Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Office of the Vice President for Branches & Campuses
SANTA MARIA BULACAN CAMPUS

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
CIEN 4122

Traffic Flow Theory

Criteria on Road Traffic Signs Design and Location
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING GROUP 1
CIEN 4122

Traffic Flow is the study of the movement of individual drivers and

vehicles between two points and the interactions they make with one
another. Unfortunately, studying traffic flow is difficult because driver
behavior is something that cannot be predicted with one-hundred Cruz, Alleli P.
percent certainty. Fortunately, drivers tend to behave within a reasonably
consistent range and, thus, traffic streams tend to have some reasonable
consistency and can be roughly represented mathematically. To better
represent traffic flow, relationships have been established between the
three main characteristics: (1) flow, (2) density, and (3) velocity. These
relationships help in planning, design, and operations of roadway
facilities. Figueroa,
Traffic flow Theory
Benjamin E.
Time-Space Diagram
Time-space diagram shows trajectories of vehicles over time and space
Traffic engineers represent the location of a specific vehicle at a certain
time with a time-space diagram. This two-dimensional diagram shows
the trajectory of a vehicle through time as it moves from a specific origin
to a specific destination. Multiple vehicles can be represented on a
diagram and, thus, certain characteristics, such as flow at a certain site
for a certain time, can be determined.
San Juan,
Flow and Density
Flow (q) = the rate at which vehicles pass a fixed point (vehicles per
Apple J.

hour)
Density (Concentration) (k) = number of vehicles (N) over a stretch of
roadway (L) (in units of vehicles per kilometer)

Speed
Measuring speed of traffic is not as obvious as it may seem; we can
average the measurement of the speeds of individual vehicles over time
or over space, and each produces slightly different results.

Time mean speed

Time mean speed = arithmetic mean of speeds of vehicles passing a
point

Space mean ball speed

Space mean speed is defined as the harmonic mean of speeds passing
a point during a period of time. It also equals the average speeds over a
length of roadway.

Relating time and space mean speed

Note that the time mean speed is average speed past a point as distinct
from space mean speed which is average speed along a length.
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The two speeds are related as:
As a rule of thumb time mean speed is about 2% more than space mean speed

Headway

Time headway
Time headway = difference between the time when the front of a vehicle arrives at a point on the highway
and the time the front of the next vehicle arrives at the same point (in seconds)
Average Time Headway = Average Travel Time per Unit Distance * Average Space Headway

Space headway
Space headway = difference in position between the front of a vehicle and the front of the next vehicle
(in meters)
Average Space Headway = Space Mean Speed * Average Time Headway

Fundamental Diagram of Traffic Flow

Properties of the traditional fundamental diagram.:

When density on the highway is zero, the flow is also zero because there are no vehicles on the
highway
As density increases, flow increases
When the density reaches a maximum jam density, flow must be zero because vehicles will line
up end to end
Flow will also increase to a maximum value, increases in density beyond that point result in
reductions of flow.
At density = 0, speed is free flow. The upper half of the flow curve is uncongested, the lower half
is congested.
The slope of the flow density curve gives speed. Rise/Run = Flow/Density = Vehicles per hour/
Vehicles per km = km / hour.

Highway Safety Design Standards Manuals:

Part 2 Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual

This manual is prepared and issued by the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) to
provide guidance in design and installation of standard signs on all roads throughout the Philippines,
including those under the care and management of local governments.

A standardized road traffic system is essential to ensure that drivers acquire the information necessary
to enable them to comply with road regulations and to navigate their way around the road system in a
safe and efficient manner.

As in the case of any other type of traffic control devices, road signs should be used only when these
are necessary and when their use has been justified by field studies.

Road signs contain instructions that the road user is required to obey. They warn the road user of
hazards that may not be self-evident. They also give information about routes, directions, destinations,
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and places of interests. Since road signs are essential part of the road traffic system, their message
should be concise, meaningful, consistent, and their design and placement must be coordinated with
the road geometric design.

