Journal of Occupational Health Psychology Copyright 2000 by the Educational Publishing Foundation

2000, Vol. 5, No. 2,278-308 1076-89980/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037//1076-899B.5.2.278

Consequences Associated With Work-to-Family Conflict:

A Review and Agenda for Future Research

Tammy D. Allen, David E. L. Herst, Carly S. Bruck, and Martha Sutton

University of South Florida

A comprehensive review of the outcomes associated with work-to-family conflict was conducted
and effect sizes were estimated. A typology was presented that grouped outcomes into 3 categories:
work related, nonwork related, and stress related. Issues concerning the measurement of work-
family conflict were also discussed. The results demonstrate the widespread and serious conse-
quences associated with work-to-family conflict. On the basis of the results of the review, an
agenda for future research was provided.

Striking changes in the nature of families and the
workforce, such as more dual-career couples and
rising numbers of working mothers with young
children, have increased the likelihood that employ-
ees of both genders have substantial household
responsibilities in addition to their work responsibili-
ties (Bond, Galinsky, & Swanberg, 1998; Gilbert,
Hallett, & Eldridge, 1994). These radical changes
have prompted considerable research related to work
and family issues. The topic of work-family conflict
has been of particular interest. Recent research
indicates that 40% of employed parents experience
work-family conflict at least some of the time
(Galinsky, Bond, & Friedman, 1993). Moreover,
Galinsky et al. reported that workers who started a
new job within the past 2 years stated that the effect of
the job on family life was second in importance to
open communications when formulating their deci-
sion to accept the job. Likewise, Galinsky, Johnson,
and Friedman (1993) cited a study conducted by the
New York Times indicating that 83% of working
mothers and 72% of working fathers reported
experiencing conflict between their job demands and
their desire to spend more time with their families.
These findings underscore the importance of the topic
of work-family conflict to both organizations and
employees.
Tammy D. Allen, David E. L. Herst, Carly S. Bruck, and
Martha Sutton, Department of Psychology, University of
South Florida.
Aprevious version of this article was presented at the 14th
Annual Meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organiza-
tional Psychology, Atlanta, Georgia. We thank Mark L.
Poteet, Lillian T. Eby, and Paul E. Specter for their helpful
comments regarding various aspects of this article.
Correspondence concerning this article should he ad-
dressed to Tammy D. Allen, University of South Florida,
Department of Psychology, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, BEH
339, Tampa, Florida 33620-8200. Electronic mail may he
sent to tidlen@luna.cas.usf.edu.
Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, and Rosenthal (1964)
suggested that work-family conflict is a type of
interrole conflict in which role pressures from the
work and family domains are mutually incompatible
to some degree. That is, work-family conflict occurs
when demands associated with one domain are
incompatible with demands associated with the other
domain (Greenhaus & Buetell, 1985; Kopelman,
Greenhaus, & Connolly, 1983). Although early
research treated work-family conflict primarily as a
unidimensional construct, recent research (Frone,
Russell, & Cooper, 1992) suggests that it is reciprocal
in nature, in that work can interfere with family
(work-to-family conflict; WFC) and family can interfere
with work (family-to-work conflict; FWC). WFC and
FWC are generally considered distinct but related
constructs. Research to date has primarily investi-
gated how work interferes or conflicts with family.
Outcomes associated with excessive work interfer-
ence with family include job dissatisfaction, job
burnout, turnover, depression, life dissatisfaction, and
marital dissatisfaction (e.g., Adams, King, & King,
19%; R. J. Burke, 1988; Frone et al., 1992; Greenhaus
& Beutell, 1985; Netemeyer, Boles, & McMurrain,
1996; Thomas & Ganster, 1995).
Despite the rapidly growing body of literature
examining WFC, few efforts have been made to
review empirical findings. Over a decade ago,
Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) reviewed the studies
that had investigated sources or antecedents of WFC.
More recently, Kossek and Ozeki (1998) conducted a
meta-analysis examining the relationship between
WFC and two specific outcomes: job satisfaction and
life satisfaction. Kossek and Ozeki's work was much
needed and an informative addition to the literature.
However, there are many additional outcome vari-
ables that have been empirically related to WFC that
were not included in Kossek and Ozeki's study. The
 WORK-TO-FAMILY CONFLICT
purpose of the present article is to fill this void in the
literature. This review provides a comprehensive
summary and evaluation of empirical research of the
outcomes associated with WFC, including an organiz-
ing framework and suggestions for future research.
An extensive review is needed for several reasons,
One area of concern is the limited amount of
integration in the field. The work and family research
arena is fractionated because of diverse types of
individuals working in it. For example, individuals
working in disciplines such as psychology, sociology,
business, and social work have contributed to work
