1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1THEORY AND BACKGROUND

cooling tower is equipment used to reduce the temperature of a water stream by

extracting heat from water and emitting it to the atmosphere. Cooling towers make use
of evaporation whereby some of the water is evaporated into a moving air stream and
subsequently discharged into the atmosphere. Cooling towers are able to lower the
water temperatures more than devices that use only air to reject heat, like the radiator
in a car, and are therefore more cost-effective and energy efficient. There are two main
types of cooling tower: forced draught and mechanical draught. However, their
principles of operation are identical.

wet-bulb temperature is the temperature a parcel of air would have if it were cooled
to saturation (100% relative humidity) by the evaporation of water into it, with the
latent heat being supplied by the parcel. A wet-bulb thermometer indicates a
temperature close to the true (thermodynamic) temperature. The wet-bulb temperature
is the lowest temperature that can be reached under current ambient conditions by the
evaporation of water only; it is the temperature felt when the skin is wet and exposed
to moving air. Wet-bulb temperature is largely determined by both actual air
temperature (dry-bulb temperature) and the amount of moisture in the air (humidity).

1.1.1PRINCIPLE OF COOLING TOWER

Cooling tower operation is based on evaporative condensation and exchange of sensible heat.
The mixing of two fluid streams at different temperatures (in this case air and water) releases
latent heat of vaporization, causing a cooling effect to the warmer fluid (water). This cooling
effect is accomplished by transforming a portion of the liquid into a vapor state, thereby
releasing the latent heat of vaporization [2]. In simple terms, a cooling tower is a device that
transfers quantities of heat from one mass to another. During operation of the cooling tower
there is a loss of water. Water vapor passes through the cooling tower and is discharged into
the atmosphere [1]. In normal operations, continuously recirculating water picks up waste
heat from a refrigeration compressor or process heat exchanger, and the hot water is pumped
to the top of the tower and dropped over the cooling tower. Evaporative action removes the
heat from the water and adds it to the air. The hot, moist air is ejected from the fan stack, and
the cooled water returns to the compressor or exchanger to pick up more heat. Figure 1.1
shows the cooling tower operation. Cooling towers has two principles of heat transfer which
they operate with which a evaporation and convection. The rate of heat transfer by both
convection and evaporation increases with an increase in air-to-water interfacial surface,
relative velocity, contact time and temperature differential [4]. The difference between the
exit water temperature and entering air wet-bulb temperature is called the wet bulb
temperature. Water loss due to evaporation, entrainment can be calculated by performing a
mass balance on cooling tower [5]. Heat removed from the hot water can be calculated by
performing an energy balance around the system and also using the available psychrometric
chart for air wet ay atmospheric pressure.

1.1.2Types of cooling towers

Cooling towers can be classified into two types: natural draught and mechanical draught.

Natural draught
It utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney. Warm, moist air naturally rises due to the density
differential compared to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm moist air is less dense than drier air
at the same pressure. This moist air buoyancy produces an upwards current of air through the
tower.
Mechanical draught
Induced draft: it consists of a fan at the discharge (at the top) which pulls air up
through the tower. The fan induces hot moist air out the discharge. This produces low
entering and high exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of recirculation in
which discharged air flows back into the air intake. This fan/fin arrangement is also
known as draw-through.
Forced draft: it consists of a blower type fan at the intake. The fan forces air into the
tower, creating high entering and low exiting air velocities. The low exiting velocity
is much more susceptible to recirculation. With the fan on the air intake, the fan is
more susceptible to complications due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage is
that a forced draft design typically requires more motor horsepower than an
equivalent induced draft design. The benefit of the forced draft design is its ability to
work with high static pressure. Such setups can be installed in more-confined spaces
and even in some indoor situations. This fan/fill geometry is also known as blow-
through.

1.2EFFICIENCY

Cooling towers may lose efficiencies due to loss of air flow across the heat exchange surfaces
orimproper water flow and some other factors. The performance efficiency of the cooling
tower canbe improved by adjusting the water flow or ensuring the proper air flow [1]. Tower
packing incooling towers are used to provide a high surface area for steam condensation
without restrictingair flow. The shape of the tower packing is known as the hyperboloid
shape which also aids inaccelerating the upward convective air flow, improving cooling
efficiency of the cooling towers.
1.3 COOLING TOWER CLASSIFICATIONS

Natural draft cooling towers They rely on natural convection to circulate air throughoutthe
tower. The movement of air is a result of difference in two densities of entering air andair
already inside the tower.