The Scope of the Manual

The standards set forth in this manual are primarily designed for the streets and highways that
constitute the basic road system. Special signs for expressways are also included in this edition.
However, signs for road works have been omitted from this manual. These signs are included in a
separate Road Works Safety Manual.

Classification of Signs

Signs are classified in the following groups according to their use:

Regulatory Signs (Type R);

Warning Signs (Type W);
Guide Signs or Informative Sign (Type G);
Signs for Expressways (Type GE);
Signs for Special Purposes (Type S); and,
Hazard Markers (Type HM).

Standard Application

To be effective, the road sign should meet the five basic requirements:

Fulfill a need;
Command attention;
Convey a clear, simple message;
Command respect; and,
Give adequate time for proper response.

Design

Uniformity in the design of signs facilitates identification by the road user. Standardization of shape,
color, dimensions, legends and illumination or reflectorization is important so that various classes of
signs can be easily recognized. The following general design principles have evolved:
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 The driver should not be unduly distracted from his task of driving by reading a traffic sign
A traffic sign should be perceived and understood by the driver traveling at the 85% percentile
speed of the traffic on the road, in sufficient time for him to safely take any action necessary.

A. Shape

Standard sign shapes are:

The octagon is reserved exclusively for the STOP sign;

The equilateral triangle, with one point vertically downward is reserved for the GIVE WAY Sign;
The circle symbol is mainly used for regulatory signs;
The circle symbol may sometimes be mounted on a rectangular base either for easy recognition
or for additional information;
The equilateral triangle with one point vertically upward is used for warning signs;
The rectangle, usually with long axis horizontal is used for directional signs, service signs, road
work signs, signs for special purposes, and supplementary plates for warning signs;
The rectangle, usually with long axis vertical is generally used for facility information signs,
instruction signs, guide signs, and destinations of point of interest; and,
The pentagon, with point up is used only for pedestrian and school crossing sign.

B. Size
Minimum dimensions depend upon applications. Larger sizes are required for wider roadways and
on high-speed facilities.

C. Color
The standard colors for signs are as follows:
Red is used as a background for STOP signs, as border color on GIVE WAY signs, warning signs
and prohibited signs in the regulatory type.
Black is used as legend color for signs having white, yellow, orange, fluorescent orange,
fluorescent yellow green background and as chevron for hazard markers.
Yellow is used as background color for roadwork signs.
White is the background color for most signs and legends for some colored background.
Fluorescent yellow green is used as background color for signs related to pedestrian movement,
school zones, and road work hazard markers to give additional emphasis and guidance to vehicle
operators.
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 Fluorescent orange is used as background color for roadwork signs whose legends relate to
personnel working.
Green is used as background color for direction signs.
Blue is used as background color for service signs.
Brown is reserved as background for all tourist facility directional and information signs.

D. Letter Series
There are six series of letters and numerals, ranging from the narrow series A to the broad series F.
Series A and B letters are not used on signs which, have to be used for moving vehicles as the
legibility distances are small. Series C is only used in special cases. Series D and E (E mod) are
commonly used as they provide the best legibility and aesthetics. Series F is not often used on
large signs due to the wide space required.

Standard letter tables given for capital letter comprise 3 steps of spacing: narrow; medium; and
wide. Wider spacing is always used for lower-case letters.

E. Use of Symbols
The use of symbols on signs to convey all or part of a message may reduce reading time and
extend legibility distance. Common standard symbols, including arrows, symbolic representation of
legends and location destination, are included in this manual. Where a new symbol is warranted,
the design must be acceptable in accordance with the international practice and meet relevant
requirements of a standard procedure.

F. Sign Face Design

The standard drawings show standard spacing with respect to positions between elements such as
arrows, symbols, and destination descriptions.

