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Discourse analysis
Linguistics
Unit II
Linguistics Discourse Analysis
Unit II
Introduction
REFLECTION
There are two main approaches to the study of grammar: the functional approach,
based on language functions, and the traditional approach which is based on grammar forms.
The functional approach starts from a system of meaning (functions) and relates how these
functions are expressed through the language's grammar. Put it in other terms, the functional
approach starts with meaning and works towards grammatical form for expressing this meaning
rather than starting with the grammatical form and working towards meaning.
On the other hand, the traditional formal approach to language focuses mainly on
grammatical form or structure and then comments on the meaning these forms express.
The functional approach has interesting implications for second language teaching,
specifically by highlighting the distinction between form and function, a distinction not always
clearly made in other approaches.
By identifying language functions and the many grammatical ways of expressing these
functions, it becomes clear that the relationship between form and meaning is not one-to-one.
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If we make our students aware of the functions of language they will find it possible to
focus on the meaning that they wish to get and then to choose the proper grammatical forms
best suited for the context rather than focusing exclusively on grammar.
We should like to bring into prominence the influence of the functional approach in second
language acquisition, which often for historical reasons, has been neglected.
The following material was taken from chapter 3 of Guy Cooks book : Language Teaching-
Discourse and it sheds some light on this approach
F u n c t i on s o f l an gu a g e
We must point out that although formal links reinforce the unity of discourse, they cannot, on
their own create it. Look at the following examples given by Cook:
A. Its a mystery to me, how the conjuror sawed that woman in half.
B. Well, Jane was the woman he did it to. So presumably she must know.
It would be a mistake to suppose that formal links, and nothing else, create the unity
between these sentences. We can see this clearly if we replace the third sentence with another,
so that the sequence reads:
A. Its a mystery to me, how the conjuror sawed that woman in half.
B. Well, Jane was the woman he did it to. So presumably she must be Japanese.
Here, there are also formal links (so, she, etc.) but it is not clear how the sequence makes
sense. Of course, they might form part of a discourse, and if we stretch our imaginations we
could come up with a situation in which they do ; but this will not be by virtue of the words so
and she, but of some other information about the context.
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As we can see from the above examples, formal links between sentences are not enough to
account for our feeling that a stretch of language is discourse. They are neither necessary nor
sufficient, and in brief spoken exchanges, it is quite common to come across sentences that are
almost entirely bare of them.
N o w d o t he a c t i v i t y s u g g e s t ed b y
t h e a u t h o r : F o r e a c h ex c h a n g e , s up p l y a
c o n te x t i n w h i c h i t m a ke s s e n s e . N o t i ce
t h a t t h e r e a re n o f o r m a l l i n k s i n a n y o f
t h e s e ex c h a n g e s , b ut t h e y a r e
n e v e r t he l e s s e a s y t o u n de r s t a n d . E a c h
o n e c o u ld f o r m a c o mp l e te d i s c ou r s e .
Context: Its three in the morning, theres a couple in bed. The wife wakes up out of cold.
She says to her husband the window is open but he, half asleep, answers: go back to sleep,
will you?
Please, notice that we didnt have the need to add more utterances to create the context.
Only the two exchanges with no help of cohesive devices are enough to contextualize the
situation. Work on the other three, be creative, think who can be saying the window is open,
who is answering dont worry, why that person is giving that response. It will also help to have
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a clear context if you imagine and state where they are, how they are related, when this is
happening, why, etc. And remember, dont add more speech! Good luck!
--------------------------------------
These examples above are invented; but one does not have to look far to find such
exchanges in real life. Clearly, if we need to explain some interpretations we will need more
than our list of cohesive devices.
In this subject you will, surely enlarge your knowledge about the functional approach.
Reading about such concepts as speech acts, illocutionary acts, semantic roles and other
concepts will probably contribute to this.
(Adapted from: Language Teaching- Discourse, Guy Cook ;OUP, 1996, pages 22-23)
H o w m e a n i ng i s c r e a t e d a n d u n d e r s t o o d ?
Pragmatics, the science concerned with the study of meaning looks behind the literal,
formal meaning of what is said or written, and considers what the sender of a message intends
to achieve with it, that is to say it tries to understand its function.
It has, consequently, more to do with the analysis of what people mean by their
utterances than with what those words or phrases might mean by themselves.
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In order to discover how such inferences are made, we will need firstly to examine the
range of possible functions of language, and secondly to try to understand how people correctly
interpret them. Understanding this connection between the form and the function of the
language, will help us to explain how stretches of language, can be coherent without being
cohesive; it will also help us as language teachers to provide students with a better sense of
contextual meaning. We cannot assume that these interpretations will be made in the same way
in all the cultures and in all languages, so understanding how interpretation proceeds in the
culture of the language we are teaching is crucial if we are to help learners to make their words
functions in the way that they intend.
(Adapted from Language Teaching- Discourse, Guy Cook ;OUP, 1996, page 24)
your hand.
