Cost optimisation of lattice-reinforced joist slabs using

genetic algorithms
V. C. Castilho and M. C. V. Lima

Genetic algorithms (GA), a search method inspired by Darwins theory of evolution, offer an optimisation tool that
has been used very successfully to solve a variety of engineering problems. The search process it implements starts
with a set of one or more chromosomes (initial population) and, by applying selection and reproduction operators,
iteratively evolves the population into better ones, until a stopping criterion is reached. This article investigates
lattice-reinforced joist slab cost optimisation problems using a GA with continuous variables. The problem
considered concerns one-way slabs, continuous over two spans, in which only the in situ concrete characteristics
and joist spacing are varied. The design variables are: concrete layer thickness, concrete layer strength,
reinforcement, distance between joists and degree of redistribution of the continuous slabs negative moments.
The search for a solution includes an investigation into the use of discrete variables for data representation.
To obtain results that allow for a comparative empirical analysis, these problems are also evaluated by a
conventional optimisation method. The results indicate that the GA method is a viable optimisation tool for
solving lattice-reinforced joist slab cost minimisation problems.
[doi: 10.1680/stco.2007.8.3.111]

Vanessa Cristina de than that of optimisation. In the area of and the coefficient of redistribution of the
Castilho precast concrete structures, the optimisation negative moments of continuous slabs. Based
Universidade Federal de of elements is of major interest due to the on these factors, the influence of the continu-
Uberlandia, Brazil way these elements are produced. In Brazil, ous reinforcement is evaluated in the struc-
one of the most common applications of tures final cost.4,5 The variables are defined
precast concrete elements is in buildings initially as continuous and later as discrete,
Maria Cristina Vidigal
slabs. These slabs usually consist of lattice- since it is much easier to associate a discrete
de Lima
Universidade Federal de reinforced joists, prestressed concrete joists, set of values to the variables values because
Uberlandia, Brazil pre-cast double-T (TT) panels and hollow core they are more easily applied. To investigate
panels. the potential of the GA, the same problems
In precast concrete elements, part of the were addressed using a conventional method,
problem is the transitory stages of production, the Excel Solver, which uses the nonlinear
transportation and assembly, which may optimisation code Generalized Reduced
Notation impose more unfavourable loads on these Gradient (GRG2).
elements than on cast-in-place structures.
h degree of redistribution These stages consist of:1
Map negative bending moment after the
Genetic algorithm
redistribution (a) production execution of precast The genetic algorithm (GA) is an optimisation
Mel negative bending moment for concrete elements; and search method based on the concepts of
elastic-linear material (b) transportation moving from the genetics, i.e. the evolutionary mechanisms of
f (x) cost function, in R$/m2 production to the building site; populations of live beings. GAs were inspired
x1 thickness of cast-in-place concrete, (c) assembly placement of the elements in on the principles of natural selection and
in m their permanent position and execution survival of the fittest established in 1859 by
x2 compressive strength of the con- of the connections. Charles Darwin in his book The Origin of
crete, in MPa
Species. According to Darwins theory, in any
x3 distance between joists axes, in m
A robust solution to the problem of cost given population, the individuals possessing
x4 degree of redistribution, in %
minimisation of precast concrete structures good genetic characteristics have better
requires that all these stages be taken into chances for survival and reproduction than
Introduction account. the less fit individuals, who tend to disappear
This article analyses the cost optimisation of over time.
Researchers in the field of structural engineer- lattice-reinforced joist slabs based on genetic The GA simulates biological evolution by
ing have always attempted to devise optimised algorithms (GAs).2,3 The problem variables are means of a multidirectional search within the
design solutions. Indeed, few topics have the height and strength of the concrete, the space of potential solutions for the problem.
received more attention in structural analyses reinforcement, the distance between joists This algorithm maintains a constant number