Mechanical draft cooling towers They rely on fans and other mechanical equipments
tocirculate the air through the tower. Most common types of fans used are propeller
andcentrifugal fans

Crossflow towers Air flows horizontally through the structure of a cooling tower whilehot
air flows downward from the basins. These cooling towers are mostly les efficient.

Counter flow towers Air moves upward through the tower while water flows downwardto
cool the air. These type of towers are good since they save energy in a long run.

1.4 ADVANTAGES OF COOLING TOWER

FINER FILTRATION

0.45 micron filtration will remove the very fine suspended solids before they agglomerate and
foul in the tower sump or on heat exhangers. This fine filtration allows us to reduce the
turnover rate and to recommend 12 turnovers/day for clean water. Some systems may even be
sized with 6 to 8 turnovers or less depending on the contamination.

SMALLER SIZE FILTER

High efficiency at low turnover rates allows us to reduce the size of the filter compared to
traditional sand filters which require a minimum of 24 turnovers/day to be efficient.

Reducing the flow rate of the filter means less HP for the pump for electricity savings and
less space requirement.

EASY INSTALLATION

Removing the fine suspended solids before they agglommerate and foul will not require the
installation of sophisticated and costly piping in the tower sump, needed with traditional sand
filters due to their larger micron extraction.
The filter can be installed without waiting for a shutdown or without emptying the sump.
Additional savings again.

LOW BACKWASH REQUIREMENT

The 400 gpm filter will backwash at 45 gpm only. One vessel at a time will be backwashed
for 4 minutes. Piping size, volume of water will mean savings at the installation and
afterwards.

Low flow rate for backwash makes it easy to use clean chlorinated water rather than tower
water for extended life of the media and chemicals savings

1.5 DISADVANTAGES OF COOLING TOWERS

Scale deposit
Delignification of wood
Poor pump performance
Poor air flow
Makeup water
Clogging of distribution nozzles

1.6 APPLICATIONS OF COOOLING TOWER

Cooled water is needed for, for example, air conditioners, manufacturing processes or power
generation. They are used in oil refineries, petrochemical and other chemical plants, thermal
power stations and HVAC [Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning, the technology of
indoor and vehicular environmental comfort].
2. APPARATUS AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Before the start experiment students were expected to familiarize themselves with the
equipment to be used. The equipment was completely switched off prior start of the
experiment. The wick of both the wet bulb temperature probes (T2 and T4) were wet with
tap water. The load tank was filled above the minimum water level. The make-up tank
was filled approximately 1.2L (using a measuring cylinder).The equipment was switched
on with zero heat load and the water flow rate was adjusted to 30g/s. The damper on the
fan was closed and as required the equipment was allowed to run for 4min to wet the
packing and also to stabilize the equipment. After the 10 min the equipment was switched
off again and make-up tank was filled with water again to the minimum water level. The
equipment was switched on the orifice differential over the packing was kept at 16mm of
water the heat load was increased to 0.5kW and the operating conditions were kept
constant for the entire operation. The make-up rate was recorded after 24min.The
temperatures (T1-T6) were recorded after 24min.The heat load was increased to 1kW but
the operating conditions were kept constant. The temperatures (T1-T6) were recorded
after 24min.The make-up rate was recorded after 24min.The heat load was increased to
1.5kW but the operating conditions were kept constant. The temperatures (T1-T6) were
recorded after 24min. The make-up rate was recorded after 24min.The apparatus was
switched off after completion of the experiment.[3]
Results