If you were asked off hand what the function of language is what would you reply? Look
at the answers below and see which one you agree with most:
to send information
to tell other people your thoughts
to convey your feelings
others
Cook says that people are not as simplistic as this; even a moment of reflection leads to
the conclusion that language has many more functions. Nevertheless it is true, in the adult and
public world at least, that this function that language has of transmitting information, its
referential function, is considered the most important. To abuse it, by sending false information,
is usually regarded as wrong, and can, in certain circumstances, incur the punishment or
imprisonment or a fine. Yet, it is by no means the only, or the first, function of language in
human life. In the world of the infant and parent the referential function of language often takes
a subordinate role to others. There is little the four-year-old child can tell his or her parents that
they do not know already, for they share the childs world almost entirely. The same is true in
other intimate relationships. Some conversations of couples have scant informational content.
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And even in the wider social world of adult intercourse, language clearly has many more
functions than simply sending information.
(Taken from: Language Teaching- Discourse, Guy Cook ;OUP, 1996, pages 25-26)
t a k . . . t a k . . . t a k . . . p r a v d a ? . .. t a k . . . what do you
There have been many, sometimes conflicting attempts to do so. One of the clearest
and most influential was formulated by the linguist Roman Jakobson (1960), and further
developed by Hymes (1962). The scheme proceeds by first identifying the elements of
communication, as follows:
T h e a d d r e s s e r : T h e per s o n wh o o r ig i na t e s t h e me s s a ge . Th i s i s u s u a l l y
t h e s a me a s t h e p e r s on w ho i s s e nd i n g th e m e s s ag e , b u t no t a l w a y s , a s
i n t h e ca s e o f me s s en ge r s , s po k e s p eo p le , a nd t o w n cr i er s .
T h e a d d r e s s e e : T h e per s o n to w ho m t he m e s s ag e i s ad dr e s s ed . Th i s i s
u s u a l l y t he pe r so n wh o r e c e i ve s t h e m e s s ag e , b u t no t ne c e s s ar i l y s o , a s
i n t h e ca s e o f i n te r ce p t ed l e t t er s , bu gg ed te l e ph one c a l l s , a nd ea v e s
d r o pp i ng .
T h e c h a n n el : T he me d i um t hr ou gh w h i c h th e me s s ag e t r a v e l s : s ou nd
w a v e s , m ar k s on pa pe r , te l ep ho ne w i r e s , wo r d pr o ce s s o r s c r e en s .
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Linguistics Discourse Analysis
T h e m e s s a g e f o r m : T he pa r t i c u la r g r a m mat i c a l a n d le x i c a l c h o i c e s o f t h e
m e s s ag e .
T h e t o p i c : T he i n fo r m a t i on c ar r ie d i n th e m e s s ag e . Ba s i c a l l y , w h a t t he
m e s s ag e i s ab ou t .
E n g l i s h , Se ma ph or e , Br i t i s h S i gn La ng ua ge, J a p an e se .
T h e s e t t i n g : Th e s o c ia l o r ph y s i c a l c o n t e x t.
L e t s f i n d th e e l em en t s o f c o m mun i c a t i o n in t h e fo l l o w i ng d i a lo gu e :
A: OK, Dr. Peterson can see you tomorrow. Can you come in the morning?
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A: Yes, here you are. OK, I've scheduled for ten o'clock tomorrow morning.
B: Thank you.
A: Goodbye.
Elements of communication
Addresser: At first, you may think that the secretary is the addressor here
because she is the first one to actually utter the first words.
However, she is not the one who opens the channel. By dialing a
number and making the phone rings on the other side, David Lain
Channel: That is the medium used to communicate, in this case, we can say
Message form: According to the lexical and grammatical choices of the speaker,
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The setting: Physical context: (time and place) We may have to physical
may be calling from his work or another place. On the other hand,
some implications about the time, the call took place during
analyzing, we can say that they are just acquaintances. They are
being polite with each other. And we can also mention that the
M a c r o -f u n c t i o n s a r e t h e n e st a b l i sh e d , e a c h f o c u si n g at t e n t i o n u p o n o n e
e l em e n t :
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Linguistics Discourse Analysis
1 . T h e m ot i v e f u n ct i o n: c om m u ni c a t i n g i n n er st a t e s a n d e m o t i o n s o f t h e
a d d r e s se r .
2 . T h e d i r e ct i v e f u n ct i o n : se e k i n g t o af f e ct t h e b e h av i o u r of t h e
a d d r e s se e .
3 . T h e p h a t i c f u n ct i o n : o p e n n i n g t h e c h a n n e l or c h e c k i n g t h a t i t i s
wo r k i n g . T h e u se o f su c h p h r a se s a s n i c e d a y t o d a y , o r h o w d o y o u
d o i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y l a c k of a n y i nf o rm at i v e c o n t e n t a n d i s
i n t e n d e d t o l i n k p e o p l e a n d m a k e t h e c o ex i st e n c e p e a c e f u l a n d
p l e a sa n t . T h e p h a t i c u se of l a n g u a g e i s c h a r a c t e r i st i c m ai nl y of
sp e e c h , h o we v e r , i n c e r t ai n t y p e s o f wr i t i n g i t c a n al so b e n o t i c e d ,
a s i n l e t t e r s f o r ex am pl e , wh e r e t h e b e g i n n i n g D e a r S i r / M a d a m a n d
e n d i n g Y o u r s f a i t hf u l l y a l so se rv e t h a t p u r po se .