and family research. This tends to lead to an emphasis
on different issues (e.g., sociologists are more
concerned with family-related outcomes, whereas
organizational psychologists are more concerned with
work-related outcomes) without an examination of
similar work in other disciplines. As noted by Russell
(1991), implications associated with fractionation and
isolation are that progress in research and practice is
not systematic or integrated. Separate, disjointed
theories may develop across fields as a result. This
limits the progress that could be made by taking a
broader, more integrative perspective that builds on
previous research. By providing a summary of
existing research organized under one framework, we
hope that researchers from various disciplines will
become more familiar with one another's work,
facilitating the integration of findings from various
subfields and subsequent theory building. Addition-
ally, a comprehensive review of the area should help
clarify and underscore the widespread negative
effects of WFC. A better understanding of these
effects might aid in efforts to manage the work and
family interface. Moreover, highlighting the dysfunc-
tional and socially costly effects associated with WFC
may help convince policymakers of the need to
provide interventions that can help mitigate WFC.
For clarity and parsimony, our article is restricted
to a review of the outcomes associated with work-to-
family conflict (WFC). In some cases, results were
reported in which researchers combined WFC with
FWC or asked about work and family conflict in general.
Those cases are noted in the review. This review is
divided into four major sections. First, the criteria
used to identify articles for the review and to conduct
statistical analyses are briefly described. Second, we
examine issues concerning the measurement of WFC.
Third, we present the results of our review for the
three categories of outcomes followed by a summary
and suggestions for additional research for each.
Finally, a general discussion of findings and future
research are provided.
279
Method
Relevant articles were identified through manual and
computer searches. Computerized searches were conducted
through PsycLJT and OVID information bases using the key
words "work and family conflict.11 A manual search was
conducted of all articles published from 1977 through 1998
in Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Organizational
Behavior, Journal of Marriage and the Family, Journal of
Vocational Behavior, Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision-Making Processes, and Academy of Management
Journal. Additionally, the reference list of each identified
article was manually cross-checked for other potential
articles. Attempts were also made to locate articles that used
slightly different terms such as "interrole conflict" and
"multiple role stress'1 to refer to WFC.
Our criteria for inclusion in the review were twofold.
One, WFC had to be a quantitatively measured variable in
the study. Thus, we eliminated articles that were not
empirical. Two, the study had to measure the relationship
between WFC and one or more variables that could
theoretically be considered outcomes of WFC. This
eliminated articles that focused solely on sources or
antecedents of WFC. It should be noted at this point that
the majority of studies in the work and family arena have
been cross-sectional in nature, precluding firm causal
inferences regarding the direction of the relationships
studied. For the purposes of the present review, we in-
cluded variables that seemed more reasonable or plausible
as outcomes of WFC rather than as causes. It is not
our intention to infer that reverse causality is not feasible. A
total of 67 articles were located that fit these criteria.
Statements regarding significance are based on the zero-
order bivariate correlation between WFC and the outcome
variable reported in each study. Except where noted
otherwise, relationships cited in text are in the expected
direction (e.g., greater WFC was associated with less job
satisfaction). Figure 1 provides a framework of the variables
included in the study.
To provide an estimate of the effect size associated
with each of the relationships reviewed, we followed
meta-analytic procedures described in Rosenthal (1991).
Both unweighted and weighted by sample size average
correlations were computed. Only studies that included a
zero-order bivariate correlation between WFC and an-
other variable were included in these analyses. In circum-
stances in which a study involved a sample that was a sub-
set of the same sample used in another study, the study
with the largest sample was included in die analysis. An
exception was made if sample selection criteria were
clearly different. If a study assessed several specific in-
dices of WFC (conflict between parent and worker and
conflict between spouse and worker) these were combined to
form a general assessment of WFC. A similar approach was
used in analyzing several outcome variables. For example, if
a .study examined overall mental health and psychological
distress, the correlations were combined for the statistical
analyses. In studies in which separate correlations were
reported for different subgroups (e.g., male vs. female;
single-earner vs. dual-earner), the correlation for each
subgroup was weighted by sample size and combined. For
consistency purposes, we reversed the sign of the correlation
in cases such as when a high score on the WFC measure
280 ALLEN, HERST, BRUCK, AND SOTTON