EXPERIMEMNTAL DATA

Operating time(min) 24 24 24

T0(Air inlet dry-bulb temperature) 24.1 22.0 25.9

T1(Air inlet wet-bulb temperature) 14.0 15.1 15.4

T2(Air outlet dry-bulb temperature) 15.6 21.3 21.3

T3(Air outlet wet-bulb temperature) 15.7 22.0 22.9

T4(water inlet temperature to the tower) 15.2 25.8 26.2

T6(Water outlet temperature from the tower) 14.3 19.5 20.1

Orifice differential mm H2O 34 34 34

Heat load KW 0.5 1 1.5

water flow rate (g/s) 40 40 40

Table1: experimental data table

Temparatere range

= 5 6

For 0.5 KW

TR =15.2-14.3=0.9C

For 1 KW

TR = 25.8-19.5=6.8C KW

For 1.5 KW

TR = 26.2-20.1=6.1C
Wet-bulb temperature approach

TWET-BULB = T5 T0

For 0.5 KW For 1 KW For 1.5 KW

15.2-24.1=8.9 C 25.8-26.0=0.5 C 26.2-25.7=0. C5

Air mass flow rate

Conversion of 34mm H2O to Pascals: 1mm H2O= 9.8067Pa

9.80665
= 342 12

=333.4261Pa

A=PV

= 3
3
= 1000

=0.003m2

= 0.0137

Heat load of 0.5KW

= 0.0137

333.4261
= 0.0137 0.003
0.83

= 0.000247/

Heat load of 1.0KW


= 0.0137

333.4261
= 0.0137 0.003
0.86

= 0.000243/

Heat load of 1.5KW

= 0.0137

333.4261
= 0.0137 0.003
0.86

= 0.000243/

Air enthalpy change across the tower

4.DISCUSSION

The difference in the wet-bulb temperature approach

The wet-bulb temperature approach is defined as the difference between the exit-water
temperature and the entering air wet-bulb temperature. As a general rule, the closer the
approach to the wet bulb, the more expensive the cooling tower due to increased size. From
the results it is observed that the wet bulb temperature approach increases as the heat load
increase. Different heat loads means different temperature of the process water. The higher
the temperature of the process water , the higher the amount of heat required to be removed
in order to lower the temperature making it suitable for operation

Significance of the wet-bulb temperature approach

The wet bulb temperature is the lowest temperature to which water can be cooled. A low wet
bulbtemperature means that the air is very dry and large amounts of water can be evaporated.
Wet bulbtemperature of the air entering the cooling tower determines the minimum operating
temperaturelevel throughout the plant, process, or system. Cooling tower performance is
related to ambientwet bulb conditions. From the experimental data obtain, the wet-bulb
temperature approach wasrelated to the amount of heat load supplied. The higher the heat
load the higher the wet-bulb

Contributions to the loss of water during the cooling process

The loss of water indicates the efficiency of the cooling tower since the amount of water
leaving the tower determines how cooled the water it is. When the water is evaporated, the
remaining water remain cooled. The greater the amount of water evaporated the greater the
cooling of the water remaining. Hence the efficiency of the cooling tower increases with the
increasing heat load.

The main factors that contribute to the loss of water during the cooling process.

When water was cooled, there was a certain amount of water loss. A millilitre of water was
lost because some of water had been evaporated. At higher heat loads there were more water
losses but at low heat loads less water is lost. The more the heat loads was supplied to the
cooling process, the more water evaporated. In this case evaporation contributed to water loss
during the cooling process along with other factors such as blow down, drift, wind-age and
leakage.

Comments on the humidity of the air at the top of the tower

The humidity of air at the top of cooling tower was calculated by using psychometrics chart.
The air humidity inlet for different heat loads was found to be increasing with the heat loads,
thus directly proportionality.

The makeup rate different for every heat loads

The make-up flow rate increased as the heat loads increased because the water had been
cooled. The water that was evaporated had to be compensated in cooling tower termed
makeup water. The make-up rate was calculated by dividing the volume of return water by
time taken to circulate. Based on the results calculated, as the cooling began there were small
makeup rates for 0.5 kW heat loads and then the make up rate increased as the heat load was
increased.

5.CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that wet-bulb temperature approach increases with increasing heat load as
the tower inlet water at a higher temperature will require more contact time with the cold air
to maintain the wet-bulb temperature approach. The air mass flow rate decreases as the heat
load increases. The humidity of outlet air increases with increasing heat lost.
6. RECOMMENDATIONS
It is recommended that: the experiment should be done multiple time and take average results
as would have increased the accuracy of the results. Make-up tank should have units.
Flowmeter was rusty which could had affected the result it should had been changed/ cleaned
to improve the results. To avoid errors the adding of water should be done automatically.

7.REFFERENCES
[1]Chemical engineering laboratory (2014). Chemical Engineering Lab Manual.
Johannesburg: University of Johannesburg.
[2]Coulson, J.M. & Richardson, J.F. (2003) Particle Technology and Separation Processes:
Butterworth Heinemann

[3]McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C. & Harriott, P. (2001) Units operations of Chemical
Engineering: New York. McGraw-HILL

[4]McCabe, W.L. and J.C.Smith, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering,4thEdition,

McGraw Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1985.

[5]M.J. Moran & H.N. Shapiro (1988) Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics: John
Willey & Sons
APPENDICES