beitliquidorgas,in
factasmallamountofswellingisamajorcontributortosuccessfulsealing.
75.7.3.2 Pressure-energised seals

Somesealsarepressureenergised,i.e.thepressureofthefluidbeingsealedactstoforcethesealto
make good contact with the sealing surfaces. However, such a seal cannot rely on pressure
energizationalone.Itneedstosealinitiallybeforepressureisapplied;otherwisealeakagepathoccurs
fromtheoutsetand,howevermuchpressureissubsequentlyapplied,itisveryunlikelythatproper
sealing is ever achieved. At best a bumping technique, whereby the pressure is applied in sudden
surges,isresortedtoinanattempttoreenergizetheseal.TheVitonsealsintheChallengerspace
shuttle were found not to have sealed fully, even in previous successful launches. Evidence of
incompletesealingisconsideredasfailureandleadstoaredesign.
75.7.3.3 Effect of temperature

A drop in temperature needs a seal to work harder due to reduced sealing forces and material
contractioneffects,Ref.[7510],[7519],[7520].
The sealing force reduces because the stress in a deformed rubber component is proportional to
absolute temperature. Thus, if the temperature reduces, so does the sealing force. Additionally, the
sealcontractsawayfromitshousingwithdecreasingtemperature,hencethesealingforcedropsstill
further.
The retained (reduced) resilience of the seal needs to be such that recovery of the seal from its
compressed size is sufficient dimensionally, and fast enough, to maintain sealing during the
temperaturedrop.Sealscananddoachievethis,butonlythroughknowledgeabledesign.
75.7.3.4 Effect of pressure

Apressuredroponapressureenergisedsealcannotreducethesealingforcetozero,orthesealdoes
not function when the pressure is reapplied. The seal material needs sufficient recovery under the
temperature conditions during pressure reduction to maintain some sealing force. Even seals which
arenotprimarilypressureenergisedareusuallydeformedbythefluidpressureandneedtorecover
towardstheiroriginalshapeinordertomaintainsealcontactonrepressurisation.
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75.7.3.5 Changes in fluids
Wherethenatureofthesealedfluidchangesduringtheservicelifeproblemscanoccur.Forexample:
whentheUKnationalgassupplychangedincompositionthereplacementgashadasmallerswelling
effectontheseals.Contractionofthesealsoccurredresultinginleakage.
75.7.3.6 Explosive decompression

The term explosive decompression as used in rubber technology is not the same as that in the
aerospaceindustrydescribinglossofpressureinsideanaircraftduetofuselagefailure.Consequently
therubbertechnologytermisnowsometimesreplacedbyrapidgasdecompression.
Aparticulartypeoffailurecanoccurwhengasesathighpressureareabsorbedbyanelastomer,and
thentheexternalpressureissuddenlyreleased.Thisisgenerallyknownasexplosivedecompression
(ED).
ED occurs because very large amounts of gas can dissolve in an elastomer under pressure. No
problemexistswhilethepressureismaintained,butifthepressureisreleasedrapidlythegascomes
out of solution within the bulk of the elastomer as rapidly growing bubbles. This can lead to
catastrophicfailure.
Usually gas pressures of more than 100 atmospheres are thought to be necessary to produce ED,
although in weaker rubbers it has been observed on decompression from 30 atmospheres to
atmosphericpressure.
Two strategies are available to inhibit explosive decompression. The first of these compounds the
elastomer to have the highest possible tear strength, and to have as high a modulus as is practical.
SuchelastomersaredescribedasEDresistant,butthisisjustarelativeterm.Resistancedependsona
numberoffactors,includingthebaseelastomer,thecontactfluidsandtheirsolubility,swellingdueto
absorption, the morphology of bubble formation, and the design of the housing. This last factor
provides the second strategy for resisting ED damage. Elastomers are essentially incompressible.
Bubbles of gas can only grow within the elastomer if the volume of the rubber can increase by the
same amount. Seal housings often have considerable free volume surrounding the seal, for good
reasons connected with tolerances and to provide an allowance for swelling. However, in high
pressure gas applications, seals need to occupy the maximum possible proportion of the housing
groove.HousingdesigniskeytoEDresistance.Itislikelythatasofterrubberwhichtightlyfillsits
housing,withadequateantiextrusionprotection,hasbetterEDresistancethansimplerelianceonED
resistantelastomers.
75.7.3.7 Testing aspects

Theexamplesgivenservetodefinethetypesoftestingthatneedtobecarriedoutinordertoqualify
seals. Longterm tests are generally less appropriate than shorterterm tests in which the conditions
arecycledtoreplicateshutdownsorfailuresoccurringinservice.Forexample,temperaturecycling
testshavebeendevisedwherethesealingforceismeasureddirectlyasthetemperatureisraisedor
lowered.
75.7.4 Aerospace applications

Aerospace applications for elastomers are similar to normal engineering applications, e.g. anti
vibration mounts, flexible bearings, fuel systems (hoses, cells), deicing systems and in Orings,
gasketsandothertypesofseal.
[See:30.14foranexampleofelastomersusedinAriane5]
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Aerospace can, however, have much greater applications demands than are usual, e.g. higher
temperatures, wider temperature extremes, very high chemical resistance, high purity to avoid
contamination.
[See:ECSSQ7071]
75.8 References
75.8.1 General
[751] A.O.Lebeck
PrinciplesandDesignofMechanicalFaceSeals
AWileyIntersciencePublication,ISBN0471515337
[752] P.F.Brown
StatusofUnderstandingforSealMaterials
NewDirectionsinLubrication,Materials,WearandSurfaceInteractions:
Tribologyinthe80s,Cleveland,Ohio,Apr1983p771789
[753] MetallicSealingRing
UKPatentApplication,GB2190154A,Nov1987
[754] TestProgrammeforEnergisedMetalSeals
WorkundertakenbyAdvancedProductsN.V.WorkOrderNo.18
ESTECContract7090/87/NL/PP
[755] B.M.Steinetzetal
HighTemperatureNASPEngineSealDevelopment
NASATechnicalMemorandum105641,April1992
[756] SealsFlowCodeDevelopment
ProceedingsofNASAWorkshop,Mar1991,NASAConference
Publication10070
[757] D.M.Curry:NASA/JSC
Experience
HermesreorientationprogrammePresentStatusandMainObjectives
forHotStructuresandThermalProtectionMaterialsandTechnologies
[759] C.J.Derham:MERLLtd.,UK
Creepandstressrelaxationofrubberstheeffectsofstresshistoryand
temperaturechanges
JournalofMaterialsScience8,p.102329,1973
TransienteffectsinfluencingsealingforceinelastomericOringseals
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Plastics,RubberandCompositesProcessingandApplications Vol
26No3,p.12936,1997
[7511] S.D.Gehman&T.C.Gregson
Ionizingradiationandelastomers
RubberChemistryandTechnologyVol33,p.13751437,1960
[7512] S.G.Burnay&J.W.Hitchon
Predictionofservicelifetimesofelastomericsealsduringradiation
ageing
JournalofNuclearMaterials,131,p.197207,1985
[7513] TestingProcedureforMeasurementofDynamicPropertiesof
VulcanizedRubber
JournaloftheInstitutionoftheRubberIndustry(JIRI),April1973
[7514] A.N.Gent
JournalofAppliedPolymerScience.
VolVI,No22,p.433441,1962
Proceedingsof3rdRubberinEngineeringConference,London,1973,
MRPRA
[7516] A.N.Gent&C.Hanser(Editors)
EngineeringwithRubber
Verlag,Munich,ISBN1569902992,2001
Vibrationisolationandearthquakeprotectionofbuildings
ProgressinRubberandPlasticsTechnology.Vol1No3Julypp1427,
1985
[7518] J.R.White&S.K.De
RubberTechnologistsHandbook
RAPRATechnologyLimited,ISBN1859572626,2001
[7519] R.K.Flitney&B.S.Nau
SealUsersHandbook
AirScienceCompany,ISBN0906085993,1985
[7520] B.S.Nau
FluidSealing
KluwerAcademicPublishers,ISBN079231669X,1992
75.8.2 ECSS standards

[See:ECSSwebsite]
ECSSQST70 Materials,mechanicalpartsandprocesses
ECSSQ7071 Datafortheselectionofspacematerialsand
processes
ECSSQST7002 Thermalvacuumoutgassingtestforthescreening
ofspacematerials
ECSSQST7004 Thermalcyclingtestforthescreeningofspace
materialsandprocesses
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ECSSQST7006 ParticleandUVradiationtestingofspace
materials
75.8.3 ASTM standards

[See:ASTMwebsite]
ASTME595 Standardtestmethodfortotalmasslossand
collectedvolatilecondensablematerialsfrom
outgassinginavacuumenvironment
75.8.4 ISO standards

[See:ISOwebsite]
ISO48 Rubber,vulcanizedorthermoplastic:
Determinationofhardness(hardnessbetween10
IRHDand100IRHD)
Determinationoftensilestressstrainproperties
Determinationoftearstrength:Part1:Trouser,
angleandcrescenttestpieces;Part2:Small(Delft)
testpieces
ISO4662 Rubber:Determinationofreboundresilienceof
vulcanizates
ISO4663 <titlenotstated>
Determinationofcompressionsetatambient,
elevatedorlowtemperatures
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76
Integrity control of high temperature
structures
76.1 Introduction
Integritycontrolisappliedtofibrereinforcedcompositematerials.Itdeterminestherequirementsfor
thosematerialswhichexhibitfailureorfracturecharacteristicsverydifferentfromthoseoftraditional
metallicmaterials,[See:ECSSE3201forfracturecontrol].
Theintegritycontrolfornewadvancedmaterials,i.e.metallicandceramicbasedcomposites,aimsto
ensure that the safety of manrated and reusable structures made from them is commensurate with
thatachievablebyconventionalmetallicmaterialsandmaintainedthroughouttheiroperationallife.
[See:Chapters31,32,33and34]
ThisChapterdescribesfactorsinfluencingtheintegrityofhightemperaturestructuralmaterials,and
includes a resum of an ESA programme assessing the integrity control of SiCbased and CC
composites,Ref.[763],[764].
76.2 Materials
76.2.1 Integrity control

Of the numerous types of materials being developed with potential space use, Integrity control is
applied to those demonstrating characteristics that cannot be adequately described by standard
fracture mechanics principles, e.g. LEFM. To date, these have been identified as any material
containingacontinuousfibrereinforcement.
The ESTEC integrity programme, with Dornier, Battelle, Aerospatiale and Schunk, for carbon and
SiCbased composites aims to provide further information. [See: 76.7 and 76.8 for a resum of the
findingstodate]
Many materials are still undergoing development, one phase of which is to establish their fracture
characteristics, and integrity and fracture control requirements by combined testing and analysis.
InformationpresentedwithinthisChapterispreliminary,hencestrictlyadvisory.
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76.2.2 Fracture control

Formaterialswhosebehaviourcanbepredictedbyfracturemechanics,thetermFractureControlis
used.
[See:ECSSEST3201]
To date, these include some particulatereinforced materials, some whiskerreinforced materials and
the advanced metal alloys in which hightemperature strength is achieved by alloying or by
dispersionstrengtheningthroughtheadditionofverysmallamountsofsmallparticlestomodifythe
microstructure,e.g.ODSalloys.
Care is required for directionally solidified metals or those in which other processing gives
significantlyanisotropicproperties.
76.3 Failure characteristics
76.3.1 Advanced alloy systems

Ingeneral,allattemptstoincreasehightemperaturestrengthhaveresultedinaloweringofductility.
Asaresult,thecriticaldefectsizehasdecreasedfornoncompositematerials.
76.3.2 Composite materials
76.3.2.1 General
Differencesexistbetweenthefailuremechanismsofthosewithmetalandthosewithceramicmatrices.
76.3.2.2 Metal matrix

Ametalmatrixcanexhibitmetalfatiguetypedamage;althoughdifferencesbetweenmatrixandfibre
combinationsaresignificant.
76.3.2.3 Glass and ceramic matrix

Glassandceramicmatricesfailbytheaccumulationofmicrocrackstoacriticallevel,ratherlikefibre
reinforcedplastics,butunlikemonolithicceramics.
76.3.2.4 Fibre-to-matrix interface

Failurecharacteristicsareinfluencedbythefibretomatrixinterface,whichhastobeengineeredto
provideanadequatebutnottoostrongbond.
If bonding is too high, cracks originating in the matrix can propagate through the reinforcing fibres
andfailureisthenbrittle.
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76.4 High temperature