4 . T h e p o e t i c f u n ct i o n : i n wh i c h t h e p a rt i c ul a r f o rm c h o se n i s t h e
e s se n c e o f t h e m e ssa g e . H e r e , t h e wo r d p o e t i c d o e s n o t r ef e r t o t h e
a b i l i t y t o wr i t e p o e t r y, b u t t h e a bi l i t y t o m a ni p u l a t e l a n g u a g e i n a
c r e a t i v e wa y . W i t h t h e u se o f j o k e s a n d m et a p h o r s we c a n p l a y wi t h
wo r d s a n d m e a n i n g s si m pl y f o r j o y .
5 . T h e r ef e r e n t i a l f u n ct i o n : c a r r yi n g i nf o rm at i on .
6 . T h e m e t al i n g u i st i c f u n c t i o n : f o c u si n g a t t e n t i o n u p o n t h e c o d e i t se l f ,
t o cl a r i f y i t o r r e n e g o ci a t e i t . Al l we a r e r e a d i n g ri g h t n o w h a s a
l a r g e l y m e t al i n g u i st i c f u n c t i o n .
7 . T h e c o n t ex t u al f u n ct i o n : c r e at i n g a p a r t i c u l a r k i n d of c om m u n i c at i o n .
E a c h e l e m e n t o f c o m mu n i c a t i o n
c o r r e s p o n d s to a f u n c t i o n , F o r e x a m p l e ,
t h e c o d e e l e m en t co r r e s p o n d s to th e
m e t a l i n g u i s t i c fu n c t i o n . S e e i f yo u a r e
a b l e to m a t c h th e r e s t !
W h a t d o yo u c o n si d e r to b e th e mo s t
l i k e l y fu n c ti o n s o f th e fo l l o w i n g ?
I s i t p o s s i b l e to a s s i g n o n e fu n c ti o n to
e a c h , o r w e c a n n o ti c e s o m e w i t h m i x e d
f u n c ti o n ? H o w mi g h t th e fu n c ti o n o f e a c h
u t t e r a n c e v a r y a c c o r d i n g to th e c o n t e x t ?
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M i c r o fu n c ti o n s a n d fu n c ti o n a l l a n g u a g e te a c h i n g
I f we a c c e p t J a k o b so n s a n d H y m e s , o r a n y si m i l a r, c a t e g o ri z a t i o n of
l a n g u a g e i n t o a sm al l n um b e r of m a c r o -f u n ct i o n s, we m i g h t t h e n g o o n t o
su b d i v i d e e a c h f u n c t i o n a n d sp e c i f y m o r e de l i c at e c a t e g o ri e s, o r m i c r o -
f u n ct i o n s. A b r e a k d o wn o f t h e d i r e ct iv e f u nc t i o n , f o r ex am p l e, m i g h t l o o k
so m e t h i n g l i k e t h e f ol l o wi n g t a k e n f r om C o o k s wo r k :
(Taken from: Language Teaching- Discourse, Guy Cook ;OUP, 1996, page 27)
T h e p r ev i o u s d i a g r am f ol l o ws t h r o u g h o n l y o n e f u n ct i o n i n e a c h
c o l um n , b u t o n e m i g h t e a si l y i m a gi n e a si m i l a r di v i si o n a n d r e - d i v i si o n of
a n y of t h e ot h e r si x m a c r o -f u n ct i o n s, o r of a n y of t h e r e su l t i n g su b -
c a t e g o r i e s. T h e r e su l t wo u l d b e a d i a g r am wh i c h b e c o m e s ev e r m o r e
p r e c i se a n d e x pl i c i t a s i t m ov e s f r om l ef t t o r i g h t , wi t h a l o n g l i st of f ai rl y
n a r r o wl y d e f i n e d f u n c t i o n s o n t h e ri g h t - h a nd si d e . T h e r e su l t i n g l i st of
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f u n ct i o n s i s of t h e ki n d u se d a s t h e b a se s o f f u n ct i o n al l a n g u a g e c o u r se s -
t h e o n e s w h i c h u se t h e t e rm i n a n y m e a n i ng f ul wa y r a t h e r t h a n b e c a u se i t
wa s f a sh i o n a b l e - a n d t hi s i s t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t we e n f u n c t i o n a l c o u r se s a n d
f u n ct i o n al a p p r o a c h e s t o l i n g u i st i c s.