Work-Related Outcomes

Job Satisfaction
Organizational Commitment
Intention to Turnover
Absenteeism
Job Performance
Career Satisfaction
Career Success

Nonwork-Related Outcomes

Life Satisfaction
Marital Satisfaction
Family Satisfaction
Family Performance
Leisure Satisfaction

Stress-Related Outcomes

General Psychological Strain

Somatic/Physical Symptoms
Depression
Substance Abuse
Burnout
Work-Related Stress
Family-Related Stress

Figure I. Framework of study variables. WFC = work-to-family conflict.

indicated less WFC. Results of the effect size analyses are
summarized in Table 1. Only outcome variables in which
more than one study had been conducted were included in
this table.
We should note at this point that there were only a small
number of studies conducted for many of the variables.
Accordingly, the reported average effects should be
reviewed with caution before drawing generalizable con-
clusions concerning the proposed relationships. Although
there is no rule of thumb regarding the number of stud-
ies that need to be conducted before a meta-analysis is
appropriate, second-order sampling error poses a distinct
threat to the validity of results when only a small number of
studies are included (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990).
Review
Measurement of WFC
A review of the literature concerning outcomes
associated with WFC would be incomplete without
being prefaced by a discussion of measurement
issues. Despite the abundance of research examining
both the causes and consequences of WFC, there is
ambiguity regarding the nature of the construct, its
measurement, and its relationship with other vari-
ables. Netemeyer et al. (1996) noted that the lack of
 WORK-TO-FAMILY CONFLICT 281

Table 1
Meta-Analysis Results for WFC and Work, Nonwork, and Stress Outcomes

Variable k n r SDr *"' Range

Work outcomes
Job satisfaction 38 12,624 -.23 .14 -.24 +.14 to -.47
Career satisfaction 2 525 -.02 .07 -.04 -.07 to +.03
Organizational commitment 6 1,208 -.18 .14 -.23 -.06 to -.42
Intention to turnover 10 2,863 .29 .14 .29 +.03 to +.50
Absenteeism 2 457 -.06 .09 -.02 .00 to -.13
Job performance 4 1,248 -.10 .11 -.12 .00 to -.26
Nonwork outcomes
Life satisfaction 18 6,395 -.28 .12 -.28 -.09 to -.53
Marital satisfaction 14 4,662 -.24 .13 -.23 -.01 to -.49
Family satisfaction 7 2,053 -.17 .08 -.17 -.02 to -.27
Stress outcomes
General psychological strain 13 4,481 .34 .15 .29 .1610.57
Somatic/physical symptoms 17 7,780 .30 .15 .29 .08 to .53
Depression 11 4,304 .34 .10 .32 ,20to.51
Alcohol abuse 3 1,574 .13 .01 .13 .12to.l4
Burnout 10 3,582 .40 .18 .42 .08 to .57
Work-related stress 15 6,182 .41 .13 .41 .12 to .56
Family-related stress 6 1,886 .30 .15 .31 .20 to .51

Note- WFC = work-to-family conflict; k = number of sample groups for which correlations were included; r =
unweighted mean of the correlations; rw = weighted mean of the correlations.