Operation at high temperatures means that the material systems used are likely to undergo
microstructuralchanges,aswellasexperiencingmechanicalorthermalloadingdamageandsurface
environmentalattack.
Therefore another aspect of integrity or fracture control is to ensure that the environments
experienceddonotcauseexcessivedeteriorationofmaterialsduringmanufactureorinservice.Thisis
especiallyimportantforreusableitemsormannedstructures.
76.5 Coatings
76.5.1 General
Dependingontheintendedapplication,coatingscanbeusedtoprovidetherequiredenvironmental
resistance,eithermetallic,ceramicormixturesofthetwo.
Coatingintegrity,whichcansignificantlyinfluencetheoperationallifeoftheunderlyingmaterial,is
establishedunderrepresentativeconditionswhichareoftendifficulttosimulate.
76.5.2 Manufacturing
Manufacturing processes can significantly affect the evenness of coating thickness and residual
stresses. The process temperature and conditions (CTE mismatch between substrate and coating
materials)andthewaythecoatisdepositedaffectthecrackandspallresistance.
Thematerialsystemcanbeverycomplex,e.g.
carbonfibremultidirectionalreinforcementinaSiCinfiltratedmatrix,with
multilayeredcoatingdeliberatelyengineeredtovaryincompositionwithdepth.
Individuallayersareoftenonlyafewmicrometresthick,withtheoverallcoatingthicknesswithinthe
range of 10m to 500m, depending on the type. In general, thicker ceramic coatings are used as a
thermalbarrier(TBC)andareappliedlocally,notalloverthesurfaceofthepart.
76.5.3 Inspection
Thetechniquesusedhavetobecapableofdetectingsmallerdefectswithinandonthesurfaceofthese
complex and more brittle materials. Methods are under development to provide the required
confidencelevel,i.e.minimumdetectablesizeandprobabilityofdetection.
Numeroustechniqueshavebeenproposed,eachclaimingdetectionofverysmallmaterialflawsofa
few micrometres. Whilst many are appropriate for laboratory evaluations, fewer are applicable for
manufacturingandinserviceuse.
To date, openly published literature shows no systematic effort to correlate defect types, sizes and
populationstostructuralintegrity.Instead,efforthasbeenplacedinthedetectionofmicrostructural
features,whichareimportant,butrepresentasmallproportionoftheoveralltask.
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For MMC and CMC materials, which achieve their damage tolerance by controlled instigation and
propagation of defects, determining realistic acceptance levels is complicated by the inherent
inhomogeneity of the material and by the fact that material and component are simultaneously
manufacturedinmostcases.
76.6 Considerations
76.6.1 Mass optimisation

Thereasonforusingthesenewadvancedmaterialsisthattheycanofferpotentiallysignificantmass
savingsovercompetitiveallmetallicconcepts,especiallyforhightemperatureapplications.Theexact
massbenefitsachievablecanonlybeoptimisedby:
Understandingthefailureandfracturemechanisms,
Recognising that these mechanisms are different from those of traditional hightemperature
metallicmaterials,
Foranequivalentsafeperformance,developmentofrealisticmaterial:
designallowables,and
safetyfactors.
It has been done for polymer composites. The same now needs to be done for metal and ceramic
matrix materials. The principles and experience gained with integrity control of polymerbased
composites can be applied to the newer types of composite materials. If a hightemperature
compositeistreatedlikeahightemperaturemetal,anymassbenefitsarecompromised.
76.6.2 Approach
76.6.2.1 General
Theintegritycontrolapproachinfluencesthe:
designofmaterials,
developmentofmanufacturingprocesses,
testingandinspectiontechniquesandmethods,and
confirmedbytheverificationprogramme,Ref.[761].
[See:Figure76.7.1]
76.6.2.2 New materials

Table76.6.1listsfactorstobeconsideredinthedevelopmentoftheintegritycontrolprogrammefor
newmaterials,Ref.[762].
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Table76.61Integritycontrolparametersfornewmaterials
Technologystage Tasks
Material availability:
appropriate forms and quantity
raw materials, with fixed specifications & quantity
second source of equivalent material
Produceability
Fabricate:
demonstrator (detailed) parts.
assemblies
Develop NDI procedures.
Preliminary manufacture and production specifications:
acceptance standards
manufacturing procedures.
Identify and evaluate:
Characterised
all material characteristics uniquely dependent on
manufacture
features that distinguish the new material from a
and production
conventional one, and that may affect produceability &
structural integrity.
material performance at the extremes of material &
process parameters.
Establish material properties by test, including
environment:
strength
damage tolerance
creep
corrosion
Design all other (combined) environmental factors
mechanical identified.
properties Building-block process:
coupon
element
sub-component.
Test sufficient items to create a 'database' to:
preclude potential failure with high confidence.
permit usable mass prediction.
76.7 Case study: Developments in integrity control

An ESAfunded programme started the process of defining the integritycontrol requirements for
oxidationprotectedCC,CSiCandSiCSiCmaterialsinthermostructuralapplications,Ref.[763].
The study logic and integrity control approach for the work are shown in Figure 76.7.1 and Figure
76.7.2,respectively,Ref.[763].
[See:76.8forasummaryofthemainfindingsforPhase1,and76.9fortheactivitiesinPhase2]
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Figure76.71Integritycontrolforhightemperatureapplications:Studylogic
Figure76.72Integritycontrolforhightemperatureapplications:Approach
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76.8 Case study: Phase 1 - Material characterisation
76.8.1 General
Phase1(199293)broadlyconsideredthe:
ability of selected NDI methods to detect anticipated manufacturing defects and thermally
induceddamage,and
proportionofmaximumstrengthusableasanappliedstressbeforeunacceptabledamagewas
initiatedunderthermocyclicconditions.
76.8.2 Materials, manufacturing and NDT
76.8.2.1 General
All the materials evaluated started as polymerbased composites (green parts) that were
subsequentlypyrolysed.TheseinitiallaminateswereevaluatedbyNDTpriortofurtherprocessingto
ensuretheirintegrity.
AdditionalNDTwasinstigatedafterpyrolysisandinfiltrationtoensurethatthemanufacturedhigh
temperaturecompositewassatisfactory.
AnexternaloxidationprotectionsystemwasappliedconsistingofmultipleCVDSiClayersfollowed
byaglassysealingcoat.ThisprotectionsystemhadalsotobeevaluatedbyNDTtoensure:
completecoverage,
overallintegrity,and
consistencyinthickness.
This highlights a minimum of three consecutive manufacturing and NDT stages to ensure that a
suitablehightemperaturecompositehasbeenproduced.
76.8.2.2 Carbon-Carbon
Commercially available product grade CF 222 from Schunk (G) was used. This was prepared by
repeatedpyrolysisandinfiltrationofapolymercompositefollowedbygraphitisation.
76.8.2.3 C-SiC and SiC-SiC

TheDornierprocesswasappliedwithaninitialgreenpartformedbyaSiorganicpolymer,solvent
andSiCpowdercombinedwithcarbonorsiliconcarbidefibresduringfilamentwinding.Subsequent
pyrolysisandreinfiltrationstepsproducedthefinalcomposite.
76.8.2.4 Introduced defects

Attheinitialgreenpartmanufacturingstage,representativedefectsintroducedwere:
Foreignbodyinclusion,i.e.releasefilm,
Layuperrors,i.e.cutfibresbuttedtogether,
Excessiveporosity,asapreludetodelamination.
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Thebasicassumptionwasthatmanufacturingdefectsintroducedatthepolymercompositemoulding
stagecannotberectifiedbyanysubsequentinfiltrationandpyrolysissteps.
76.8.3 Defect detection by selected NDI methods
76.8.3.1 General
It was recognised in advance that several NDT methods are needed, with individual methods to
detectdifferentfeaturesatvariouspoints.Thebroadconclusionsaresummarisedforeachstageofthe
processing.
76.8.3.2 Green part

Thisshowedthat:
The use of both ultrasonic (for delaminations) and Xray radiographic (for foreign inclusions,
layuperrors,voids)inspectioncandetectalllikelydefects.
Appropriateultrasonicmethods(atDornier)werethroughbothtransmissionandpulseecho.
76.8.3.3 Final pyrolysed high temperature composite

Thisshowedthat:
OnlyradiographyisfeasibleforCCtoidentifydensityvariations.
Liquidcoupled squirter throughtransmission, low frequency (1MHz) ultrasonics and
radiographycanbeusedforCSiCandSiCSiC.
Lowfrequency ultrasonics limited signal absorption, but sacrificed resolution on simulated
delamination.
Radiographydetecteddensityandthicknessvariations,fibreorientationsandlayuperrors.
Ultrasonicsinthepulseechomodedidnotperformsatisfactorilybecauseofthehighporosity
contentofthecomposites.
Drycontacttransmissionmodeultrasonics(atAerospatiale)wassuccessfulindetectingmostof
theintroducedflaws.
76.8.3.4 Protective coatings

Thisshowedthat:
Averagecoatingthicknessvaluescanbecalculatedfromtheweightincreaseaftercoating.
ProspectiveNDTtechniquesaremoretentativeasgreaterresolutionisusedforthincoatings,
e.g.100mthick.
Assessmentofcoatingcoveragerequiresalightreflectiontechnique.
Eddycurrenttechniques(atAerospatiale)canbeappliedifthemaincompositeisaconducting
material.
EddycurrentworksonCC,possiblyforCSiC,butnotSiCSiC.
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76.8.3.5 Unsuccessful techniques
Xraymicrofocustechniqueforbetterresolutionprovedunreliableandtimeconsuming.
IR thermography showed some success in revealing delaminations in CSiC and SiCSiC, but
theconductivityofCCwastoohigh.
Anautomatedtappingtestwassuggestedonthefinalcoatedcompositetoensurethatdelaminations
hadnotbeencamouflagedbytheadditionoftheprotectivecoatings,since:
Radiographyisnotrealisticfordelaminationdetection,
Ultrasonics lack precise resolution, and coatings with metallic oxides strongly absorb the
signals.
76.8.4 Maximum applied stresses

Theparametersdiscussedare:
max =maximumappliedstress
ult =ultimatecompositestrength
mc =stressatwhichmultiplematrixmicrocrackingoccurs
Ideally a brittle matrix composite does not experience a stress which induces significant matrix
microcrackingandlossofstiffnessorlinearity,i.e.max<mc.
Inrealitymcisusuallylowinvalueandtherearejustificationstoexceedthispointasthematerialis
toleranttoadegreeofmicrocracking.Therefore,mc<max<ultprevails.
Thequestionthenishowclosetoultcantheappliedloadsgobeforetheintegrityofthecompositeis
lost.
Theapplicationofaprotectivecoatingalsolimitstheappliedstrainbeforecrackingandspallbecome
aproblem.
Designs are therefore strainlimited for the corresponding applied stress. These composites also
possesslowinterlaminarshearstrength(ILSS),whichprovidesanadditionaldesignconstraint.
For the subsequent testing, max = 0.8ult at maximum test temperature, i.e. 80% of ultimate, was
used.
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76.8.5 High-temperature tests
76.8.5.1 Test regime

The specimens underwent limited thermal cycling (1 to 4 cycles) superimposed on dynamic (0.5Hz)
mechanicalloading.
Thebasicloadingandtemperatureregimeswithinasinglecyclewere:
CSiCandSiCSiC:
Heatedto700Candstaticloadapplied,then
150vibrationalloadcyclesandstop,
maintainingappliedloadwhilsttemperatureincreasesto1100C,then
150vibrationalloadcycles,
coolingto700Cwithstaticloadapplied,then
allloadandcontrolledheatingandcoolingremoved.
CC:
Heatedto1600Candstaticloadapplied,then
allloadandcontrolledheatingandcoolingremoved.
76.8.5.2 Four point bending tests

Testswereconductedonspecimens90mmlong,20mmwideand2mmthick;bothwithandwithout
drilledholes(1.5mmor3.0mmdiameter)forvariousthermalexposures.
Theconclusionsdrawnwere:
SiCSiC, where the applied stress (149N 80N applied load) equalled mc. No detectable
damage occurred during loading for specimens without holes or with 1.5mm holes. The
specimenssurvivedthetest.
SiCSiC specimens with 3mm holes showed significant damage propagation and loss of
stiffness.
CSiC specimens with applied stresses three times higher (450N 139N load), showed similar
behaviours to SiCSiC, i.e. the 3mm hole specimen damaged considerably but the other
survived.
CC with applied stress (226N 90 N load): noticeable damage occurred in all the specimens
duringloading.
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76.8.6 Residual strengths
76.8.6.1 SiC-SiC
The material shows good strength retention after 1 to 4 thermocycles with max = 87MPa at
1100C.
NDTrevealedasignificantincreaseinmatrixmicrocrackingthroughoutthespecimens.
76.8.6.2 C-SiC
Theappliedstressmax=240MPa,mc=216MPa,andult=302MPa.Thematerialwascapableof
sustainingthisappliedstressunderthermocyclicconditionsto1100C.
NDTrevealedthatsignificantareasofmicrocrackingandlocaliseddelaminationdamagewere
initiated in the specimens, corresponding to between 2% and 35% of specimen area. One
specimenshowedan80%defectivearea.
Damage areas of 50% corresponded to a loss in residual strength of 100MPa compared with
similarlytreatedspecimenswithnodamagedetectablebyNDT.
76.8.6.3 C-C
The testing regime applied at 1600C was clearly too demanding with max = 191MPa, against mc =
140MPa,andult=245MPa.
76.8.7 Analysis
The results for specimens with holes were analysed against theory and with FEA. A degree of
agreementwasclaimed.
76.8.8 Conclusions
Themainconclusionscanbesummarisedas:
Thesetypesofcompositecanbeappliedwithhighstressesinrelationtotheirultimatestrengths
andaredamagetolerantforalownumberofthermomechanicalcycles.
Lowfrequencyultrasonicsisameansofdetectingdefects,despiteareductioninresolution.
The presence of protective coatings confuses NDT techniques in camouflaging underlying
defects.
Thisarearequiresfurtherwork.
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76.9 Case study: Phase 2 - Structural sub-component