F u n c t i o n a l c o u r se s se t o u t t o l i st t h e p u r p o se s f o r wh i c h st u d e n t s
m i g h t wi sh t o u se l a n g u a g e , a n d t h e n t o t e ac h t h em h o w t o d o so . I n t hi s,
t h e y h av e i m p o r t a n t st r e n g t h s, a n d t h e y c an t e a c h st u d e n t s sk i l l s wh i c h
c o u r se s c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n f o rm al f e a t u r e s of l a n g u a g e of t e n om i t : h o w t o
g r e e t p e o p l e , o r h o w t o m a i n t ai n p ol i t e c o n t a c t wh i l e l i st e n i n g o n t h e
t e l e p h o n e . B u t t h e y al so h av e c e r t ai n we a k n e s se s, f o r t h e m o r e ex a c t o n e
t r i e s t o b e c om e a b o u t f u n ct i o n s, t h e m o r e sl i p p e r y t h e y b e c om e, a n d t h e
m o r e sc o p e t h e r e i s f o r v ar i at i o n a n d di sa g r e e m e n t . C e r t ai n l y , n o l i st c o ul d
ev e r c l ai m t o b e ex h a u st i v e a n d c om p l et e . T h e r e a r e a l so p e d a g o g i c
p r o b l e m s i n f ol l o wi n g l i st of f u n c t i o n s t h r o u g h . W h a t o r d e r sh o u l d we
f ol l o w? A r e so m e f u n ct i o n s m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n o t h e r s? H o w e x a c t l y d o
t h e y r e l at e t o g r am m a r a n d v o c a b ul a r y ?
(Taken from: Language Teaching- Discourse, Guy Cook ;OUP, 1996, pages 25-30)
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T h e Co o p e r a t i v e P r i n c i p l e
L o o k a t a cl a ssi c a l ex am pl e , t h e c o nv e r sa t i o n , t a k e n f r om P r a g m a t i cs , b y
George Yule (p.36)
O n e of t h e p r o b l em s wi t h t h i s ex c h a n g e h a s t o d o wi t h
c o m m u ni c a t i o n . T h e p r o bl em wa s c a u s e d b y t h e m a n s a ss u m p t i o n t h a t t h e
d o g b e l o n g e d t o t h e wo m a n . F r om t h e m a n s p e r s p e c t i v e t h e wo m a n s
a n s we r p r o v i d e s l e ss i n f o rm a t i o n t h a n ex p ec t e d . O f c o u r se i f sh e h a d , t h e
st o r y wo u l d n t b e f u n n y . F o r t h e st o r y t o b e f u n n y t h e wom a n h a s t o g i v e
l e ss i n f o rm at i o n t h a n i s e x p e ct e d .
T h e wh o l e si t u a t i o n p oi n t s o u t t h a t t h e r e i s a n e x p e c t e d am o u n t of
i nf o rm at i o n p r ov i d e d i n c o nv e r sa t i o n , a n d t h e a s su m p t i o n i s t h a t p e o p l e
i nv o l v e d i n c o nv er sa t i o n wi l l c o o p e r a t e wi t h e a c h o t h e r . I n Y ul e s e x am pl e ,
t h e wo m a n , cl e a rl y , d o e s n o t wa n t t o t a k e pa r t i n a n y c o o p e r a t i v e
i n t e r a c t i o n . B u t i n m o st c a se s, t h e a s su m p t i o n o f c o o p e r a t i o n i s c om m o n t o
a l l c o nv e r sa t i o n s, so t h a t i t c a n b e d ef i n e d a s a c o o p e r a t i v e p r i n c i p l e of
c o nv e r sa t i o n a n d f ur t h e r su b d i v i d e d i n t o f ou r su b - p r i n c i p l e s, c al l e d m a x i m s
b y t h e E n gl i sh l a n g u a g e p h i l o so p h e r P a u l G r i c e ( 1 9 7 5 ) . A c c o r di n g t o G ri c e
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sp e a k e r s a n d h e a r e r s s h a r e t h e c o o p e r a t i v e p r i n ci p l e . S p e a k e r s sh a p e t h e i r
u t t e r a n c e s t o b e u n d e r st o o d b y h e a r e r s.
G r i c e a n a l y z e s c o o p e r a t i o n a s i nv o lv i n g f o u r m ax i m s: q u a n t i t y ,
qual i ty, rel ati on, and m anner. Speakers give enough and not too m u ch
i nf o rm at i o n : q u a n t i t y . T h e y a r e g e n u i n e a n d si n c e r e , sp e a k i n g " t r ut h " o r
f a ct s: q u a l i t y. Ut t e r a n c e s a r e r e l a t i v e t o t h e c o n t ex t of t h e sp e e c h : r e l a t i o n .
S p e a k e r s t r y t o p r e se n t m e a n i n g c l e a rl y a nd c o n c i se l y , av o i di n g am bi g u i t y :
manner.
MAXIMS DEFINITIONS
Quality response is relevant to topic of discussion
Quantity speaker's avoids ambiguity or obscurity, is direct and straightforward
Relation speaker tells the truth or provable by adequate evidence
Manner speaker is as informative as required
M c G o wa n p r o p o s e s t h a t G r i c e ' s f o u r m ax i m s e st a b l i sh i m p o r t a n t
n o r m s of di sc o u r se t h a t d i f f e r e n t g e n r e s a n d st r a t e g i e s p l a y wi t h . J o k e a n d
t a l l t a l e t e l l e r s p l a y wi t h l a n g u a g e . T h e y b en d t h e o r d i n a r y st r u c t u r e s a n d
a s su m p t i o n s a b o u t sp e e c h .