14644177 (Print) 17517648 (Online) # 2007 Thomas Telford and fib

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 112 de Castilho and de Lima
of potential solutions (population), modifying
the population in each successive generation
so that good solutions can reproduce and
pass on to the next generation, while bad
solutions are discarded. GA generally uses
probabilistic transition rules to select some
solutions for reproduction and others to be
discarded. The basic principles of GA were
established in Holland6 and are mentioned in
many bibliographical references.7 11
Each individual in a population (called a
chromosome) usually corresponds to a point
in the search space and represents a possible
solution to the problem this solution is also
called a hypothesis. The GA can explore the
space of possible solutions to seek the best
one by applying its reproduction mechanism
to the individuals of the current population.
Instead of starting from a single point (or
potential solution) in the search space, a GA
is initialised with a population of potential sol-
utions. These potentials solutions are normally
generated randomly and represent dispersed
points in the search space.
A typical GA uses three operators
selection, crossover and mutation to guide
the population (through several generations)
toward a convergence at the global optimal
point. After the selection, crossover and
mutation operators have been applied, a new
population is formed. The process is repeated
until a given number of generations have been
created or another stop criterion is reached.
These characteristics, organised into a pro-
cedure, can be rewritten as the pseudo-code
shown in Figure 1.
This optimisation tool is widely employed in
the search for solutions to innumerable pro-
blems in the field of engineering.12 18
S(t ) population of chromosomes in generation
t.
initialise S(t )
evaluate S(t )
while (not termination-condition)
begin
select S(t ) from S(t 1)
crossover S(t )
mutation S(t )
evaluated S(t )
end
4 Figure 1 Typical genetic algorithm
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Generalised reduced gradient
(GRG2)
which is applied in 2 3 cm thickness, using
The GRG2 is a nonlinear optimisation program
used by the Microsoft Excel Solver to solve
minimisation and maximisation problems.19
Basically, GRG2 uses an implementation of the
generalised reduced gradient algorithm (GRG).
To generalise the GRG algorithm, the func-
tions gradient is used, thus ensuring that,
regardless of the expression, a linear relation
among the variables is always obtained.
A typical optimisation problem with restric-
tions addressed via nonlinear programming
can be equated as shown in Figure 2. In the
presence of inequalities, the equations are
transformed using fictitious variables.
The solution to the optimisation problem is
found starting from this typical algorithm and
applying the characteristics of the GRG itself. In
addition to all these characteristics for solving
optimisation problems, unlike the GA, an initial
solution must also be supplied, whether it is
feasible or not.
Ribbed slabs with lattice-
reinforced joists
Lattice-reinforced joist slabs can be treated as
monolithic structures because they are joined to
cast-in-place concrete. The behaviour of these
slabs is similar to that of conventionally designed
slabs, and these precast concrete elements play a
rational role, representing low-cost and fast con-
struction (EF-9620 and NBR 611821).
Lattice-reinforced joists are structures com-
posed of steel bars joined together by electro-
fusion welding at various points to form a
space lattice. In the transitory phases, the diag-
onals of these lattices confer rigidity on the set,
as well as excellent transport conditions and
handling, and connections between the cast-in-
place concrete and the precast concrete base.
Moreover, the lattices can be used as transversal
reinforcements to offset shear stresses.22 24
minimise f (x )
Such that: where Lj and Uj are the lower and upper
limits from xj.
gi (X) = 0, i = 1, neq
Lj < Xj < U j, j = 1, n
4 Figure 2 Typical optimisation algorithm
The concrete base is moulded in metal
moulds to ensure the quality of the concrete,
concrete with small rich aggregates in a aggre-
gate cement paste to avoid the vibration
operation (Figure 3).
Lattice-reinforced joists are usually pro-
duced in lengths varying from 80 300 mm,
with possible one-centimetre variations. Each
type of joist is identified by a set of symbols,
as illustrated in the example below,25 where
in TR-08634: TR characterises the lattice-
reinforced joist; 08 indicates the 8 cm high
lattice reinforcement; 6 indicates the f6 mm
gauge of the lattices upper bar; 3 indicates
the f3.4 mm gauge of the diagonals; and
4 indicates the f4.2 mm gauge of the lower
bars.
Lattice-reinforced joists can be produced by
order to include additional reinforcements
introduced in the concrete base without
complicating the production process.
El Debs1 points out that the use of this type
of lattice-reinforced joist favours the appli-
cation of bi-directional reinforcement slabs.
The Brazilian Civil Construction Committee
is currently studying the elaboration of the
Code for Prefabricated Slabs. Therefore, the
calculations normally used by design engineers
to dimension and check lattice-reinforced joist
slabs are those published by manufacturers of
precast elements, according to Diniz,26 Lima27
and Pereira.28
upper bar
diagonals
h
concrete base
additional
lower bars reinforcement
4 Figure 3 Lattice-reinforced joists4
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2007
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 Cost optimisation of lattice-reinforced joist slabs 113