behaviour
Phase2(199394)undertook:
EvaluationofawingedlauncherCSiCshingle,
Developmentofanalysistoolsforstructuralparts,
Acousticnoisetests,
Continuationofthermomechanicaltesting,butunderoxidisingconditions,
FurtherapplicationofNDT,
Updateofintegritycontrolcriteria.
76.10 References
76.10.1 General
[761] DornierGmbH&Battelle
AdvancedMaterialsforSpaceTransportationSystemsFinal
Presentation
ESANo.A0/12308/89/NL/CN.15April1992
[762] J.A.HarrisJnr&M.C.VanWanderham:Pratt&Whitney,USA
RelationshipsofNondestructiveEvaluationneeds&Component
Design
AGARDCP355p.31to38
[763] U.Trabandtetal:DornierDeutscheAerospace/AerospatialeAquitaine&
BattelleEurope
IntegrityControlforHighTemperatureStructuralApplications
Phase1FinalReport.ESAContract8807/90/NL/PP(SC)
RiderNo.1,November1993
[764] A.Pradieretal:ESTEC/DASADornier/AerospatialeAquitaine
IntegrityControlforHighTemperatureStructuralApplications
Noordwijk,5thto7thMay1993
ESAWPP053(August1993),p.236245
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77
Defect types
77.1 Introduction
No material is free from flaws. Likewise all structures contain defects and may experience damage
duringoperationaluse,eitherbythepropagationofexistingdefectsorbyaccident.Dependingonthe
typeofmaterialandtheprocessingormanufacturingrouteused,thedefectswhichmayoccurcanbe
very different. Their size, position and population need evaluation for both the material and the
intendedapplication.
For isotropic or nearisotropic materials, a single flaw or crack will ultimately determine failure,
whereasforanisotropiccomposites,finalfractureisaresultoftheaccumulationofcrackstoacritical
population density. In reaching final fracture, the structural performance (the loadbearing or
environmentalresistance)orthematerialreduces.Thisfactorisconsideredduringthedesignprocess
andappropriatedesignallowancesmade.Italsoinfluencestheoperations(design)lifeandreuseof
structures.
Defectscanarise:
Inthematerial:fromflawsorfrompreprocessing,e.g.
fibredamageduring3Dpreformweaving,
metalinclusionsfrombrokenweavingneedles.
Inmanufacturing:from
inconsistentinfiltrationofmetalorceramicmatrices,
excessivefibreattack.
Inservice:from
propagationofexistingdefects,or
resultingfromenvironmentaldegradation.
Thischapteraimstohighlightthosedefectswhichmayoccuratdifferentstagesofastructureslife.
No attempt is made here to discriminate on the grounds of structural importance as this is highly
applicationdependent.
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77.2 Advanced metal alloys
77.2.1 General
In general, where property improvements do not cause pronounced anisotropy, material defects
similartothoseoftraditionalmetalalloyscanoccur,e.g.:
Inclusions,
Pores,
Cracks,
Contamination,
Oxidation,
Corrosionsurfacedamage.
Including these factors as part of the material specification, enables their potential as defects to be
controlled.
77.2.2 ODS alloys

AdditionalfactorsforODSalloysinclude:
Agglomerationofreinforcingphase,
Particlesizeandcontent.
77.2.3 SPF alloys

AdditionalfactorsforSPFalloysarethegrainsizeanddistribution.
77.3 Metal matrix composites
77.3.1 General
TheintegrityofMMCmaterialsisdeterminedbythecharacteristicsofthereinforcement,matrixand
the interface between the two. A disruption, either physical or chemical, of one or more of the
constituent parts can affect material performance, hence can be considered a material defect. An
integratedmaterialdevelopmentandprocesstechnologyprogrammewillaimtolimittheoccurrence
ofsuchdefects.
77.3.2 Standard product forms

ForMMCboughtinmaterials,suchassheetorextrusions,defectacceptancelevelsaredeterminedas
partsofthematerialspecification.
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77.3.3 Near-net shape manufacture

Formaterialsmanufacturedsimultaneouslywiththepart,Table77.3.1listspotentialdefectsandtheir
possiblecauses,Ref.[771].
Table77.31MMC:Typicalmaterialdefects
Defect Possiblecause
Reinforcement
Volume fraction and Incorrect lay-up.
variations Process induced movement.
Particulate/Whisker
Poor distribution Mixing and/or processing.
Continuousfibres
Significant for monofilaments. Care required
Broken/damaged when weaving preforms from tows. Avoid over-
bending monofilaments.
Orientation and lay-up Incorrect lay-up.
Coating material and
Stipulated as part of fibre specification.
thickness
Attack by matrix
Fibre surface and process dependent.
Poor infiltration by matrix
Reinforcement/Matrixinterface
Poor bonding
Bond too strong Related to fibre surface coating and/or
Excessive diffusion zone processing conditions. Where possible minimise
Precipitation of brittle, processing time at high temperatures.
undesirable compounds
Matrix
Affected by presence of reinforcement and/or by
Irregular microstructure
processing conditions.
Cracking Matrix material and processing related.

Shrinkage and tears
Porosity
Delamination Poor consolidation.
Inclusions
Contamination.
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77.4 Ceramic matrix composites

TheintegrityofCMCsisdeterminedbythereinforcement,matrixandinterfaceactingtogether.The
defecttypeslistedinTable77.4.1applytoceramic,glassandcarbonmatrixcomposites,Ref.[772]to
[776].
Table77.41CMC:Typicalmaterialdefects
Defect Possiblecause
Reinforcement
Surface conditions and/or process
Excessive attack.
conditions.
Reinforcement/Matrixinterface
Poor bonding. Related to fibre surface coating
Too strong a bond. and/or processing conditions. Where
Excessive diffusion zone. possible minimise processing time at
Precipitation of brittle compounds. high temperatures.
Matrix
Affected by presence of
Irregular microstructure. reinforcement &/or by processing
conditions.
Excessive cracks. (1) Matrix material and process related.
Excessive porosity. (1) Dust, debris or metal objects (e.g.
Inclusions. broken weaving needles).
Key: (1)Allcompositescontainacertainlevelofmatrixcracks&porosityasaresultofnormal
manufacturingprocesses.
Crackingandporositycanbeconsideredadefectif:
higherthannormal,e.g.>10%porosity,typically.
unevendistribution.
CMC materials are created as near as possible to the finished component shape to avoid inducing
damage by subsequent processing. The manufacturing process may comprise of several stages,
notablymatrixinfiltration,toobtainamaterialoftherequiredintegrity.
77.5 Coatings
The objective of a coating is to modify the surface characteristics of a part, in such a way that
environmental resistance is better than that of the substrate material. Any imperfection in a coating
thatallowsexposuretotheenvironmentisdetrimental.
Mostcoatingsinvolvetheuseofoneormoreintermediatephases(layers)betweenthesubstrateand
the external coating itself. The integrity of coating and intermediate layer(s) applied to seal the
substrate,determinetheeffectivenessofacoatedpart.Notallcoatingsarerequiredtobecontinuous
over the part surface, e.g. thermal barrier coatings. Here the mislocation of the coating can also be
classedasadefect.Table77.5.1liststypicaldefectsforcoatings,Ref.[777].
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Table77.51Coatingmaterials:Typicaldefects
Defect Possible cause
Mis-location.
Process and part geometry.
Thickness variations.
CTE mismatch between substrate & coating.
Cracks: Residual stresses from:
Surface breaking. Process: Temperature gradients.
Within coating. Anisotropic deposited coating.
Phase transformations.
Process conditions and/or surface conditions.
Structure of substrate or intermediate layer.
Poor bonding.
Residual stress.
CTE mismatch.
Process conditions and/or surface conditions.
Debonding. Residual stress.
CTE mismatch.
Variations in Process conditions.
microstructure. Service use.
Handling.
Chips and scratches. Impact.
Erosion.
Process conditions.
Porosity and voidage.
Contamination, including gases.
77.6 Joints
77.6.1 General
Joints are needed between either the same (similar) materials or dissimilar materials. The types of
jointscanbeclassedas:
Fusion,or
Mechanicalfastened,includingInterlockeddesigns.
[See:Chapter60FusionJoints,Chapter61MechanicalJoints]
77.6.2 Uses
Ingeneral,mechanicalfasteningisappropriateformetallicbasedmaterialsandmaybeconsideredfor
CarbonCarbon materials. Interlock designs and fusion may be appropriate to both metallic and
ceramicbasedmaterials.However,theexactfusiontechniqueusedvaries,asshowninTable77.6.1.
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Table77.61Fusionjoints:Exampleoftechniquesanduse
Technique Comments
Welding Weldable metals.
Brazing Dissimilar or similar.
Metallic
Either with SPF, or secondary
Diffusion bonding
joining.
Brazing Dissimilar or similar.
Ceramic
Bonding Example: by resin pyrolysis.
77.6.3 Mechanical fastened joints

Defectsarisinginthematerialsofmechanicalfastenedjointsmayinclude:
Materialcrushingorcrackingclosetotheattachment;ceramicbasedmaterials.
Surfacedamage.
Wear.
Ingeneral,thesecanbeattributedtoeithererrorsincomponentgeometryortheassemblytechnique
(overorundertightening,surfacedamage).Theyaredifficulttodetect,especiallysurfacedamageto
parts concealed in the assembled joint. This is particularly true for coated parts, e.g. fasteners, in
which the coating is present to resist environmental degradation or allow disassembly after
operationaluseathightemperatures.
77.6.4 Fusion joints

TypicaldefectsoccurringinfusionjointsareshowninTable77.6.2.
Table77.62Fusedjoints:Defects
Technique Defect Possiblecause
Pores
Material(s)
Cracks
Welding Contamination
Tears
Process conditions
Poor penetration
Pores
Process conditions
Brazing Cracks
Contamination
Disbond
Bonding:
Diffusion Disbond Process conditions and/or surface
Resin pyrolysis Disbond contamination
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77.7 Structural parts
77.7.1 General
Defects occurring during the manufacture of parts can be classed as those occurring from further
processingofmaterials:
Metalalloys,
Compositematerials:e.g.boughtinornearnetshapemanufacture.
77.7.2 Composite materials
77.7.2.1 Shaping and machining

PotentialdefectsarelistedinTable77.7.1.
Table77.71Defectsincompositematerialsafterfurtherprocessing
Defect Comments
Shaping
Broken fibres Too tight radii
Interface failure
Deviation from ideal processing conditions
Delamination
Matrix cracks
Poor material quality
Material fracture
Machining
Broken fibres
Interface failure Procedures require re-evaluation
Delamination
77.7.2.2 Near-net shape manufacture

Wherethematerialandfinishedpartaremanufacturedatthesametime.
[See:Chapter87Integratedmanufacturing]
77.8 In service
Defectsarisinginservicecanbeclassedas:
Propagationofexistingdefects.
Initiationandpropagationofdefects;frominserviceconditions.
Damage;fromaccidents.
Thedefectpropagationcharacteristicsofmaterialswillhavebeenevaluatedduringthedesignstage,
andajudgementmadeontheservicelifeofsuchcomponents.Sincemostofmaterialsaredestinedfor
hightemperature operation, defects initiating in service occur as a result of the combined effects of
thermalandmechanicalloadingsandotherenvironmentalfactorsspecifictotheapplication,suchas
erosion,oxidation.Table77.8.1listsdefectswhichmayoccurtostructuresandpartsinservice.
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Table77.81Typicalinservicedefects
Defects Comments
Metallic
Initiation at surfaces or internal defects. Propagation by thermal or
Cracks. mechanical cyclic loads.
Residual stress.
Microstructure. Temperature induced changes.
MMCs
Cracks. Matrix fatigue cracking.
Fibre breakage. Matrix & Interface dependent.
Interface failure. Thermal/Mechanical loads.
Stress concentrations.
Delaminations.
Residual stress.
Oxidation. Environment.
Matrix microstructure. Temperature induced transformations.
Diffusion. Temperature induced.
CMCs
Initiation at surfaces or internal defects. Propagation by thermal or
Cracks.
mechanical fatigue. Residual stress.
Fibre breakage. Interface dependent.
Interface failure. Thermal/Mechanical loads.
Delaminations. Stress concentrations/Residual stress.
Oxidation. Environment.
Matrix microstructure. Temperature induced transformations.
Coatings
CTE differences.
Cracks: Surface breaking.
Thermal/Mechanical cyclic loads.
Impact. CTE differences.
Cracks: Internal to layer.
Thermal/Mechanical cyclic loads.
CTE differences.
Debonding. Thermal/Mechanical cyclic loads.
Impact.
Surface, leading to initiation of cracks.
Erosion.
Thinning of coating.
Surface, leading to initiation of cracks.
Oxidation.
Thinning of coating.
CTE differences.
Spalling. Thermal/Mechanical cyclic loads.
Impact.
Mechanical/Interlockjoints
CTE differences.
Loosening.
Thermal/Mechanical cyclic loading.
Temperature induced.
Diffusion.
Impairs disassembly?
CTE differences.
Cracking.
Thermal/Mechanical loading.
Fusionjoints
CTE differences.
Cracking.
Debonding.
Propagation of bondline defects.
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77.9 References
77.9.1 General
[771] W.N.Reynolds:AEREHarwell,UK
NondestructiveTestingTechniquesforMetalMatrixComposites
AERER13040(June1988)
[772] A.Morshetal:FraunhoferInstituteforNDT,Germany
RecentProgressinHighFrequencyUltrasonicsinNondestructive
TestingandAcousticMicroscopy
NuclearEngineering&Design128(1991),p.8389
[773] C.B.Scubyetal:OxfordUniversity,UK
NondestructiveTestingofCeramicsbyAcousticMicroscopy
Br.Ceram.Trans.J.88,(1989),p.127132
[774] L.W.Kessler&T.M.Gasiel:SonoscanInc,USA
AcousticMicroscopyReview:NondestructiveInspectionofAdvanced
CeramicMaterials
AdvancedCeramicMaterials,Vol.2,No.2,(1987),p.107109
[775] D.J.Rothetal:NASALewisResearchCenter,USA
ReliabilityofVoidDetectioninStructuralCeramicsbyuseofSLAM
MaterialsEvaluation44,May1986.p.762769
[776] C.LeFloch:AerospatialeAquitaine,France
NondestructiveInvestigationsofAdvancedMaterials(CarbonCarbon
&CeramicCompositeMaterials):WP2StateoftheArt
ReportNo.NT25209/TA/N(18/06/90)
PreparedforFulmer/ESAContractNo.7090/87/NL/PP
[777] P.F.Becheretal:NavalResearchLab,USA
FactorsintheDegradationofCeramicCoatingsforTurbineAlloys
ThinSolidFilms53(1978),p.225235
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78
Damage tolerance
78.1 Introduction
78.1.1 Materials
Damage tolerance is the ability of a material to retain an acceptable level of structural and or
environmentalresistancepropertiesundertheeffectsofoperationalconditions,withoutriskoffailing
inacatastrophicmanner.
78.1.2 Structure
A structure is considered damage tolerant if the amount of general degradation or the size and
distribution of local defects expected during operation do not lead to structural degradation below
limitspecifiedperformance;asspecifiedinECSSEST3201(previouslyESAPSS01401).
78.1.3 Fracture mechanics