M c G o wa n a r g u e s t h a t m u c h j o ki n g a n d t al l t a l e d ev e l o pm e n t i nv ol v e
t h e t el l e r s p l a yi n g wi t h t h e se f o u r m ax i m s of G r i c e ' s c o o p e r a t i v e p ri n c i pl e .
O rv i l l e Hi c k s i n a t a l e of pl o u g h i n g t h e p o pc o r n f i e l d el a b o r a t e s d e t a i l s
a b o u t h i s f a t h e r a n d t h e m ul e . T h e se r e a l i st i c d e t ai l s se t u s u p f o r t h e t al l -
t a l e ex a g g e r a t i o n of t h e we a t h e r b e i n g so h o t t h a t c o r n st a r t e d t o p o p .
O rv i l l e , i n f a ct , a d d s o n e m o r e " r e al i st i c " de t a i l : t h e r e wa s so m u c h
p o p c o r n , i t c r e a t e d a " b l i zz a r d . " H e g o e s b e y o n d t h e m ax i m of q u an t i t y ; h e
g i v e s u s m o r e t h a n we n e e d t o k n o w. A l l O rv i l l e ' s t al l t al e s a l so v i ol a t e
q u a l i t y . H e p u r p o se l y sp e a k s u n t r u t h s, y e t h e g i v e s se e m i n gl y f ac t u a l
d e t a i l s. H e p l a y s wi t h r e l a ti o n of t e n , cr e a t i n g c r a z i l y l o gi c a l c o n n e c t i o n s.
G r i c e ' s f i n al m ax i m , m an n e r , d em a n d s t h a t c o nv e r sa t i o n b e u n am bi g u o u s,
b u t O rv i l l e' s t a l l t a l e s b e n d t h e m e a ni n g s o f wo r d s f o r h um o u r ; h e pl a y s
wi t h wo r d s a n d i m a g e s. O rv i l l e H i ck s p l a y s wi t h t h e se f o u r m ax i m s of t h e
15
Linguistics Discourse Analysis
c o o p e r a t i v e p ri n ci p l e i n hi s p e rf o rm a n c e s. O f t e n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n c o n g r ui t y
o f h um o u r i n su c h t a l e s d e p e n d s o n t h e v i o l a t i o n o r t am p e ri n g wi t h t h e f o u r
m ax i m s of G ri c e ' s c o o p e r a t iv e p ri n c i pl e : q u a n t i t y , q u al i t y , r e l at i o n, a n d
manner.
O v e r a l l , t h e se si m p l e c o nv e r sa t i o n a l r ul e s a r e v e ry u se f ul - b o t h wh e n t h e y
a r e f o l l o w e d a n d wh e n t h e y a r e n o t i c e a b l y b r o k e n .
F o l l o w i n g th e R u l e s/ M a x i m s
W h e n t h e r ul e s a r e f o l l o we d i t i s v e r y e a sy f o r p e o p l e t o u n d e r st a n d e a c h
o t h e r . W h at p e o p l e sa y i s e x pl i ci t , d i r e c t , an d t o t h e p oi n t . P e o p l e sa y wh a t
they mean.
N o t i c e a b l y B r e a k i n g th e R u l e s/ M a x i m s
T h e se r u l e s, h o we v e r , a r e u se f ul ev e n wh e n t h e y a r e b r o k e n . I f a sp e a k e r
b r e a k s t h e r u l e s i n a wa y t h a t i s n o t i c e a b l e ( c a l l e d "f l o u t i n g " ) , we t r y t o
f i g u r e o u t wh y i t h a p p e n e d - " . . . wh y d i d sh e sa y t h a t ? "
T h e f ol l o wi n g ex am pl e s sh o w h o w t h i s wo r k s:
I f som e o n e a sk s y o u , H o w m u c h d i d y o u r ho u se c o st ? a n d y o u r e sp o n d b y
sa y i n g E n o u g h - we l l , h o p e f ul l y t h e y wi l l g e t t h e p oi n t (" I t ' s n o n e o f y o u r
b u si n e ss. " )
T h i s i s h o w we i m p l y m e a n i n g we sa y t h i ng s wi t h o u t a c t u al l y h av i n g t o
sa y t h e m b y b r e a k i n g G ri c e s r u l e s o v e r t l y (o u t i n t h e o p e n ) .
O n e m o r e ex am pl e of f l o u t i n g t h e m ax i m s: I m a gi n e t h a t y o u a n d a f r i e n d at
wo r k a r e si t t i n g a r o u n d wo r k c om p l ai ni n g a b o u t y o u r b o ss. M i d - se n t e n c e
y o u r f ri e n d a b r u p t l y swi t c h e s t h e t o p i c ( b r e a k s t h e M a x i m of R e l a t i o n ) .
W i t h o u t sa y i n g a wo r d y o u r f r i e n d h a s t o l d wh a t y o u n e e d t o k n o w.
A s c a n b e se e n , G r i c e s r u l e s a r e i m p o r t a n t we f ol l o w t h e m wh e n we w a n t
t o b e ex p l i ci t l y cl e a r a n d d i r e c t .
A n d we b r e a k t h e r u l e s i n a n o bv i o u s, n o t i ce a b l e i n o r d e r t o m ak e a p oi n t
wi t h o u t h av i n g t o b e ex p l i ci t a b o u t t h e p o i n t b e i n g m a d e .