Table 1 Fabrication costs

Material Labour Equipment

Raw material
Concrete: R$/m3 123.75 4.40 4.00
Reinforcement: R$/kg 1.80 0.25
Infill blocks: R$/m3 2.00 2.00 1.20
4 Figure 4 Difference between Mel and
Factory activity: R$/m3 4.40 1.67
Map
Administration: R$/m3 10% of the overall costs
involved in raw material,
The continuous reinforcement of the factory activity
lattice-reinforced joist was determined using
as the variable the degree of the bending
moments redistribution, taking care not to
exceed the slabs bearing capacity.29 Table 2 Assembly costs
The degree of redistribution h, expressed as
Material Labour Equipment
a percentage (Figure 4), is given by

 Erection: R$/m3 10.4
Map Cast-in-place concrete: R$/m3 (24.75 . fck,capa 74.25) 110.75
h 1
100(%)
Mel Reinforcement: R$/kg 8.18
Administration: R$/m3 20% of the overall costs
involved in the assembly,
where Map is the negative bending moment
cast-in-place concrete
after the redistribution and Mel is the negative and complementary
bending moment for elastic-linear material. reinforcement

Solution of the cost optimisation
problem of lattice-reinforced
joist slabs
Costs and input for lattice-
reinforced joists
The definition of the cost minimisation function
for the precast concrete elements studied here
was based on the costs of fabrication, external
transport and application. Listed below are the
partial values of the inputs in each stage. Note
that these values correspond to an initial analy-
sis of the problems evaluated in this work.
All prices are given in Brazilian Real (R$). The
conversion rate is 1.00USD 2.14BRL and
1.00EUR 2.79BRL (at 16 May 2006). The
costs considered here are the same as those
adopted by Castilho.30
(a) Fabrication costs. The costs involved in the
production of precast concrete elements
(the overall costs involved in administrative
tasks and the salaries of the people
involved in the job). A breakdown of
these costs is given in Table 1.
(b) External transport cost. This is the cost of
transporting the joist from the factory to
the construction site, comprising labour,
trucks, fuel, insurance and maintenance
costs. For the purposes of this study, we
considered a construction site located
100 km from the factory.
External transport costs (R$=m3 ) 52
(c) Assembly costs. The costs involved in the
assembly refer to the assembly of the
joist, the cast-in-place concrete, the comp-
lementary reinforcement and administra-
tive costs, as indicated in Table 2.
Definition of the problem
degree of redistribution variable was also ana-
lysed. The analysis comprised three lattice-
reinforcement cases: the TR-08634 discussed
by Magalhaes,4 and the TR-12645 and TR-
16645 available used in Brazilian market, all
with the same loading conditions.
The lattice-reinforced joist was optimised
under the same loading conditions adopted
by Magalhaes:4
(a) Distributed uniformly along the element,
the loads were based on the concretes
dead weight (gc 25 kN/m3), expanded
polystyrene (EPS) infill blocks
(ge 0.12 kN/m3), a permanent load of
0.5 kN/m2 and a live load of 2.0 kN/m2.
(b) The slabs were dimensioned considering a
concrete base compressive strength of
20 MPa and a CA 60 reinforcement (yield
strength equal to 552 MPa).