Damage tolerance extends the surfacerelated fatigue (or initiation) life analyses to include
assessmentsofliferemainingaftercrackinitiation.Thisconceptisbasedontheprincipleoffracture
mechanics.
Improvements in safety and reliability have resulted from prudent application of the damage
tolerancephilosophyindesignanddevelopmentofaerospacestructuresandenginecomponents,Ref.
[781]. It is an accepted design principle for traditional metalbased applications, Ref. [782], and is
becomingadoptedforpolymercompositematerials.
Advanced materials and composites challenge specific current methods used for damage tolerance
assessment,butthefundamentalconceptsarelikelytoremain.Asnewmaterialsystems,fabrication
techniquesandconfigurationsareintroduced,lifepredictionanddamagetoleranceprincipleshaveto
be developed concurrently. Initially, the operating stress is limited to a level below which cyclic
induced damage occurs. When confidence has increased, by proving of analysis methods which
describefailurecharacteristicsbetter,theconservatismappliedcanthenbereducedwithoutaffecting
safetyrequirements,therebyenablingthenewmaterialstocompetewithexistingones,Ref.[781].
78.1.4 Initial material quality (IMQ)

Foremost among material characterisation is the fundamental resistance to crack growth, which is
quantifiedforlifeprediction.
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For conventional materials a direct assessment of damage tolerance can be made on relative crack
velocity against stress intensity behaviour. The intrinsic Initial Material Quality (IMQ), defined as a
distributionofmicrostructuralanomaliesthatmightleadtofailure,influencesdamagetolerance.This
conceptishelpfulinquantifyingtheeffectofdefectsbelowthecurrentNDEdetectioncapability.
Materialinspectability,e.g.probabilityofdetectioncurves,areestablishedforindividualmaterials,
sincetheprocessingmethodscaninhibitinspectability.Precautionistakentoensurethattheeffectof
processingonfinalmaterialqualityisalsoinvestigated,andreliablelimitsobtained.Alltheseitems
combine to give inspection size against remaining life predictions for specific materials and
applications.Thisinturnformsthequantitativebasisofadamagetolerantdesignandlifeprediction
approach,Ref.[781].
For the new groups of highstrength, brittle materials, IMQ becomes more prominent. The initial
defect tolerance could besufficiently limiting for proof testing to become, fundamental to hardware
acceptance and certification. For MMCs and CMCs, the IMQ can consist of an even distribution of
individual flaws, and might therefore be less important. Here the accumulation of damage, and the
correspondingpropertylosscandefinelife.
Failure definition differs from that customary for isotropic materials. Crack velocity versus. stress
intensity can be inadequate for complex composite structures, except perhaps for unidirectional
reinforcements.Itcanbemoreappropriatetoconsiderfractureenergy,orothersuchparameters.The
definitionoffailureareusuallydifferentwiththenewmaterialsgroups.
Formaterialswithlowdamagetolerance,e.g.intermetallicandconventionalceramics,prooftestlife
candeterminecomponentretirement;withreproofingtoestablishsafereturntoservice.
For high temperature applications, timeattemperature or thermalcycling duration can define life,
Ref. [781]. It, and other applicationdependent environmental factors, can also strongly influence
defectinitiationandpropagationmechanisms,soinfluencingdamagetolerance.
Thedamagetoleranceofthenewadvancedmaterialsisundergoingevaluation.
78.2 MMC: Particulate and whisker reinforced
78.2.1 Fatigue behaviour
78.2.1.1 General
Ingeneral,thefatiguebehaviourofwhiskerreinforcedMMCsissuperiortothatoftheunreinforced
matrix,whereasthatofparticulatereinforcedMMCsisatleastequivalenttotheunreinforcedalloy,as
showninFigure78.2.1,Ref.[783].
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Figure78.21WhiskerandparticlereinforcedMMC:Fatigueresponse
78.2.1.2 Particulate size

The size of particle used can strongly influence fatigue performance and fracture toughness, as
Therefore there exists an optimum size to gain most advantage over the unreinforced material. The
particlecontentanddistribution(processing)alsoinfluenceMMCfracturebehaviour.
Table78.21MMC:Effectofparticlesizeonfatigueandfracturetoughness
Particulatesize Fatigue Fracturetoughness
No benefit over matrix
Too small May result in 'clumping'
alone.
Improvement, up to
Particulate cracking and
Too large level where Fracture
early fracture.
Toughness dominates.
78.2.2 Fracture mechanics

StudiesontheapplicabilityofFractureMechanicstodiscontinuouslyreinforcedmaterialsconcluded
that whereas the behaviour of particlereinforced materials tends to be predictable with the aid of
LEFM principles, whiskerreinforced materials show different behaviour, including sampletype
dependencyofresults,Ref.[783].
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78.3 CMC: Whisker reinforced

Littleinformationontheperformanceofwhiskerreinforcedceramicsis,asyet,openlypublished.
Astudy,Ref.[784],toexaminethehightemperatureperformanceofSiCwhiskerreinforcedalumina
demonstratedthatforchevronnotchedtestspecimens(consideredmorerepresentativethanstraight
notched), the fracture resistance was independent of temperature between 20C and 1000C but
greatlyincreasedabove1000C.ThiswasattributedtocrackbridginginthewakeregionbytheSiC
whiskers.
Otherimportantconclusionswerethat:
thelargescatterbandsforfracturetoughnessdatawereindicativeofpersistentcrackarrestand
reinitiation.
LEFMwereinadequatetodescribethematerialbehaviour.
78.4 MMC: Continuous fibre reinforced
78.4.1 Fatigue
78.4.1.1 General
FatiguedamagecharacteristicsinMMCvarywiththeparticularmatrix,fibreandinterfacialbonding
properties,assummarisedinFigure78.4.1,Ref.[785],[786].
(1)
Characteristic Mechanism Example MMC
MATRIX
Matrix failure requires less cyclic
DOMINATED Boron/Al-alloy
strain than fibre
FAILURE
FIBRE
Fibre failure requires less cyclic
DOMINATED SiC/Ti-alloy
strain than matrix
FAILURE
Fibre and matrix require similar INTERFACE Depends on fibre to matrix interface

cyclic strains to failure DOMINATED bond strength
(1)
Key: Different failure modes can exist between different alloy grades
Figure78.41MMCpotentialfailuremechanismsundercyclicloading
The characteristics of the metal matrix can determine the failure mode, as summarised in Figure
78.4.2, Ref. [785]. The manufacturing process used can result in residual stresses in both fibre and
matrix. Depending on the precise process temperature and the CTE mismatch between fibre and
matrix, residual stress levels vary within the composite. In general, they are compressive in the
reinforcementandtensilewithinthematrix.Thiscausesanunfavourablestressstateinthematrixfor
fatigueresistance.
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Figure78.42FailuremodesofMMC
78.4.1.2 Single crack failures

Single crackfailure,alsoknown as selfsimilar crackgrowth, occurs when the fatigue failure strains
formatrixandfibrearesimilar,i.e.:
wheninterfacialbondingishigh(toohigh),and
ifthematrixishighstrength;capableofcreatingahighstressconcentrationinthefibreahead
ofthematrix.
Damageislocalisedatorverynearthecracktipandthefailureissimilartothatseeninmetals.
78.4.1.3 Matrix failure

Matrix failure is the gradual accumulation of fatigue damage distributed throughout the matrix
without causing fibre damage, but debonding at interfaces, Ref. [785], [786]. Failure is therefore
progressiveandnotcatastrophic.
Figure78.4.3showsthefatigueresponseofaMMCshowingmatrixfailure,Ref.[786].
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Figure78.43MMC:Fatigueresponseshowingmatrixfailure
Therearethreeregions,[See:Figure78.4.3]:
Shakedown:Plasticdeformationcanoccurduringthefirstfewcyclesasthecompositeresponds
toloading.TheShakedownStressisreachedifthematrixcyclicallyhardenstoacyclicyield
stresssuchthatonlyelasticdeformationoccursundersubsequentloadcycles.Abovethisstress,
damageinitiatesinthematrix,butnotthefibres.
Damage accumulation: Where fatigue cracks initiate and propagate in the matrix and cause
debondingatthefibrematrixinterface;resultinginafallinstiffness.
Fractureregion:Wherethefibresfail.
78.5 CMC: Continuous fibre reinforced
78.5.1 Failure characteristics
78.5.1.1 General
Ingeneral,thefailurecharacteristicsofCMCmaterialsarecontrolledbythecombinedactionoffibre,
matrixandtheinterfacialbondingbetweenthetwo.
78.5.1.2 Fibre to matrix interface

To achieve damage tolerance, the interface is engineered to prevent cracks initiating in the matrix
propagatingintothefibres,thusenablingaprogressivefailureratherthanthecatastrophicfailureof
monolithic ceramics. This is particularly difficult to achieve since the processing methods, notably
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temperature at which the matrix is infiltrated, can cause significant fibrematrix reactions at the
interface. Consequently the overall idealised fibre properties are never realised in a consolidated
composite.
78.5.1.3 Fracture characterisation

LEFM is inadequate to describe continuouslyreinforced composites. It is possible that methods
developed to predict polymerbased composites are also appropriate for some materials, since their
failuremechanismsaresimilar,[Seealso:Chapter33].
Thecomplicationariseswhenthereinforcementsaremultidirectional,nearnetshapes,coupledwith
theeffectsofhightemperatures,whichcanchangethemicrostructureofmatrixandfibreinterfaces.
As the majority of intended applications require materials and finished shapes created at the same
time, the opportunity for a systematic characterisation of the material is limited and, almost,
redundant.
Insteadassessmentofdamagetoleranceisincludedintheparticularapplicationdevelopment.Apart
fromexperience,itisunlikelythatdataareinterchangeablefordifferentapplications.
78.6 Coatings
78.6.1 Coating performance

Damage tolerance of coatings is influenced by the performance of the constituents of the material
systemactingtogether,assummarisedinTable78.6.1.
Table78.61Coatings:Damagetoleranceaspects
Material Characteristicsfordamagetolerance
Inherent material properties, e.g.:
mechanical
physical
Coating Deposition process
Post-deposition processing, e.g.:
sealing
heat-treatment
Stability:
mechanical
Interface chemical, and
physical
Adhesion
Inherent material properties, e.g.:
mechanical
Substrate physical
Post-deposition processing, e.g.:
heat-treatment
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Thesefactorsareinfluencedbyoperationinhostileenvironments,e.g.:
Hightemperature,
Thermalcycling,
Erosion,
Atmospheres,suchas:
oxygen,and
hydrogen.
Application of a coating can influence the overall mechanical properties of the substrate, [See also:
Chapter74].
78.6.2 Process and material selection
78.6.2.1 General
Correctselectionofmaterialsandprocessingconditionsminimises,Ref.[787]:
ResidualstresscausedbyCTEmismatchbetweencoatingandsubstrate(interfacefailures).
Thermal gradients, caused by process conditions and materials CTE differences. (Spray
deposition)
Materialelasticanisotropy.(Spraydeposition)
Microstructuralchanges,includingphasetransformations.
78.6.2.2 Microstructure
Control of the coating system microstructure can improve coating failure (spall) resistance, thereby
improvingthedamagetolerance.
78.6.3 Failure characteristics