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Linguistics Discourse Analysis
Student: Because it starts working the second you get up in the morning and never stops
until you get asked a question in class!
Adapted from:
http://www.acs.appstate.edu/~mcgowant/grice.htm
(Taken from: Language Teaching- Discourse, Guy Cook ;OUP, 1996, pages 30-38)
T h e S p e e c h Ac t T h e o r y
(p r o p o s ed b y Au s t i n a n d r e f o r mu l a t e d b y S e a r l e )
A u st i n f i r st d ev e l o p e d t h e i d e a t h a t , f o r i n st a n c e g e t t i n g a g l a ss o f
wa t e r i s a n a c t i o n , a n d a sk i n g so m e o n e e l se t o g e t y o u o n e i s al so a n a c t .
T h i s c o n c e p t u n d e r l i e s t h e S p e e c h Ac t T h eo r y , wh i c h we wi l l f u r t h e r
a n a l y z e i n m o r e d e t ai l i n t h i s se c t i o n .
T h e i m p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t w h e n we sp e a k , o u r wo r d s d o n o t h av e
m e a ni n g i n t h em se l v e s. T h e y a r e v e r y m u c h af f e ct e d b y t h e si t u a t i o n , t h e
sp e a k e r a n d t h e l i st e n e r . T h u s , wo r d s a l o n e d o n o t h av e a si m pl e f i x e d
m e a ni n g .
T h e S p e e c h A ct T h e o r y p r o p o se s t h a t o n a ny o c c a si o n , t h e a c t i o n
p e r f o rm e d b y p r o d u c i n g ut t e r a n c e s wi l l c o nsi st o f t h r e e r el a t e d a ct s o f
sp e e c h : T h e r e i s f i r st a l o c u t i o n a r y a c t wh i c h i s t h e b a si c a ct of p r o d u c i n g
a m e a n i n gf u l l a n g u a g e e x p r e ssi o n . T h e n a n i l l o cu t i o n a r y a ct a n d l a st l y a
p e r l o cu t i o n a r y a ct . R e a d t h e ex p l a n a t i o n s a n d d e f i n i t i o n s b e l o w:
Locutionary act: saying something (the locution) with a certain meaning in traditional
sense. This may not constitute a speech act.
Illocutionary act: the performance of an act in saying something (vs. the general act
of saying something).
The illocutionary force is the speaker's intent. A true 'speech act'.
e.g. informing, ordering, warning, undertaking.
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Linguistics Discourse Analysis
In general, we produce well- formed utterances with a purpose, and we always have
some kind of function in mind. The communicative force of an utterance results in what has
been described as an illocutionary act.
Of course, a speaker does not create an utterance with a function without intending it to have
an effect on the hearer. This is the third dimension, the perlocutionary act.
Perlocutionary acts: Speech acts that have an effect on the feelings, thoughts or
actions of either the speaker or the listener. In other words, they seek to change
minds! Unlike locutionary acts, perlocutionary acts are external to the
performance.e.g., inspiring, persuading or deterring.
S e a r l e ( 1 9 6 9 ) i d e n t i f i e d f i v e i l l o c u t i o n a r y / pe r l o c u t i o n a r y p o i nt s:
1. Assertives: statements may be judged true or false because they aim to describe a
state of affairs in the world.
2. Directives: statements attempt to make the other person's actions fit the propositional
content.
3. Commissives: statements which commit the speaker to a course of action as
described by the propositional content.
4. Expressives: statements that express the sincerity condition of the speech act.
5. Declaratives: statements that attempt to change the world by representing it as
having been changed.
T h u s, p r e t t y m u c h al l we d o wh e n we a r e t a l ki n g i s t o a sse r t , d i r e c t ,
c o m m i se r a t e , ex p r e ss a n d d e c l a r e .
T h e m e a n i n g of a n u t t e r a n c e i s t h u s d e f i n e d m o r e b y c o nv e n t i o n t h a n
t h e i ni t i a t i v e of t h e r e a d e r . W h e n we sp e a k , we a r e f ol l o wi n g l e a r n e d r u l e s.
P e r f o r m a t i v i t y o c c u r s wh e r e t h e u t t e r a n c e of a wo r d a l so e n a c t s i t ( ' I n am e
t h i s sh i p . . . ' ) . I t i s a f o rm of i l l o c ut i o n a r y a c t . T hi s h a s b e e n t a k e n u p b y
su c h a s J u d i t h B ut l e r i n f em i ni sm a n d h a s b e e n u se d t o i n d i c a t e h o w
p o r n o g r a p h y i s l e ss a f o rm of sp e e c h a s a p e r f o rm at i v e a ct of se x u a l
d e g r a d a t i o n . I t i s r e l a t e d t o su t u r e a n d i nt er p e l l at i o n i n t h e wa y i t f o r c e s a
si t u a t i o n .