correspond to the cost of raw material
(concrete, reinforcements, infill blocks),
factory activities (the cost of this phase
corresponds to the activities that take
place after moulding but before delivery
of the product), and administrative costs
The solution for the problem of lattice-
reinforced joist slab cost optimisation was
investigated here using genetic algorithms
4m 4m
(GAs). In addition to the traditional variables
of cast-in-place concrete strength, concrete
layer height and distance between joists, the 4 Figure 5 Static outline (span length 8 m)

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 114 de Castilho and de Lima

for the optimisation problems of lattice-

x1 reinforced joists loaded as mentioned earlier.
EPS EPS EPS HEPS
The height of the infill blocks is a function of
10 10 He the slabs total span:
3
(a) for a total span of 8 m (4 m 4 m):
HEPS 8 cm; and
25 13 additional (b) for a total span of 12 m (6 m 6 m):
reinforcement
HEPS 12 cm.
3 EPS
The process of designing the slab with
15
lattice-reinforced joists was the same as that
(a) slab cross-section (b) joist section (He = joist length)
described by Magalhaes.4 The design criteria
were based on the joists service limit state
4 Figure 6 Slab cross-section and joist section (in cm) and ultimate limit state.

Total cost function

Table 3 Inequalities for continuous and discrete variables
The various costs were added up to find the func-
Continuous Discrete
tion that represents the joists total production
variables variables
cost, considering the stages of execution, trans-
0.040  x1  0.100: m x1 f0.040, 0.050, 0.060, 0.070, 0.080, 0.090, 0.100g portation and application. Further details regard-
15  x2  30: MPa x2 f15, 16, 17, 18, 19, . . . , 30g ing the final expression of the function (equation
0.300  x3  0.600: m x3 f0.300, 0.310, 0.320, 0.330, 0.340, . . . , 0.600g
0  x4  40: % x4 f0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, . . . , 40g (1)) are described by Castilho.30

(0
00122 0
127  x1  x3
0
0127  x1 0
0158  x3
(c) The resistance factor used for concrete is The cost function was represented by four 0
00395  x3 
1.4 and 1.15 for steel. The load factor variables: x1 representing the height of the 1
115 (100  x4 )  0
01)2
f (x) 2 3
used in the analysis is 1.4. cast-in-place concrete; x2 representing the con- x3 (0
219 25  x3  x1
6 7
cretes compressive strength; x3 representing 4 2
50  x1 2
50  x3 ) 5
the distance between joists; and x4 represent- (x1 0
065)  100
Figures 5 and 6 depict, respectively, the ing the degree of redistribution. (12
50  x1  x3 0
000624
static scheme and the slab section. The slabs Three joists with heights (He) of 8 cm, 1
248  x1 )

final section was completed with EPS infill 12 cm and 16 cm (TR-08634, TR-12645 and x3
blocks and a layer of concrete. TR-16645) were analysed to find a solution 120  (2
475  x2 74:25)
0 12
50  x  x 0
000624 1
1 3
B 1
248  x1 C
Table 4 Values of variables, reinforced areas and cost function for two spans 2 B
@ C
x3 A
TR-08634

TR08634 34
3  x1 14
57  x2  x3
(88
8  x1 5
457)
Span 8 m Span 12 m
(22
4  x1 1
456)
GA GA Excel GA GA Excel [(100  x4 )  0
01=
(cont_var) (disc_var) Solver (cont_var) (disc_var) Solver (4633  x1 284
713)]
(1)
x1: m 0.040 0.040 0.040 0.094 0.100 0.085
x1  x3 0
00005  0
1  x1
x2: MPa 19.3 20.0 19.0 23.0 21.0 21.8
x3: m 0.598 0.600 0.600 0.373 0.370 0.378 where x1 is cast-in-place concrete, in m; x2 is com-
x4: % 40 40 40 22 38 40 pressive strength of the concrete, in MPa; x3 is dis-
Cost function: R$/m2 19.96 20.58 20.34 39.55 38.84 35.56 tance between joists axes, in m; and x4 is degree
Negative reinforcement: 1.90 1.97 1.96 2.76 2.07 2.12
of redistribution, in %.
1024 m2
Additional reinforcement/ 1.19 1.19 1.19 1.20 1.23 1.56 Note that, after several tests, this function
joists: 1024 m2 was found to incorporate all the problem vari-
ables, offering the best representation of the