It is therefore necessary to evaluate the materials and processing parameters under realistic
environmentalconditionstodeterminedamagetolerance.
Failure characteristics are normally determined by mechanical testing and analysis. Thermally
induced damage can be predicted by diffusion kinetics, if the environment is defined precisely;
confirmedbymetallurgicalexaminationoffailedtestspecimens.
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78.7 References
78.7.1 General
[781] T.E.Farmer&M.C.VanWanderham:Pratt&Whitney,(USA)
DamageToleranceConceptsforAdvancedMaterials&Engines
AGARDCP449ApplicationofAdvancedMaterialsforTurbomachinery
&RocketPropulsion,p61to67
[782] MILSTD1783(Nov.1984).Including:EngineStructuralIntegrity
Program(ENSIP)
[783] H.J.Rack&P.Ratnaparkhi:ClemsonUniversity,(USA)
DamageToleranceinDiscontinuouslyReinforcedMetalMatrix
Composites
JournalofMetals,Nov1988p5557
[784] M.G.Jenkinsetal:UniversityofWashington,(USA)
ElevatedTemperatureFractureResistanceofSiCwhiskerreinforced
PolycrystallineAl2O3MatrixComposite
Proceedingsof1987SEMFallConference:DynamicFailure,
Oct25281987p3338
[785] V.Gerold:MaxPlanckInstittforMetallforschung,(D)
FatigueofContinuousFibrereinforcedMetalMatrixComposites
Proceedingsof9thRisInternationalSymposiumonMetallurgy&
MaterialsScience:Mechanical&PhysicalBehaviourofMetallic&
CeramicComposites.59September,1988
RisNationalLaboratory,Roskilde,Denmark
[786] C.R.Saffetal:McDonnellDouglasAircraftCo.,(USA)
DamageInitiationandGrowthinFibrereinforcedMetalMatrix
Composites
JournalofMetals,November1988p5863
[787] P.F.Becheretal:NavalResearchLaboratory,(USA)
FactorsintheDegradationofCeramicCoatingsforTurbineAlloys
ThinSolidFilms53(1978)p225235

ECSSEST3201,SpaceengineeringFracturecontrol,previouslyESA
PSS01401.
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79
Fracture control
79.1 Introduction
79.1.1 Application
79.1.1.1 Alloys
Fracture control is applied to materials which can be adequately predicted by Fracture Mechanics
principles;[See:ECSSEST3201,previouslyESAPSS01401].
In general, this applies to conventional alloys, but it can also be considered for new materials that
incorporate a reinforcing phase, provided that it does not result in significant levels of property
anisotropyandthatthefractureorfailuremechanismsarepredictableusingthestandardtechniques.
79.1.1.2 Brittle materials

Inherently brittle materials, such as intermetallics and beryllium, affect Fracture Control
requirements,inthatthecriticaldefectsizecanbeatorbelowthereliablelimitsofdetectionforNDE
techniques.
Thisisespeciallyrelevanttoinserviceinspectionwheredetectablesizeandprobabilityofdetection
oftendifferconsiderablyfromthoseobtainedunderideallaboratoryconditions,Ref.[791].
WorkontheFractureControlofnewadvancedmaterialsisongoing.
79.2 References
79.2.1 General
[791] J.Wilson&D.P.Bashford:BNFFulmer,(UK)
InspectabilityInserviceofComposite&MetallicStructures
BNFReportNo.R1176/D14/Jan.1991
[792] MILHDBK5F(November1990)

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80
NDT techniques
80.1 Introduction
Various NDI techniques are evolving from the established methods for the inspection of advanced
material systems for hightemperature applications. The impetus is to detect defects in brittle
materials that are smaller than those in the traditional ones, i.e. hightemperature metal alloys. A
further complication is that the newer materials consist of several different phases which makes
characterisationdifficult.
Experience of NDI of polymerbased composites is helpful, [See: Chapter 34], but other factors are
considered,including:
Defect size: Critical sizes in brittle materials can be in the 10m to 100m range, e.g. for
detection by ultrasonics high frequencies are used, (>20MHz to GHz range) because the
wavelengthhastobecomparabletothedefectsizetobedetected.
Overall population of defects: Isolated defects can be tolerable whereas groups, which can
combine and exceed critical sizes, are not. This includes density gradients (porosity content)
withinCMCmaterialscausedbypoorinfiltration.
Position within component, i.e. near or within significant loadbearing paths. Applications
include structural parts of complex shape with integrally created attachment or loadtransfer
points;e.g.spaceplaneleadingedgeTPS.
Thesensitivityoftechniquesiscarefullyestablishedinordertoenablestructurallysignificantdefects
tobedistinguishedfromaninherentlycomplexmaterialconsistingofmanysmallbuttolerableflaws.
Ingeneral,thisisaccomplishedbyintegratingNDIintothematerialandprocessdevelopmentstage,
whereby the acceptable defect level is established for a good part and confirmed by destructive
testing.ThisthenbecomesaReferenceforallsubsequentpartsmade.
Establishing the quality of thin coatings has always posed problems, more so when the number of
layers has increased and when they are applied to parts with complex geometry, e.g. engine
components, fasteners. In general, any surfacebreaking defects which enable exposure to an
aggressive environment need detection. Likewise, subsurface defects which can lead to premature
coatingfailureorspallhavetobeidentified,[See:80.5].
Forfusionbonds,weldorbrazeinspectiontechniquescanbecomplicatedbytheneedtodetectsmall
defectsinshapedpartsaftermanufacturingorinservice.Experiencefromthenuclearindustryhelps
in the inspection of metal components (condensers and tubing), [See: 80.6; 80.7]. Aircraft industry
experiencewithcomplexSPF/DBpartsalsoappliestospacestructures,Ref.[8018].[See:80.7]
Many methods described in open publications are for use only in laboratory conditions. These can
form part ofthe overall materialsandprocess development stages. Fewer methodsareavailable for
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postmanufacturebecause,inmanycases,thegeometryinhibitsaccess.Fewerstillhavepotentialfor
inserviceuse.
Forinserviceinspection,ideallyatechniqueisnoncontact,automated,remote(forexternalsurfaces)
and with access to the part (internal structure) whilst being of the required sensitivity, e.g. critical
defect size, defect population, coating thickness. This is complicated by any temperatureinstigated
changestothematerials,suchasbydiffusionortransformationofthemicrostructure(s).Thisapplies
tobothcoatingsandatinterfacesbetweenreinforcementandthematrix.
NosingleNDItechniqueiscapableofdetectingalltypesofdefectsinagivenmaterial.Consequently,
techniquesarecomplementary.Equipmentconfiguration,operatorcompetenceandconditionsofuse
significantlyaffectthesensitivityofanyparticulartechnique.
The terminology used by various organisations worldwide varies. The term nondestructive
inspection(NDI)coversNDTesting,NDEvaluation,NDCharacterisation.
80.2 Advanced metal alloys
80.2.1 General
ItisenvisagedthatthoseNDItechniquesappliedtotraditionalmetalsandalloysarealsoapplicableto
theadvancedmetalalloymaterials,althoughsomelevelofadaptationisusuallyrequired.
80.2.2 Brittle materials

Thecriticaldefectsizecanbesmallandconsequentlytheirdetectionaffectstheselectionofequipment
usedanditsconfiguration.
80.2.3 Multi-phase microstructures

Materialsconsistingofmanyphasescanpresentproblemsinthediscriminationbetweendefectsand
microstructuralfeatureswhicharenotdetrimentaltostructuralintegrity.
80.3 Metal matrix composites

Table 80.3.1 summarisesNDI techniques applicable to MMCs. Precise details of the material system
andequipmentconfigurationarenotgiven,butcanbefoundinthecitedreference.
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Table80.31NDItechniquesforMMCs
Technique
Defector Ultrasonic Radio Eddy
Acoustic Thermo ElectricDC
measurement graph curren
Stress emission
Velocity Cscan y graphy t resistivity
wave
Reinforcementcontent:
Particulate
Whisker
Continuousfibre
Surfacedamage
Matrixcracks
Matrixplastic
deformation
Matrixrichzones
Porosity
Intermetalliccompounds:
Fracture
Delaminations
Fibreends(cutorbroken)
Fibrelayup
Fibre:Matrixinterface:
Failures
Fibrepullout
Foreigninclusions
Key: Possible;Dyeenhanced;NumberinsidesymbolindicatesReference.
80.4 Carbon-Carbon and ceramic matrix composites

Table80.4.1summarisesNDItechniquesapplicablefordefectdetectionandmeasurementofCCand
CMCmaterials,Ref.[8010].Itisacomprehensivelistingofallthetypesofdefectswhichcanoccur.
Their detection forms part of the material and part development programme. It does not aim to
identifythosewhichareofstructuralimportanceinafinishedarticle.
Table80.4.2ranksvariousNDImethodsontheirtechnicalandeconomicaspects,Ref.[8010].
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Table80.41NDItechniquesfordefectdetectionandmeasurementofCCand
CMCmaterials
NDI METHOD
IR Thermo-
X-ray Ultrasonic (2) Micro- wave
graphy
Radiography
Microfocus
Tomography
Backscatter
LF Transmission
HF Transmission
HF Reflection
Stimulated
Photo-thermal
Mirage Effect
Acoustic Emission
Interferometry
Neutrography
Radiometry
Imaging
Cavity Perturbation
Eddy Current
Beta Backscattering
Electrical
Optical
NMR
DEFECT DETECTION
or
MEASUREMENT CAPABILITY
Missing Fibre (1)
Misaligned Fibre (1)
Metal Inclusion (1)
Delamination:
impact
Disbond:
lack of bond
Porosity:
open
pore size
Cracks
Voids, Metal Inclusion
Fibre Break
Matrix Cracking
Brittle Failure
Plastic Failure
Moisture
Matrix Oxidation
Blister Under Coating (3)
Homogeneity of:
organic binder distribution
density distribution
boron distribution
Fibre Content
Measurement of:
density
thickness
fibre diameter
conductivity
Mechanical Properties
Thermal Properties
Electromagnetic Properties
KEY: (1) Before densification (3) Oxidation resistant coating, (PAO)
(2) LF: < 1 MHz Laboratory/Manufacture
HF: 1 to 20 MHz Maintenance
VHF: > 20 MHz
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Table80.42TechnicalandeconomicalaspectsofNDItechniques
PossibilityofNDItechniquefor:
Maintenance
Quantitative
requirement
Availability
automation
Investment
Realtime
Online
NDI
Safety
Speed
Full
cost
method
Xray:
Radiography XX X N N N X N XXX XXX
Radioscopy XX XXX N Y Y X X XXX XXX
Microfocus XX X N N N X X XXX XXX
Tomography XXX X N N N XX XXX XXX XX
Backscattering XX X Y N N XX XX X X
Ultrasonics:(1)
LF transmission X X N Y N X XX N XXX
HF transmission X X N Y N XX XXX N XXX
HF reflection X X Y Y N XX XXX N XXX
VHF reflection XX X N Y N XX X N XX
Laser ultrasonics XXX XXX Y Y N XX XXX X X
I.R.Thermography:
Stimulated XX XXX Y Y N XXX XXX N XX
Photothermal XX X N Y Y XXX XX X X
Mirage effect XX X N Y Y XX XXX X X
Acoustic emission XX XX Y Y Y XX X N XXX
(2)
Holographic XXX XXX Y Y Y XX XXX X X

interferometry
Neutrography XXX X Y Y Y XX X XX X
Microwave:
Radiometry XX XXX Y Y N X XX N X
Near-field imaging XX XX Y Y N XX XXX N X
Cavity perturbation X XXX N Y Y XXX XXX N X
Eddy current X X Y Y Y XXX XXX N XXX
Backscattering X X Y Y N XXX XX XX XXX
Electrical X X Y Y N XXX X N XX
Optical XX XXX N Y Y XXX XXX X XX
NMR XXX X N N N XX XXX XX XX
Key: (1)Needforcontactorimmersion;Y:Yes;N:No;X:Low;XX:Medium;XXX:High
(2)Needtoloaditem
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80.5 Coatings
Table 80.5.1 summarises techniques for coating inspection. The technique used varies with the
particularmaterialsystem.Fordetailsofequipmentconfiguration,seethecitedreference.
Table80.51Coatings:Inspectiontechniques
Defects NDItechnique
Coatingsystem
detectable (seeKey)
Cracks
Bonding flaws C-S Impulse eddy current (a)
Metallic
Sulphidation Ref. [80-11]
Damage
Ceramic: Ultrasonics
Non - Holographic sound field imaging (b)
conductive Ref. [80-12]
Coating Internal flaws Attenuating ultrasonic waves.
material Thickness Thermal wave testing (c) Ref. [80-11]
Interface Flaws VHF acoustic microscopy Ref. [80-12]
Key (a) Multifrequencyandpulsedmethodstodiscriminatebetweenflawindications.
(b) ImagingofRayleighwaves.
(c) Imagingbylaserlight(thermal).
(d) AtGHzfrequencies,focusedthroughsapphirelenses;70mdepth,typically.
80.6 Joints
80.6.1 General
NoNDImethodiscapableofquantifyingjointstrength.Thisisdeterminedbytesting.
80.6.2 Fused joints