Some examples:
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Linguistics Discourse Analysis
Adapted from:
http://www.acs.appstate.edu/~mcgowant/grice.htm
(Taken from: Language Teaching- Discourse, Guy Cook ;OUP, 1996, pages 30-38)
I m p l i c a t i o n s o f P r a g m a ti c s , d i s c o u r s e an a l y s i s fo r l an g u a g e t e a c h i n g
S o f a r we h av e b e e n d i sc u s si n g t h e o r i e s of t h e p r a g m at i c
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of l a n g u a g e : h o w p e o p l e c r e a t e m e a n i n g a n d m ak e se n se o f
wh a t i s sa i d i n sp e c i f i c ci rc um st a n c e s. T h e f a ct t h a t m e a ni n g i s n o t
c o n st r u c t e d f r om t h e f o rm al l a n g u a g e of t h e m e ssa g e a l o n e i s c r u ci a l i n
e x pl a i ni n g wh a t i t i s t h a t m a k e s p e o p l e p e r c e i v e so m e st r e t c h e s o f
l a n g u a g e a s c o h e r e n t d i sc o u r s e a n d o t h e r s a s d i sc o n n e c t e d j u m bl e s. I t i s
a l so i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e su c c e ssf u l t e a c hi n g an d l e a r n i n g of f o r ei g n
l a n g u a g e s.
T h e i m p o r t a n c e of p r a gm a t i c t h e o r i e s i n l a ng u a g e l e a r n i n g i s r e a l l y
t wo f o l d . F i r st l y t h e d i v e r g e n c e of f u n ct i o n a n d f o rm m e a n s t h a t we c a n n o t
r e l y u p o n t e a c hi n g o n l y f o rm . I n p r o d u c t i o n , l e a r n e r s n e e d t o c h o o se t h e
wo r d s wh i c h m o st su i t a b l e r e al i z e t h ei r i n t en t i o n , a n d t h i s d o e s n o t a l wa y s
e n t a i l t h e m o st c l o se l y r e l at e d f o rm ; i n r e c e p t i o n of l a n g u a g e , g i v e n t h e
h u m a n p e n c h a n t f o r i n d i r e ct i o n , t h e y a l so n e e d t o b e a b l e t o m ov e f r om t h e
f o rm t o t h e f u n c t i o n . T h e r e a r e t i m e s wh e n m a ki n g t h e l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n
e f f e c t i v el y i s m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n p r o d u ci n g p e r f e ct l y p r o n o u n c e d ,
g r a m m at i c a l l y c o r r e c t se n t e n c e s.
S e c o n d l y , t h e l i n ki n g of f o rm t o f u n c t i o n m ay h e l p l e a r n e r s t o
o r i g i n a t e t h em se l v e s wi t h i n a d i sc o u r se . A l l l e a r n e r s of a f o r e i g n l a n g u a g e
a r e f am i l i a r wi t h t h e di st u r b i n g se n sa t i o n o f u n d e r st a n d i n g ev e r y wo r d , a n d
t h e l i t e r al m e a n i n g , b ut so m e h o w m i ssi n g t h e p o i n t . T h e u n d e r l y i n g
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Linguistics Discourse Analysis
st r u c t u r e of t h e d i sc o u r se m a y b e a p r o g r e ssi o n o f f u n c t i o n a l u n i t s, a n d a
b r e a k d o wn i n p r a gm a t i c i n t e r p r e t at i o n m a y e a si l y l e a d t o a l e a r n e r l o si n g
h i s o r h e r wa y . W e sh a l l n e e d t o g o f u rt h e r i n ex am i n i n g h o w f u n c t i o n a l
u n i t s i n t e r a ct t o c r e a t e d i sc o u r se , a n d h o w t h e l e a r n e r m ay b e g u i d e d
t h r o u g h t h em .
T h e t wo p o i n t s r a i se t h e i ssu e o f t h e ex t e n t t o wh i c h p r a gm a t i c
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d di s c o u r se st r u c t u r e a r e c u l t u r e sp e c i f i c, a n d t h e ex t e n t t o
wh i c h t h e y n e e d t o b e - o r c a n b e - t a u g h t . I n o r d e r t o d o t hi n g s wi t h wo r d s
e i t h e r a ct iv el y, a s l a n g u a g e p r o d u c e r s, o r p a s si v el y , a s l a n g u a g e
u n d e r st a n d e r s, we c l e a r l y n e e d m o r e t o ol s t h a n t h e f o rm al l a n g u a g e
sy st e m , t h o u g h we d o n e e d t h a t t o o . T h e n ee d s o f t h e l a n g u a g e u se r m i g h t
b e r e p r e se n t e d a s i n t h e f ol l o wi n g c h a r t t a ke n f r om G u y C o o k :
T ak en f r om D is c our s e, G u y C ook , 19 96 , p ag e 42
T r a d i t i o n al l y, l a n g u a g e t e a c h i n g h a s c o n c e n t r a t e d o n l y o n t h e t h r e e
l ev e l s of t h e f orm a l l a n g u a g e sy st e m - p r o n un c i a t i o n , g r am m ar , a n d
v o c a b u l a ry - a n d t h e wa y i n wh i c h t h e y f u n c t i o n wi t h i n t h e se n t e n c e , o n t h e
a s su m p t i o n t h a t ot h e r a sp e c t s o f c om m u n i ca t i o n wi l l f ol l o w f ai r l y
a u t o m a t i c al l y . I t r em ai n s t r u e , of c o u r se , t ha t t h e f orm a l sy st e m of a f o r e i g n
l a n g u a g e i s v e ry o bv i o u sl y d i f f e r e n t f r om t ha t of t h e l e a r n e r s f i r st
l a n g u a g e , t h a t i t , t h e r ef o r e , f o rm s t h e b a si s of a n y f u l l c om m u ni c a t i o n , a n d
t h a t i t n e e d s t o b e a c q u i r e d i n so m e wa y . I t i s n o t , h o we v e r , al l t h a t i s
n e e d e d f o r c om m u n i c at i o n . S o f a r , i n o u r se a r c h f o r t h e f o r c e s wh i c h
c r e a t e s c o h e r e n c e , we h a v e ex am i n e d so m e of t h e ot h e r f a ct o r s i n
c o m m u ni c a t i o n .