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 Cost optimisation of lattice-reinforced joist slabs 115

with heights (He) of 8 cm, 12 cm, and 16 cm,

Table 5 Values of variables, reinforced areas and cost function for two spans TR-12645 respectively, for two slab spans: 8 m
(4 m 4 m) and 12 m (6 m 6 m). For purposes
TR-12645
of reference, these tables also list the values of
Span 8 m Span 12 m the variables for the conventional optimisation
method (Excel Solver), and the values evaluated
GA GA Excel GA GA Excel of the final areas of the negative (at middle
(cont_var) (disc_var) Solver (cont_var) (disc_var) Solver
support) and additional reinforcement (one
x1: m 0.040 0.040 0.040 0.040 0.040 0.040 joist) for each case. The reinforcement areas
x2: MPa 18.2 19.0 18.2 19.5 20.0 20.0 (negative and additional) are not variables of
x3: m 0.599 0.600 0.600 0.597 0.580 0.600
the optimisation method. Transverse reinforce-
x4: % 40 40 40 40 38 31
Cost function: R$/m2 21.82 22.06 21.48 23.60 24.60 22.85 ment is not required.
Negative reinforcement: 2.47 2.59 2.48 2.64 2.72 3.13 Tables 4, 5 and 6 indicate that, for larger
1024 m2 spans of the same joist, there is:
Additional reinforcement/ 0.72 0.86 0.86 1.86 1.84 1.81
joists: 1024 m2
(a) an increase in the height of the concrete
layer (in the case of TR-08634), which
was expected, since this increase leads to
lattice-reinforced joist cost minimisation GA, based on the following characteristics: an increase of the compression flange,
problem. These results are part of an initial elitism (1 individual), a population of 200 thereby enhancing the slabs strength;
study of the negative moments in continuous individuals, representation by real numbers, (b) an increase in the concrete layer strength.
slabs with lattice-reinforced joists. uniform crossover, competition selection Thus, increasing the span requires increas-
Therefore, the slab cost optimisation strategy, and stop criterion delimited in 3000 ing the slabs strength, which is also
problem boils down to the minimisation generations. Since the GA is highly sensitive achieved by increasing the strength of
problem f(x) (x1, x2, x3, x4), which is subject to the initial population, the data describing the cast-in-place concrete;
to service limit state and ultimate limit state the results of each experiment represent the (c) a reduction in the distance between joists,
restrictions. In addition to these restrictions, average values obtained using five randomly in the case of the TR-08634 joist, which
the continuous and discrete variables should selected initial populations (average of five was also expected, although there was
satisfy the inequalities presented in Table 3. runs). no alteration in the distance between the
Tables 4, 5 and 6 present the values other joists. The increased height of the
obtained for each variable and for the cost compression flange resulted in a shorter
Description of the experiments function, using GA through continuous distance between joists and, hence, a
and analysis of the results (cont_var) and discrete (disc_var) variables. reduction in the area of concrete, which
In this section we investigate the search for the The analysis involved TR-08634, TR-12645 was reflected in a reduction of the cost
solution to the cost optimisation problem via and TR-16645 lattice-reinforced joists of the cast-in-place concrete;
(d) an increase in the negative and additional
reinforcements, as expected.
Table 6 Values of variables, reinforced areas and cost function for two spans 2
TR-16645
A further analysis of the results shown in
TR-16645 the above tables indicates that, when the
height of the lattice is increased, the results
Span 8 m Span 12 m
for the same span are inverted. As can be seen:
GA GA Excel GA GA Excel
(cont_var) (disc_var) Solver (cont_var) (disc_var) Solver (a) in the case of the TR-08634 and TR-12645
joists with a 12 m span, the height of the
x1: m 0.040 0.040 0.040 0.040 0.040 0.040
x2: MPa 16.5 17.0 17.0 18.5 19.0 18.9 concrete layer decreased, and the distance
x3: m 0.599 0.600 0.600 0.599 0.600 0.600 between joists increased. Conversely, as
x4: % 40 40 40 40 40 40 the height of the compression flange
Cost function: R$/m2 22.66 22.08 22.08 25.19 25.47 25.32
increased, the distance between joists
Negative reinforcement: 2.86 2.95 2.95 3.21 3.30 3.28
1024 m2 decreased to obtain the lowest cost for
Additional reinforcement/ 0.68 0.68 0.68 1.47 1.47 1.47 concrete;
joist: 1024 m2 (b) a reduction in the strength of the concrete
layer since, under the same load situation,