Anintegratedtestingandinspectionprogrammeaimstosetupacceptancelevelsforfeaturesdetected
bytheinspectiontechniqueandcorrelatethesewithstrengthtestresults.Thiscanthenbeusedasa
comparisonorreferenceforallsubsequentinspectionsofmanufacturedjoints.
The inspection of joints aims to verify that the materials of the component parts have not been
seriouslyaffectedbyassemblyorusewiththeresultthattheassemblyisunsafe.
[See:80.7]
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80.6.3 Mechanically fastened and interlock joints
80.6.3.1 TPS structures

Considering the important role of TPS to the overall vehicle safety, every method used should be
capableofensuringthattheconnectionisviableforfurtherservice,[Seealso:Chapter70andChapter
71].
Forthecomplexarrangementsofdifferentmaterialsproposedinconcepts,disassemblyislikelytobe
a mandatory procedure until reliable techniques are developed and confidence is gained in insitu
NDI.
80.6.3.2 Thrusters and nozzles

CommentsforTPSarealsotrueforthrusterandnozzledesignsandconcepts.However,disassembly
canbedifficultafterhightemperatureserviceuse.
Wheredisassemblyisrequiredorpossible,instrumentedtechniquescanbeusedinadditiontovisual
inspection.Thesearelikelytobebasedonthemethodsdevelopedformanufacturecontrol.
Disassemblyislikelytodisruptcoatings,soanyappliedcoatingsarealsoexamined.
80.7 Fusion joints
80.7.1 General
Ingeneral,standardweldandbrazeinspectionproceduresareapplicabletoadvancedmaterials.
Diffusionbonded(DB)assembliesareconsideredasweldedforthebasisofinspectiontechniques.
Table80.7.1listsinspectiontechniquesforfusedjoints,Ref.[8013],[8014],[8015].
Table80.71Fusedjoints:Inspectiontechniques
Jointtype NDItechnique Comments
Visual
Eddy current Standard procedures exist for
Welded Ultrasonic techniques. Some modifications may be
Dye penetrant necessary for advanced materials.
Magnetic particle
Visual
Eddy current
Brazed _
Ultrasonic
Dye penetrant
Fighter aircraft structures, Ref. [80-13]
Diffusion Thermography
Non-contact for radioactive applications,
bonded Ultrasonic
Ref. [80-14]
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80.7.2 Thin-walled seam welded tubes

Examplesofstandardswhichexistfortheinspectionofhighreliabilitycondensertubesaregivenin
Table80.7.2,Ref.[8015].
Table80.72Standardsforinspectionofweldedtubes
NDTTechnique Standard(1)(2)
ASTM B338
Eddy current
SEP 1914 : German
SEP 1915 : German
Ultrasonic
ASTM E213
Key (1)Forpowerandnuclearindustry;(2)IncludesTialloys
The high sensitivity of eddy current techniques can lead to false defect indications, i.e. those not
deemeddeleterioustotubeperformance(structuralorleak).
Test procedure modifications have been suggested to reduce apparent reject rates from false
indications,Ref.[8017],[8015],[8016].
80.7.3 Diffusion bonded joints

Diffusion bonding (DB) is often combined with superplastic forming (SPF) to create structural
componentswithintegraljoints.Consequentlythefinishedpartcanbecomplexinshapeandcontain
internalfeatures.Suchstructuresareusedinbothmilitaryandcivilaircraft,[See:Chapter72].
Ultrasonicbasedsystemsareestablishedfordefectdetection.Fully,automatedsystemsareavailable
toinspectlarge,complicatedshapedpartsandassemblies,Ref.[8018].
IR thermography enables whole panels to inspected in one shot. Their accuracy and reliability is
claimed to be as good as those of ultrasonic systems, provided due attention is paid to surface
scratchesandmarkingswhichaffectsurfaceemissivityandregisterasdefectiveareas,Ref.[8013].
80.8 References
80.8.1 General
[801] R.E.Shannonetal:WestinghouseResearch&DevelopmentCenter,
(USA)
NondestructiveCharacterisationofMetalMatrixComposites
Microstructures
ProceedingsoftheAmericanSocietyforComposites,Symposiumon
HighTemperatureComposites.June1989
ISBN87762700260p5160
[802] R.W.Pepper&T.W.ShahoodJnr:TextronSpecialityMaterials,(USA)
CorrelationofNDEResultsonMetalMatrix&2DCCComposites
ProceedingsoftheAmericanSocietyforComposites,Symposiumon
HighTemperatureComposites.June1989
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ISBN87762700260p223232
[803] W.N.Reynolds:AEREHarwell,(UK)
NondestructivetestingTechniquesforMetalMatrixComposites
AERER13040June1988
[804] W.S.Johnson:NASALangleyResearchCenter,(USA)
ScreeningofMetalMatrixCompositesusingUltrasonicCscans
JournalofCompositesTechnology&Research,Vol.11,No.1
Spring1989p3134
[805] J.Awerbuch&J.G.Bakuckas
OntheApplicabilityofAcousticEmissionforMonitoringDamage
ProgressioninMetalMatrixComposites
ASTMSTP1032:MetalMatrixCompositesTesting,Analysis&Failure
Modes.1898p6899
[806] H.E.Kautz&B.A.Lerch:NASALewisResearchCenter,(USA)
PreliminaryInvestigationofAcoustoultrasonicEvaluationofMetal
MatrixCompositeSpecimens
MaterialsEvaluation.May1991p607612
[807] R.A.Blake&H.S.Hartman:UniversityofDelaware/DuPont,(USA)
ComputerAidedUltrasonicEvaluationofFiberFPMetalMatrix
Composite
CompositesTechnologyReview,Vol.6,No.3,September1984p118123
[808] N.Tsangarakisetal:ArmyMaterials&MechanicsResearchCenter,
(USA)
NondestructiveEvaluationofFatigueDamageinAluminaFiber
reinforcedAluminium
JournalofCompositeMaterials,Vol.19,May1985p250268
[809] C.Johnsonetal:UniversityofCalifornia/LockheedCorp.,(USA)
AcousticEmissionbehaviourofMetalMatrixComposites
JournalofAcousticEmission4(23),1985p263268
[8010] C.LeFloch:AerospatialeAquitaine,(F)
NondestructiveInvestigationsofAdvancedMaterials(CarbonCarbon
&CeramicCompositeMaterials):WP2StateoftheArt.
ReportNo.NT25209/TA/N(18/06/90)
PreparedforFulmer/ESAContractNo.7090/87/NL/PP
[8011] HACrostacketal:UniversityofDortmund,(D)
NewDevelopmentsinNondestructiveTestingofThermallySprayed
Coatings
MmoiresettudesScientifiquesRevuedeMtallurgie
Mai1989p285295
[8012] HACrostacketal:UniversityofDortmund,(D)
RecentDevelopmentsinNondestructiveTestingofCoated
Components
ThinSolidFilms181(1989)p295305
[8013] D.L.Haarvig&D.C.King:McDonnellDouglasCorp,(USA)
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ThermographicInspectionofSuperplasticallyFormedDiffusionBonded
TitaniumPanels
SPIEVol.934:ThermosenseX(1988)p102110
[8014] D.AHutchinsetal:QueensUniversity,Ontario,Canada
NoncontactUltrasonicInspectionofDiffusionBondsinTitanium
UltrasonicsVol.29,July1991p294301
[8015] J.Lindemann:MannesmannrhenWerkeAG,(D)
DevelopmentsoftheProductionandNDTMethodsforWelded
TitaniumTubes
Proceedingsofthe5thInternationalConferenceTitaniumScience&
Technology,Vol.2,Sept.1014,Munich,1984p925938
[8016] H.Sakuyama&K.Taki:NipponMiningCo.Ltd,Japan
TheProblemswiththeEddyCurrentTestofWeldedTitaniumTubes
[8017] H.Heckhuseretal:VereingteDeutchMetallwerkAG,(D)
InvestigationoftheManufacturingDefectsinLongitudinalWeldedTi
CondenserTubesbyNDTMethods
[8018] USLUltrasonicSciencesLtd.,(UK)
6AxisContourfollowingImmersionsystemforPulseEchoInspection
ofSPF/DBParts
ExtractfromUSLwebsite(June2003)
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81
High-temperature testing
81.1 Introduction
Background information on the testing of advanced metallic and ceramic materials at high
temperaturesisprovided.Theresponseofmaterialstoaggressivehightemperatureenvironmentsis
complex,witharangeofdegradationmechanismspossible,[See:81.4].Theextentofdegradationwith
timeestablishesthematerialperformanceenvelope.
Amaterialsperformanceenvelopeisaffectedbythelifeexpectancydefinedfortheapplication,e.g.a
materialcansustain1000Cformanyhoursunderinertisothermalconditions,butrapidlydegrades
andlosesintegrityunderthermalcyclinginanoxygencontainingenvironment.
Hightemperature materials are often used close to their limits for short periods. Limited surface
erosionispermissibleinthehotgasstreamsofpropulsionsystems.
Datacanbeobtainedfromcoupontesting,butthiscanbedifficultatveryhightemperatures.Testing
ofcomponentsandassembledstructuresundersimulatedoperationalconditionsisaveryspecialised
activity,[See:Chapter86].
Athoroughunderstandingofamaterialsbehaviourisnecessarybeforeadesignisfinalised.
81.2 Purpose of testing

Anisotropic MMC and CMC materials present problems similar to those of CFRP, i.e. use of test
methods which measure the true characteristics of the material rather than a specimendependent
parameter.
Withtesttemperaturesupto1500C,theconstructionofloadingfixturescanbedifficult.
Test method development is closely linked with the understanding of fracture behaviour, [See:
Chapters64,65,66,67and68].
Consequently, the results of tests are closely studied in an effort to understand microstructural
featuresandtheirsignificancetomechanicalbehaviour,Ref.[811],[812],[813].
Testingisviewedinthecontextoftheintendedusefortheresultingdata.Thereareseverallevelsto
whichthedatacanapply,including:
comprehensionofmaterialbehaviour,
measurement of fundamental mechanical and physical properties, usually at ambient
temperature,
retentionofpropertiesathightemperatures,
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residualpropertiesaftermechanicalloading,thermalexposureandhotcorrosion,e.g.thermo
mechanicalfatigue(TMF).
Residualpropertymeasurement,whichcoversalldegradationprocesses,isabettermeasurementofa
materialscapabilities.Itdeterminesthevalidityofthematerialfortheintendedapplication.
Residualmechanicalpropertiesareusuallysignificantlylowerthantheasmadeambientproperties.
81.3 Material behaviour
81.3.1 Basic fracture modes

Theimportantcharacteristicsofthevariousadvancedmaterialgroupsaresummarised.
[Seealso:Chapters64,65,66,67and68]
81.3.2.1 Particulate reinforced (MMCp)

Basicallyisotropicinbehaviour,
Initiallyelasticmaterialsatlowstrains,thenelasticplastictoplastic,withlimitedductility,
Failuredeterminedbyparticulatetomatrixadhesionandmatrixmicrostructure.
81.3.2.2 Fibre reinforced (MMCf)

Highlyanisotropic,lowstraintofailurematerials,
Fullyelastictoverylowstrains,thencomplexelasticplasticbehaviour,
Propertiesdeterminedbyinsitufibrestrengthandmodesttransversestrengthsbetweenfibre
andmatrix.
81.3.3 Inorganic and ceramic matrix composites
81.3.3.1 Fibre reinforced (ICMCf)

ThisgroupincludesGMC,GCMC,CMCandCCmaterials.
Highlyanisotropicandmodeststrengthcharacteristics,
Possesshightemperature,insulative,thermalshockandthermocycliccapabilities,
Exhibitbenignfracturecharacteristics,despitelowoverallstraintofailure,
Fibretomatrixadhesionislowtoprovideadecouplingmechanism.
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81.4 Degradation mechanisms
81.4.1 Materials
81.4.1.1 Metal compositions

Possibledegradationmechanismslistedinorderofoccurrenceandultimateseverityare:
Changeinmicrostructure,
Graingrowth,
Brittlephaseformation,includinghydrogenembrittlement,
Intergranularcracking,
Creep,
Fibresurfacedegradation(interdiffusionbetweenmetalandfibre),
Surfaceoxidation,
Hotcorrosion,
Compositeembrittlement,
Severefractures.
81.4.1.2 Ceramic compositions

Possibledegradationmechanismslistedinorderofoccurrenceandultimateseverityare:
Matrixmicrocracking,
Growthandincreaseinmatrixcracking,
Fibreweakening,
Surfaceoxidation,
Protectivecoatingconsumed,
Penetrativeoxidation,
Hotcorrosiveattack,
Grosscompositeembrittlement.
81.4.2 Degradation rate