It should be noted that when all the sign rules have been followed, some visual judgment must be
exercised in adjusting sign elements. The following general rules are to be applied when designing
the sign face:

Cramping of legend is to be avoided;

Avoid large areas of blank panel, particularly blank areas not symmetrically disposed across
the panel;
Elements such as arrows and symbols may sometimes have to be larger than the principal
legend would normally require.
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G. Use of Filipino Worded Signs
Generally, signs with Filipino legends tend to be larger due to lengths of equivalent words. Filipino
legends are not generally recommended unless it is absolutely necessary and useful.

Location

A. Uniformity of Location

Signs are normally located on the right side of the road. In special circumstances, which are specified
herein, signs may be duplicated on the left side or mounted over the road.

B. Longitudinal Placement

Longitudinal placement of certain signs is fixed by the nature of their message or their characteristics
use. Special care is required in the sitting of such signs to ensure that they are prominently displayed to
approaching drivers. Signs that give advance warning or information should be located sufficiently in
advance to enable the driver to react properly.

C. Lateral Placement and Height

The following subsections are the general rules for the lateral location of road signs and for the
mounting heights on roadside. The lateral placement is measured from the edge of the sign nearest the
road and the height from the underside of the lowest sign.

a.) Rural Areas

Lateral Placement: on uncurbed roads in rural areas, the sign should be at least 600mm clear of the
outer edge of the road shoulder, the line of the guideposts or face of guardrail. The clearance should
not be less than 2m nor more than 5m from the edge of the travelled way, except for large guide signs
on expressways where great clearances may be required.

Height: in rural areas, roadside signs should be mounted clear of roadside vegetation and clearly visible
under headlight illumination by night. The height of the sign should be normally being between 1m and
1.5m above the nearest edge of traveled way. For fingerboards and intersection direction signs, the
height should be increased to 2m.

b.) Urban Areas

Lateral Placement: On curbed roads, signs should be located back from the face of the curb not less
than 300mm nor more than 1m. where mountable or semi-mountable curbs are used e.g. on traffic
islands, the minimum clearance should be 500mm. On uncurbed roads, or of certain arterial roads
designed for high speed traffic movement, the distance given in rural areas shall be used.
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Height: On curbed roads, the signs should be at a minimum of 2m above the top of the curb to prevent
obstruction to pedestrians. Where neither pedestrians nor parked vehicles have to be considered, e.g.
on a traffic island or median, the height given for rural areas shall be used. Signs that overhang a
footway should have height of 2.5m with a minimum height of 2m above the level of the footway.

D. Overhead Signs

The operational requirements of our highways and expressways are such that overhead signs will have
to be provided at many locations.

The following conditions should be considered in the erection of overhead sign displays:

Traffic volume at or near the capacity;

Complex or closely spaced interchanges;

Three or more lanes in each direction;

Restricted sight distance;

Multi-lane exits;

Large percentage of trucks;

Street lighting background;

High speed traffic;

Consistency of sign message location through a series of interchanges; and,

Insufficient space for ground mounted signs.

Signs should be mounted at a minimum of 5.5m above the highest level of the carriageway. This is
particularly important if there is no alternative route for occasional high load.

E. Reflectorization and Illumination

Signs that are intended to convey message during dark periods need to be reflectorized or illuminated
for greater visibility colors and shapes. High-grade reflective or illuminated materials shall be required
on overhead signs and for road signs in area with street lighting of high intensity.

Means of Illumination

Illumination may be by means of:

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 Light within or behind the sign face illuminating the main message or symbols, or the sign
background, or both, through a translucent material; and,

An attached or independently mounted light source designed to direct essential illumination over
the entire face of the sign.

Means of reflectorization

Reflectorization is achieved by the use of retro-reflective materials on legends, letters, borders and
background of the sign.

F. Installation

Signs should be mounted approximately at right angles to the direction of and facing the traffic they are
intended to serve. At curve alignments, the angle of placement should be determined by the course of
approaching traffic rather than by the roadway edge at the point where the sign is located.

To eliminate possible and undesirable reflection n from the surface of the sign, it should be turned
about 5 degrees away from the normal to the headlight beam. After the signs are installed, it is good
practice to test them by trial approach runs in a motor vehicle both by day and night.