consistency with which the WFC construct has been
operationalized makes it difficult to argue that all
measures are associated with a core construct. Indeed,
it seems likely that some of the inconsistent results
documented in subsequent sections of this review
may be a function of different WFC operationaliza-
tions. Specific problems include the use of single-
item measures, adapted measures of unknown valid-
ity, study-developed measures of unknown validity,
and different foci (e.g., work interfering with leisure,
work interfering with home life in general, and work
interfering with social life). Examples of these issues
are elaborated below.
Several WFC studies are based on the 1977 Quality
of Employee Survey (QES; Quinn & Staines, 1979;
e.g., Coverman, 1989; Rice, Frone, & McFarlin,
1992). In the QES study, WFC was measured with a
one-item question that asked the extent that work and
family interfered with each other. The problems
associated with one-item measures of psychological
constructs have been well-documented, generating
concerns regarding unknown reliability and validity
(e.g., Wanous, Reichers, & Hudy, 1997). Kossek and
Ozeki's (1998) study further underscored the poten-
tial problems associated with brief bidirectional
measures. They found that when bidirectional or
combined WFC scales were used, the number of
items in the WFC scale was correlated with the size of
the relationships found between WFC and job
satisfaction and life satisfaction.
The WFC scale that has received the most use is
based on the 8-item measure developed by Kopelman
et al. (1983). However, researchers using the Kopel-
man et al. measure often adapt it in some form. For
example, several studies have included only 4 items
from the scale (Adams et al., 1996; Aryee & Luk,
1996; Gutek, Searle, & Klepa, 1991) or 6 items
(Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999; Parasuraman, Puro-
hit, Godshalk, & Beutell, 1996). In yet another
measurement variation, Thomas and Ganster (1995)
combined the 8-item Kopelman et al. scale with a
16-item measure developed by Bohen and Viveros-
Long (1981). Other measures of WFC used have been
based on adaptations from other researchers. For
example, Bacharach, Bamberger, and Conley (1991)
used a 4-item scale based on Holahan and Gilbert
(1979) that assessed the extent that the job impacts
home, family, or social life. Bedeian, Burke, and
Moffett (1988) and Greenhaus, Bedeian, and Moss-
holder (1987) used 8 items adapted from R. J. Burke,
Weir, and DuWors (1979) that assessed the impact of
job on home life. The 8 items measure the perceived
effects of current job demands on mental and physical
states at home; participation in home activities,
vacation, and social activities; and the respondents'
relationship with spouse. These adapted measures are
suspect because they possess unknown validity.
A number of studies have included study-generated
measures lacking rigorous psychometric develop-
ment. For example, Wiersma and Van Den Berg

(text continues on page 286)