Thedegradationisincreasedby:
Exposuretime,
Highertemperatures,
Aggressivespecies.
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81.5 Coupon testing
81.5.1 General
Measurement of the mechanical and physical properties of metallic and ceramicbased composite
materialsfromtestcouponshasthedifficultyofinterpretingthisdataforbulkmaterialpropertiesor
netshapecomponents.Complicatingfactorsinclude:
Anisotropy,
Complexfailuremechanisms,
Lowfailurestrains,and
Measurementofpropertiesathightemperatures.
81.5.2 Single-fibre tests

Whilst the mechanical properties of fibres are often taken as those quoted by their manufacturers,
degradationoccursathightemperatures.Singlefibretestscanbeusedforinformationon:
Changesinpropertieswithtemperature,
Effectofoxidationbyheatinginair,
Statisticaldistributionofstrengths,
Insitustrengthwithinacomposite.
81.5.3 Fibre push through

For ceramic composites in particular, the fracture behaviour is determined by the insitu fibreto
matrixbonding.Theinterfacialshearstrengthisusedfortheoreticalcalculations,somodifiedmicro
indentertestsenablefibrestobepushedthroughverythincompositesections.Theinterfacialshear
strengthiscalculatedfromtheforceappliedandthesurfaceareaoftheindividualfibre.
81.5.4 Net-shape components

ManyMMCandCMCcomponentsaremanufacturedasnetshapeitems.Theaccuratemeasurement
ofmaterialpropertiesisdifficultwherecouponsaremachinedfromashapeditem,especiallywith3D
ormultidimensionalreinforcements.
81.5.5 Flexural and ILSS testing

Flexuralandinterlaminarsheartestingareverypopularbecauseoftheirsimplicity.Theyareuseful
for comparison exercises between different materials. Flexural testing indicates the achievable
composite tensile strength. The measurement of ILSS gives a good indication of the composites
integritywithregardtoshearandcompressivebehaviours.
These tests do not provide design data on the true performance of composites under tensile,
compressiveandshearloading.
Loading jigs and fixtures for tests of these types have to withstand the test environment, i.e. high
temperatureswithinertgasesorair.
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81.5.6 Small coupon tests

The quantities of MMC and CMC materials prepared for netshape applications can be small. This,
combined with the complexity of the component or processing route, e.g. extrusion or CVI, makes
smalltestcouponsnecessary.
Agoodunderstandingofmaterialbehaviourisessentialtoensurethatthecouponsarerepresentative
ofthebulkmaterial.
81.5.7 Machining
MostMMCandCMCaredifficulttomachinebecauseoftheirhard,abrasivenature.Diamondtipped
cutting tools are essential. Machining can cause damage. The specimen gauge length is usually
polished.
81.5.8 Extensometry
The measurement of low strains at high temperatures is a specialised process. The use of bonded
strain gauges or attached mechanical extensometers is not usually feasible at temperatures above
500Corinthepresenceofoxidisingorcorrosiveatmospheres.
Remote measurement techniques, e.g. laser interferometry, are essential for accurate measurement.
Figure81.5.1showsanexternalscanninglaserextensometrysystem,Ref.[814].
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Figure81.51Coupontesting:Scanninglaserextensometrysystem
81.5.9 End tabs

Forhightemperaturetensiletesting,problemsingrippingthecouponcanbesolvedbyusingalong
specimenwithahotgaugelengthandtwocooledendswithinthegrips.Thisenablesmetalendtabs
tobeusedwithinthecooledgrips.
Productionofasuitablesizetestpanelisneededforanoverlongtestspecimen.
81.5.10 Coatings
For hightemperature applications, most CMC materials have some form of protective coating. The
validityofdatafromacutspecimenwithoutsuchacoatingisquestionablewhenthetestisperformed
athightemperatures.
81.5.11 Material gradation

Materials manufactured by densification routes, such as pyrolysis or gas infiltration, can have a
graded, throughsection composition. The coupon is selected to represent the material in the
componentasawholetoavoidcharacterisingsolelysurfaceorcorematerial.
Surfacecoatingsalsoformpartofgradedmicrostructures.
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81.5.12 Specimen alignment

Withhighmodulusandlowstrainmaterials,specimenalignmentwithinloadingjigsisessentialifthe
testsaretoberepresentative.Intensileandcompressiveloading,bendingmomentsareminimised.
81.5.13 Linear elasticity

Most MMCs and CMCs retain true elasticity only to very low strain levels. Thereafter small
microstructuralchangesintroducenonlinearcharacteristics,including:
Matrixplasticity,
Microcracking,or
Fibreslippage.
Load,unloadandreloadcurvesthereforeshowdisplacedhysteresis.
81.6 Mechanical properties
81.6.1 General
MechanicaltestmethodsforcontinuousfibreMMCandCMCmaterialsarebasedonthoseusedfor
fibrereinforced plastics. For particulate MMCs, techniques used for testing metals were the starting
point.
Inallcases,thecomplexfracturecharacteristicsofMMCandCMCmaterialshaveprovedthemajor
hindranceinreachingcommonagreementondefiningmeasuredproperties.
Agreementonviabletesttechniquesisprogressing.WithcollaborativeeffortonCMCs,andanumber
ofmethodsarepublishedasbystandardsorganisations,[See:81.8;81.9].
Theoveralluncertaintyisprimarilyaresultofthefactthat:
Hightemperaturecompositesarestillevolving,
Thereisalargediversityofdevelopmentmaterials,
Commercialavailabilityofmaterialsvarieswithtime,
Academics are generating a wide range of mathematical models to describe the complex
fracturebehaviour,
Thereareonlyafewactualapplications.
Only general comments on measurement of specific mechanical properties are provided because of
thelackofuniversalagreementonmechanicaltestmethods,[Seealso:64.4]
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81.6.2 Tensile
81.6.2.1 General
Themeasurementofpropertiesatambienttemperatureeliminatestheproblemoftemperatureeffects,
not least because bonded aluminium tabs can be used. Agreement is usually possible on initial
modulusmeasurementduetothelinearbehaviour.Oncenonlinearbehaviourisreached,at~0.3to
0.4%strain,thesituationismoreconfused.
81.6.2.2 Particulate reinforced composite

In an interlaboratory study, two particulate reinforced aluminium composites were tested and the
uncertainties(95%2standarddeviation)fortensilepropertiesobtainedwere,Ref.[815]:
YoungsModulus:12to14%
Proportionallimit:55%
0.2%Proofstress:8%
Tensilestrength:6%
Elongation:70%
Byjudiciousmanipulationofthedatatoacommonprocedure,theuncertaintiesontheproportional
limitsandelongationwerereducedto30to40%and35%,respectively.
Machined,waisted,circularsectionspecimensareappropriateforparticulateMMCmaterials.
81.6.2.3 Continuous fibre-reinforced composites

Forlowfailurestraincontinuousfibrecompositeswithlowoverallfailurestrains(~1%),theproblem
isoneofdefiningtheprecisepointatwhichsignificantnonlinear,irreversibleeventsoccur,e.g.matrix
plasticityorfirstplyfailure.Figure81.6.1showsthepreliminaryspecimenshapesforCMCmaterials;
recommendedbyCENforhightemperaturetests,Ref.[816].
With waisted specimens, the geometric changes in crosssection cannot coincide with thermal
transition zones if cooled grips are used. Avoiding shearrelated failure is paramount in CMC
materialsatchangesincrosssection,Ref.[817].
Whether or not waisted specimens are preferable to straight edged ones is yet to be resolved for
continuousfibrespecimens.
Recommendedfortensilepropertiesathightemperature,inertatmospheresbyCEN.
Recommended for tensile properties at high temperature, inert atmospheres (CEN standard under
preparation).
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Figure81.61CMChightemperaturetensiletesting:CENrecommendedsample
types
ASTMD355277(1985)describesmeasurementoftensilepropertiesforfibrereinforcedmetalmatrix
composites,[Seealso:Chapter7].
Linearregressioncomputeranalysisisgainingprominenceforanalysingrawtestdata,particularlyin
calculatingYoungsmodulusfromthe/Ecurve.
81.6.3 Compression
81.6.3.1 Continuous fibre-reinforced composites

Compressiontestingofcontinuousfibrecompositeshasalwaysbeencontentious.Manyloadingrigs
have been devised to avoid endeffects and outofplane deflections. For roomtemperature
measurements, modified Celanesetype specimens and loading jigs are normally used, [See also:
Chapter7].
Athightemperatures,theloadingjigarrangementshavetosurvivethetestenvironment.Changesin
specimenalignment,duetoexpansion,becomecriticalbetweensettingupatroomtemperatureand
heatingtothehighertemperature.
81.6.4 Shear
Interlaminarshearstrengthsarerelativelyeasytomeasureontheclassicalshortspan3pointflexure
rig.
The measurement of inplane shear modulus and strength is far more difficult. For 2D planar
composites, credence is initially given to tests which use small and simplified specimen
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configurations.Thisimpliesasimpletensileloadedtestwithastraightedge45coupon,asapplied
tofibrereinforcedplasticsinASTMD3518.
AsmanyCMCmaterialsusefabrics,thesimplesystemneedsevaluationastoitsapplicability.
81.6.5 Open-hole tension

The extensive use of mechanical fastening with reinforced plastics, makes openhole tensile testing
essential for design data, particularly if the design is to undergo mechanical fatigue. Mechanical
fasteningisanappropriatejoiningtechniqueforMMCandCMCcomponents.
Verylittlepublishedworkexistsontrialswithopenholespecimens.
81.6.6 Fatigue
Mechanical fatigue is important for longlife applications such as gas turbine engines, advanced
propulsion systems and spaceplane structures. Some fatigue work has been conducted on high
temperaturematerials.
[Seealso:Chapter83forthermomechanicalfatigue(TMF)]
81.7 Fracture toughness

Fracture toughness testing has been used to examine the microstructural failure mechanisms of
complexmaterialssuchasMMCsandCMCs.
Various specimen configurations have been used to create a notched section from which a crack is
grown through the specimen. It is virtually impossible, because of the nature of the materials, to
propagateasinglecrackthroughcompositesotherthansomeparticulateMMCmaterials.Thevalidity
ofthemodellingroutesusedtocalculatefracturetoughnessisthereforequestionable,becauselinear
elasticfracturemechanics(LEFM)donotapply.
[See:Chapters65,66and67forinformationonthefracturebehaviourofMMCandCMCmaterials]
R curves describe the resistance of a material to cracking, and have some relevance in comparing
materials.
Fracture toughness testing at high temperatures is generally not carried out until the room
temperaturebehaviourisbetterunderstood.Quotedfracturetoughnessvaluesformaterialsshouldbe
treatedwithextremecautionwithoutathoroughunderstandingofhowthetestingandcalculations
wereconducted.
It is questionable whether fracture toughness measurements have any design value, other than
providing some assurance as to the materials basic toughness in comparison with other options
available.
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81.8 Physical properties
81.8.1 General
For hightemperature applications, physical properties concerned in heat management are very
important.Theyarequantifiedoverrepresentativetemperaturerangesfortheapplication.Emphasis
isplacedon:
Thermaldiffusivity,
Specificheatcapacity,
Thermalconductivity,
Surfaceemissivity,
Surfacecatalyticity.
[See: Chapter 82 for value changes with temperature and microstructural modifications to the
materials]
81.8.2 Standards
Measurementtechniquesfordiffusivity,conductivityandspecificheatcapacityhavebeenformulated
byCENTC184WG4,[See:81.9].
81.9 Status of test standards
81.9.1 General
TheimpetusforthedevelopmentofsatisfactorytestmethodsforMMCandCMCmaterialsisheavily
influenced by interested parties with specific technologies. The main inspiration for test method
developmentisfromtechnologiesbasedon:
Particulatereinforcedaluminiumcomposites,e.g.automotive.
Continuousfibretitaniumcomposites,e.g.aerospace,defence.
Continuous fibre GCMC, CMC and CC materials, notably CSiC and SiCSiC, e.g. space
projects,oftenRLVconceptvehiclesanddimensionallystablestructures.
Hightemperaturetesting(>1000C)isaspecialisedactivityandsoisoftenrestrictedtoasmallgroup
oflaboratories.
Initiatives to provide internationallyrecognised test methods for measuring the properties of MMC
andCMCmaterialscomeundertheauspicesof:
ASTM(USA).
CEN(ComitEuropendeNormalisation)TechnicalCommittees(TC).
VAMAS(VersaillesProjectonAdvancedMaterialsandStandards).
Contactthespecificationbodiesforthecurrentstatusofstandards.
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TheASTMD30andE8committeesareresponsibleforarangeoftestmethodsappropriatetoMMC
materials.
VAMAS has a Technical Working Area (TWA) on MMC materials, including a roundrobin test
programmeonparticulatereinforcedaluminiumcomposites.
The UK National Forum on MMC Test Technology acts as a focal point for the exchange of
information,Ref.[818].
81.9.3 Ceramic matrix composites
81.9.3.1 CEN TC 184 activities