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 116 de Castilho and de Lima

involved the initial points of the design vari-

TR-08634 cost x generation
45 ables. In the conventional method, the initial
values of the variables must be provided for
the initial processing. In our analysis of these
40
problems, the initial values corresponded to
those obtained via the GA (continuous
35
variables). Different initial values were
cost: R$/m2

adopted to evaluate the sensitivity of the

30 Excel Solver optimisation method. In general,
the results (GA and Excel Solver) converged
25 span = 8 m to an optimum. In some cases, the algorithm
span = 12 m did not converge or showed no significant
20 improvement at all using GA with discrete
variables.

15
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
generation Conclusions

4 Figure 7 Average cost function values for TR-08634
a lower slab strength was found to be
necessary to offset the loads.
Figures 7, 8 and 9 illustrate the behaviour
of the cost function for each generation,
using the GA (cont_var), for the three cases
listed in the tables. Note that the curves
depict the same tendency: up to the generation
of 500 individuals, the values of the cost func-
tion remained practically unchanged.
The results indicate that most of the
values obtained both with the GA, in the
TR-12645 cost x generation
26
25
24
cost: R$/m2
case of continuous variables, and with the
conventional optimisation method were
practically the same. It is worth noting
that the values obtained by the GA with
discrete variables were compatible with
those of the Excel Solver, leading us to con-
clude that the GA was effective in finding
the solution for the lattice-reinforced joist
cost optimisation problems.
Most conventional optimisation methods do
not work with discrete variables, which is a sig-
nificant disadvantage. Another disadvantage
strength.
This work investigated the use of GAs to find
solutions for the cost optimisation of lattice-
reinforced joists. The problems involved slabs
with lattice-reinforced joists for TR-08634, TR-
12645 and TR-16645 lattices with span
lengths of 8 m and 12 m. In addition, an
analysis was made of the design variables,
some continuous and others discrete. For
purposes of comparison, the same problems
were evaluated using a conventional method
(Excel Solver).
The results of the cost function and the vari-
ables, in the case of TR-08634, indicate that
there was an increase in the height of the con-
crete layer, leading to an increase of the com-
pression flange and an increment in the slabs
The longer span led to increased strength in
the concrete layer. This, in turn, led to the need
for increasing strength in the slab, which was
also obtained by increasing the strength of
the cast-in-place concrete. Moreover, the dis-
tance between these same joists decreased.

Increasing the height of the compression

23
flange led to reduction in the distance
between joists and, hence, a smaller area of
22 concrete, resulting in a reduction of the cost
of cast-in-place concrete.
21
span = 8m The other lattices showed no change in
span = 12m the distance between joists. All the lattices
20 analysed showed an increase in the negative
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 and additional reinforcements.
generation Based on these analyses, we found that
most of the values of the variables for the GA
4 Figure 8 Average cost function values for TR-12645 (discrete variables) and for the Excel Solver

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TR-16645 cost x generation
30
29
28
27
cost: R$/m2
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
0 500 1000 1500
generation
4 Figure 9 Average cost function values for TR-16645
tended toward the same results. Therefore, we
concluded that the GA optimisation tool effi-
ciently solved the cost optimisation problems
of the lattice-reinforced joists analysed here.
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Structural Concrete
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