I n t h e f i r st u n i t we h av e se e n h o w t h e f o rm a l sy st e m o p e r a t e s a c r o ss
se n t e n c e s a n d we h a v e m e n t i o n e d h o w k n o wl e d g e o f t h e wo r l d o r of t h e
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Linguistics Discourse Analysis
c u l t u r e , a b o u t so c i a l r ol e s a n d r e l a t i o n sh i p s) e n a b l e s p e o p l e t o m a k e t h ei r
l a n g u a g e f u n ct i o n a s t h e y i nt e n d t o u n d e r st a n d h o w o t h e r s d o t h e sa m e t o
t h e m . T o c o n n e c t t h e i r k n o wl e d g e wi t h t h e l a n g u a g e sy st e m p e o p l e u se
r e a so n i n g , a n d p r a g m a t i c t h e o r i e s. I n o r d e r t o u n d e r st a n d t h i s, we sh o u l d
g o so m e wa y t o wa r d s e x p l ai n i n g h o w p e o p l e r e a so n t h e i r wa y f r om t h e f o rm
t o t h e f u n ct i o n a n d t h u s c o n st r u c t c o h e r e n t d i sc o u r se f r om t h e l a n g u a g e
t h e y r e c e iv e.
W h at we n e e d t o d e c i d e a s l a n g u a g e t e a c h e r s i s t h e d e g r e e t o wh i c h
o t h e r c om p o n e n t s o f c om m u ni c a t i o n n e e d t e a c h i n g . Al l h um a n b ei n g s h av e
r e a so n i n g p o we r , wo r l d k n o wl e d g e , a n d k n o wl e d g e o f a t l e a st o n e c u l t u r e;
b u t t h e di v i si o n s b e t we e n t h e se c a t e g o r i e s a n d t h e n a t u r e of t h e i r c o n t e n t s
a r e n o t a l wa y s c l e a r . H o w f a r d o c o nv e r sa t i o n a l p r i n ci pl e s a n d t h e
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of sp e e c h a c t s p r o c e e d s d i f f er e n t l y i n d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e , f o r
e x am pl e ? W e a l so n e e d t o h el p l e a r n e r s i n t e g r a t e t h e c om p o n e n t s of
c o m m u ni c a t i o n o n e wi t h a n o t h e r . I t i s n o g o o d t e a c h i n g t h em a s d i sc r e t e
u n i t s a n d h o p i n g t h a t t h e l e a r n e r , su d d e n l y f a c e wi t h i m m e di a t e su c c e ss.
W h at ev e r c ul t u r al v a ri a t i o n t h e r e m a y b e i n p r a g m a t i c i nt e r p r e t a t i o n , we
m a y b e su r e t h a t i t s i n t e r a c t i o n wi t h f o rm i s l a n g u a g e sp e c i f i c . I t d o e s
n e e d s t e a c h i n g , t h o u g h we m u st b e c a r ef ul n o t t o g o t o t h e o p p o si t e
e x t r em e , a s m a n y c o u r se s d o , a n d p a t r o n i zi n g l y t h at a d u l t l e a r n e r s l i k e
n e w- b o r n b a b i e s . T h e y b r i n g wi t h t h em i m me n se r e a so n i n g p o we r ,
k n o wl e d g e o f t h e wo r l d , a n d a so p h i st i c a t e d sk i l l at i m pl em e n t i n g t h r o u g h
t h e i r o wn l a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e t h e c om pl ex n e e d s o f al l h um a n s; t o r el a t e
t o o t h e r s, a n d t o a ct wi t h t h em .
(Taken from: Language Teaching- Discourse, Guy Cook ;OUP, 1996, pages 40-42)
Consider the following exchanges. Does the second speaker answers the first speakers
question in each case? Does the answer implicate anything? What maxim/s are being
flouted in each case and what the reasons might be?
1) Exchange between two colleagues:
A: Did I get invited to the conference?
B: Your paper was too long.
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Linguistics Discourse Analysis
1- Provide two examples (real or invented) in which Grices rules are broken overtly
2- Speech Acts: Provide one example (created by you) for each type of speech acts:
Locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary.
END OF UNIT II
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