ThedevelopmentofCENstandardsisimprovingtheEuropeanpositioninadvancedmaterials.CEN
TC objectives are to create standards, to adjust the work programme to meet markets needs and to
work in coordination with ISO/TC 206. In the Vienna Agreement, the policy within CEN is that,
whenever there is an appropriate ISO standard, it will be considered for adoption as a European
standard.
CEN TC 184 was set up in 1989 and its activities have been driven by Europes position as world
leaderinCMCtechnology,althoughtheUSAisthelargestmarket.Europeanstandardsorganisations,
viaCEN,havebeenveryactiveindevelopingandadoptingstandards.CENTC184activitiesrelate
primarily to advanced technical ceramics for mechanical and structural applications, which divide
intothreemaingroups:
Monolithic ceramic components, which include seals and bearings, catalyst supports, lasers,
opticalfibrenetworksandothers,[See:Chapter43].
CMCceramicmatrixcomposites,includingcarboncarboncomposites,thatbyacombinationof
both their ceramic fibre reinforcements and their ceramic matrices properties provide high
performance advanced technical ceramics for the most demanding applications. Examples
include:strong,lightweightandthermallystablecomponentsforsatellitesandlargetelescopes;
durable, lightweight thermostructural components for advanced hightemperature process
equipment; lightweight structural components for aerospace engines (gas turbines and rocket
motors).
Ceramics (various types of advanced technical ceramics), which are used for a wide range of
applications,e.g.wear,erosionandcorrosionprotection,frictioncontrol,thermalanddiffusion
barriers.CENTCsaredevelopingstandardsforthickandthinfilmceramiccoatings.
Forover15years,thetechnicalcommitteeCEN/TC184SC1hasbeenpreparingstandardsforceramic
composites,withover15membersfromGermany,Italy,Netherlands,Spain,Greece,Portugal,United
Kingdom,Austria,CzechRepublicandFrance.
Thestandardslisted,i.e.ENpublishedorENVprestandards,givetheirstatusasof2004.Thelistsare
notexhaustivebecausenewprogrammesareaddedonaregularbasis.
81.9.3.2 Continuous fibre reinforced ceramic composites

ThemainCENstandards(asof2004)arelistedinTable81.9.1,wheretheyaregroupedas:
mechanicaltestingmethodsforuseatambientorhightemperatures.
physicalpropertymethods,e.g.densityandporosity.
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reinforcementcharacterisationmethods,e.g.strengthandthermophysicalproperties.
The standards listed cover reinforced ceramics with continuous ceramic or carbon fibres, where the
reinforcementcanbe:
unidirectional,inplane,i.e.reinforcementplacedinatleasttwodirectionsinasingleplane;
multidirectional, i.e. reinforcement spatially distributed in at least three directions and not
restrictedtoasingleplane.
81.9.3.3 Short fibre reinforced ceramic composites

Special care needs to be taken in the selection of test standards for shortfibrereinforced ceramics.
Depending on the particular material, if the behaviour is very brittle, then a monolithic ceramic
standard,assummarisedinTable81.9.2,canbemoreappropriatethanaCMCstandard.
[Seealso:Chapter43]
81.9.3.4 Ceramic coatings

Ceramic coatings made from various types of advanced technical ceramics are used in a range of
applications such as wear, erosion and corrosion protection; friction control and as thermal and
diffusion barriers. Some new standards proposed within the frame work of CEN are given in Table
81.9.3.
81.9.3.5 Other properties

Standardsare under development for the measurement of fibre/matrix properties, matrixproperties
andfibrethermophysicalproperties.SomeexamplesaregiveninTable81.9.4.
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Table81.91Testmethods:CENstandardsforadvancedtechnicalceramic
composites
Title Standard
No.
General:
Notations and symbols ENV
13233
MechanicalpropertiesatRT:
Mechanical properties of ceramic composites at room temperature Part 1: EN 658-1
Determination of tensile properties
Mechanical properties of ceramic composites at room temperature Part 2: ENV 658-2
Determination of compression strength
Determination of flexural strength
Mechanical properties of ceramic composites at room temperature Part 4: ENV 658-4
Determination of shear strength by compression loading of notched specimens
Determination of interlaminar shear strength by short span bend test (three
points)
Ceramic composites Mechanical properties at room temperature ENV
Determination of elastic properties by an ultrasonic technique 14186
Mechanicalpropertiesathightemperature:
Mechanical properties of ceramic composites at high temperature under inert ENV 1892
atmosphere Determination of tensile properties
Mechanical properties of ceramic composites at high temperature in air at ENV 1893
atmospheric pressure - Determination of tensile properties
Mechanical properties of ceramic composites at high temperature under inert ENV 1894
atmosphere Determination of shear strength by compression loading of
notched specimens
Mechanical properties of ceramic composites at high temperature under inert ENV
atmosphere Determination of compression properties 12290
Mechanical properties of ceramic composites at high temperature in air at ENV
atmospheric pressure - Determination of compression properties 12291
atmosphere Determination of flexural strength 12788
Mechanical properties of ceramic composites at high temperature in air at ENV
atmospheric pressure - Determination of flexural strength 12789
atmosphere Determination of creep behaviour 13235
Mechanicalpropertiesatambienttemperature:
Mechanical properties of ceramic composites at ambient temperature ENV
Determination of in-plane shear properties 12289
Ceramic composites Mechanical properties at ambient temperature ENV
Evaluation of the resistance to crack propagation by notch sensitivity testing 13234
Physicalproperties:
Ceramic composites Physical properties Determination of density and ENV 1389
apparent porosity
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Reinforcements:
Ceramic composites Methods of test for reinforcements Part 4: ENV 1007-
Determination of tensile properties of filament at ambient temperature 4
Determination of distribution of tensile strength and of tensile strain to failure 5
of filaments within multifilament tow at ambient temperature
Determination of tensile properties of filament at high temperature 6
Ceramic composites Methods of test for reinforcements Thermophysical ENV 1159-
properties - Part 1: Determination of thermal expansion 1
properties - Part 2: Determination of thermal diffusivity 2
properties - Part 3: Determination of specific heat capacity 3
Key: ENPublishedEuropeanstandards;ENVPrestandards
Table81.92Testmethods:CENstandardsforadvancedtechnicalceramics
monolithic
Title Standard
No.
General and textural properties- Part 1: Determination of the presence of EN 623-1
defects by dye penetration
General and textural properties- Part 2: Determination of density and porosity EN 623-2
General and textural properties- Part 3 : Determination of grain size EN 623-3
General and textural properties- Part 4 : Determination of surface roughness EN 623-4
Thermo-mechanical properties Part 1: Determination of flexural strength at ENV 820-1
elevated temperature
Thermo-mechanical properties Part 2: Determination of self-loaded ENV 820-2
deformation
Thermo-mechanical properties Part 3: Determination of resistance to ENV 820-3
thermal shock by water quenching
Thermo-physical properties Part 2 : Determination of thermal expansion EN 821-1
Thermo-physical properties Part 1: Determination of thermal diffusivity by EN 821-2
laser flash (or heat pulse) method
Thermo-physical properties Part 1: Determination of specific heat EN 821-3
Mechanical properties at room temperature Part 1: Determination of EN 843-1
flexural strength
Mechanical properties at room temperature Part 2: Determination of elastic ENV 843-2
moduli
Mechanical properties at room temperature Part 3: Determination of sub ENV 843-3
critical crack growth parameters from constant stressing rate flexural
strength tests
Mechanical properties at room temperature Part 4: Vickers, Knoop and ENV 843-4
Rockwell Superficial hardness tests
Mechanical properties at room temperature Part 5: Statistical analysis ENV 843-5
Methods of testing monolithic ceramics Guidance on the sampling and ENV 1006
selection of test pieces
Monolithic ceramics Part 1: General practice for undertaking corrosion tests ENV
12923-1
Key: ENPublishedEuropeanstandards;ENVPrestandards;[Seealso:Chapter43]
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coatings
Title Standard
No.
Monolithic of test for ceramic coatings Part 1: Determination of coating ENV 1071-
thickness by contact probe profilometer 1
Monolithic of test for ceramic coatings Part 2: Determination of coating ENV 1071-
thickness by the cap grinding method 2
Monolithic of test for ceramic coatings Part 3: Determination of adhesion by a ENV 1071-
scratch test 3
Monolithic of test for ceramic coatings Part 4: Determination of chemical ENV 1071-
composition 4
Monolithic of test for ceramic coatings Part 5: Determination of porosity ENV 1071-
5
Key: ENPublishedEuropeanstandards;ENVPrestandards
others
Title Standard
No.
Cycle fatigue at room temperature CEN 186
Cycle fatigue at high temperature in air atmosphere CEN 187
Cycle fatigue at high temperature in neutral atmosphere CEN 188
Elastic properties at by resonant beam method up to 2000C CEN 189
Transverse tension properties at room temperature CEN 190
High temperature tensile properties of a dry tow CEN 191
Determination of creep resistance on fibres CEN 192
Key: ENPublishedEuropeanstandards;ENVPrestandards;CENinprogress
81.10 Demonstrator testing

For spaceplanes experiencing severe thermal transients, it is important to evaluate assembled
structuresfor:
Heatfluxes,
Thermoacousticfatigue,
Expansionbehaviour,
Structuralstabilityundercombinedmechanicalandthermalloading.
[See:Chapter86fortestingdemonstratorcomponentsandstructuresathightemperatures]
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81.11 References
81.11.1 General
[811] R.Morrell&L.N.McCartney
MeasurementofPropertiesofBrittleMatrixComposites
Br.Ceram.trans.,92,1993,No.1,p17
[812] D.P.Bashford&R.Raynal
TestingandIntegrityofThermostructuralCeramicComposites
InternationalSymposium:SpaceApplicationsofAdvancedStructural
Materials,ESTEC,2123March1990,ESASP303p405409
[813] J.Lord&N.McCartney
QuantitativeAssessmentoftheEffectsofMicrocrackingonthe
PropertiesofaCrossplyCMC
ECCM6,Bordeaux,Sept1993,ISBN1855731428,p497505
[814] F.H.Gordon&T.W.Clyne
ThermalCyclingCreepofTi6Al4V/SiCMonofilamentComposites
underTransverseLoading
SymposiumonResidualStressesinCompositesModelling,
MeasurementandEffectsonThermomechanicalProperties,TMS
AnnualMeeting,Denver,USA,2125Feb1993
[815] B.Roebuck
UniaxialTestingofParticulateMMC
1992IoPMeetingonTestMethodDevelopment
[816] R.Raynal:ESA/ESTEC
TestingConcernsofHighTemperatureMaterials
[817] M.Steen&J.Bressers:JRCPetten
MechanicalPropertiesTestingofContinuousFibreReinforcedCeramic
MatrixComposites:ExperimentalProblemsandStandardisation
[818] N.D.R.Goddard(Editor)
TestTechniquesforMetalMatrixComposites
UKInstituteofPhysicsMeetingProceedings,28November1990IOP
ShortMeetingsSeriesNo.28,ISBN0854985301,1991
428

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Change log .................................................................................................................3

64 Behaviour of advanced composites .................................................................28

65 Particulate reinforced metals ............................................................................41

66 Fibre reinforced metals ......................................................................................53

67 Inorganic ceramic matrix composites ..............................................................59

68 Modelling advanced materials...........................................................................72

69 High-temperature structures .............................................................................80

70 Thermo-structural designs ................................................................................98

71 Thermal protection systems............................................................................163

72 SPF/DB titanium designs .................................................................................284

74 Protective coatings ..........................................................................................310

75 Seal technology ................................................................................................334

76 Integrity control of high temperature structures ...........................................371

77 Defect types ......................................................................................................383

79 Fracture control ................................................................................................401

80 NDT techniques ................................................................................................402

81 High-temperature testing .................................................................................412

64.2 Summary of material behaviour

64.2.1 Metal matrix composites

64.2.1.1 Particulate reinforced (MMCp)

64.2.1.2 Fibre reinforced (MMCf)

64.2.2 Inorganic ceramic matrix composites

64.2.2.1 Fibre reinforced (ICMCf)

64.3 Significant behavioural characteristics

64.3.2 Modulus mismatch

64.3.3 Matrix-to-reinforcement interface

64.3.4 In-situ fibre strength

64.3.5 CTE mismatch

64.3.6 Thermal history and residual stresses

64.3.7 Multiple cracking

64.3.7.1 Fibre reinforced materials

64.3.7.2 Particulate reinforced materials

64.3.8 Thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF)

64.4 Basic fracture characteristics

64.4.2 Particulate reinforced MMC

64.4.3 Fibre reinforced MMC

64.4.4 Fibre reinforced CMC

64.4.5 Defining design values

64.4.5.2 Failure criteria

64.5 Failure criteria for CMC

64.5.2 Design aspects

64.5.2.3 Failure loads

FEM model of hour-glass Fractured hour-glass test specimen

64.5.2.5 Load introduction points

65.1.3 Particulate reinforcement

65.2 Damage mechanisms

65.2.1 Unnotched specimen

65.2.2 Notched specimen

65.2.3 Influence of particles

65.2.4 Composite performance

65.3 Failure modes and fracture behaviour

65.3.1 Matrix effects

65.3.1.2 Duplex microstructures

65.3.2 Failure mode studies

65.3.3 Particulate shape and aspect ratio

65.3.4 Particulate fracture

65.3.5 Void nucleation and growth

65.3.6 Fracture toughness

65.3.6.2 Common terms

KIC Plane strain fracture toughness, a measure of a

KQ A provisional value of KIC, not confirmed until checks

KR Measure of resistance to stable crack growth.