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286 ALLEN, HERST, BRUCK, AND SUTTON
(1991) used a 26-item study-generated measure that
assessed the difficulty of combining domesticity with
paid labor. Shamir (1983) developed a 6-item scale
that combined 4 items focusing on how work interfered
with family and 2 items on how work interfered with
free-time activities. O'Driscoll, llgen, and Hildreth
(1992) used a 7-item measure that assessed the extent
that work interfered with nonwork activities nonspe-
cific to family life. Hughes and Galinsky (1994)
developed their own 8-item measure they termed
family role difficulty that evaluated the frequency the
individual experienced job-related difficulties in
performing family roles. Cooke and Rousseau (1984)
combined WFC and FWC into a single measure to
form a study-generated measure. Other researchers
have used 2-, 3-, and 4-item study-generated mea-
sures (e.g., Beatty, 1996; Krone et al., 1992; Jones &
Butler, 1980).
Another issue concerning the construct validity of
existing WFC measures involves the use of specific
versus global measures. Some measures, such as that
used by Aryee (1992) that was based on Small and
Riley (1990), focus on specific aspects of WFC with
different subscales for each (e.g., job vs. spouse
conflict; job vs. homemaker conflict). Similarly, the
measure developed by Holahan and Gilbert (1979)
includes subscales that assess worker versus parent
and worker versus spouse conflict. By contrast, other
measures such as Kopelman et al. (1983) are more
global assessments of the extent that WFC interferes
with overall home life. The distinction is important
for, as Kossek and Ozeki (1998) noted, combining
items that focus on multiple nonwork roles may
change relationships with specific outcomes. The
content adequacy of most measures of WFC can also
be questioned. Specifically, although three forms of
WFC have been identifiedtime-based, strain-based,
and behavior-based (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985),
most measures of WFC are content deficient in that
they have focused on the former two and failed to
incorporate behavior-based forms of conflict.
Several recent studies have begun to address
measurement-related issues concerning WFC. Ste-
phens and Sommer (1996) introduced a WFC
measure that includes all three forms of WFC but
does not address FWC. Netemeyer et al. (1996)
developed and provided validity evidence for a
measure that included both directions of interrole
conflict (WFC and FWC) but does not assess all three
forms. Most promising perhaps is a recent measure
developed by Carlson, Kacmar, and Williams (1998)
that incorporates all three forms of interrole conflict
from both directions, resulting in a six-dimension
measure. As noted by the authors, their measure
provides researchers with the flexibility to measure
any of the six dimensions of interrole conflict
independently. We recommend that researchers con-
sider incorporating these recently developed mea-
sures into their research.
WFC Relationship With Other Variables
Our review suggested that the outcomes associated
with WFC could be organized into three categories:
work related, nonwork related, and stress related.
These categories were derived inductively. That is,
rather than try and fit the identified outcome variables
into predetermined categories, the categories emerged
from themes identified through the course of the
review. Our purpose in grouping the large number of
outcome variables was not to develop mutually
exclusive categories but to provide a meaningful
organizing framework for discussion. Although it was
clear that work-related and nonwork-related out-
comes were relevant categories, a number of studies
also examined stress-related outcome variables.
Many of these stress-related variables, such as
somatic complaints and depression, could not be
easily differentiated as work or nonwork as they
encompassed both. Consequently, we thought it
would be appropriate to place all stress-related
outcomes in a separate group despite some overlap
with the other two categories.
Work-Related Outcomes
Variables primarily associated with work were
included in this category. A summary of studies under
this category is provided in Table 2. Research has
examined a variety of attitudinal and behavioral
work-related outcomes associated with WFC. Job
satisfaction is the outcome variable that has attracted
the most research attention. Although the results have
been mixed, the majority of these studies have found
that as WFC increases, job satisfaction decreases. In
their meta-analysis of the relationship between WFC
and job satisfaction, Kossek and Ozeki (1998)
reported a weighted mean correlation of -.23. In the
present study, the mean sample weighted correlation
between WFC and job satisfaction was -.24. Indi-
vidual job satisfaction-WFC studies are reviewed
below.
Based on data drawn from the QES (Quinn &
Staines, 1979), several studies have reported a
significant relationship between WFC and job satisfac-
tion (Coverman, 1989; Rice et al., 1992; Staines,
 WORK-TO-FAMILY CONFLICT
Pottick, & Fudge, 1986). Using the same sample of
accounting professionals, Bedeian et al. (1988) and
Parasuraman, Greenhaus, Rabinowitz, Bedeian, and
Mossholder (1989) both reported a significant relation-
ship between WFC and global job satisfaction.
These same results have been found in studies with
diverse samples such as executives (Judge, Boudreau,
& Bretz, 1994), police personnel (R. J. Burke, 1988),
health professionals (Thomas & Ganster, 1995),
full-time employees enrolled in evening courses
(Adams et al., 1996), working mothers with children
attending day care (Anderson-Kulman & Paludi,
1986), retail employees (Good, Sisler, & Gentry,
1988), employed Black mothers (Katz & Piotr-
kowski, 1983), restaurant employees (Boles & Babin,
1996), fathers of elementary-age school children
(Stewart & Barling, 1996), working adults (Adams &
Jex, 1999), nurses and engineers (Bacharach et al.,
1991), teachers (Cooke & Rousseau, 1984), dual-
career professionals (Duxbury, Higgins, & Thomas,
1996), and married male naval personnel (Jones &
Butler, 1980). Netemeyer et al. (1996) tested the
relationship between WFC and job satisfaction with
three different samples: elementary and high school
teachers and administrators, small business owners,
and real estate sales employees. Significant results
were obtained for each sample.
Significant results have also been found in studies
that sampled individuals living outside the United
States. For example, significant results have been
found with samples of hotel workers in Jerusalem
(Shamir, 1983), Israeli male prison guards (Drory &
Shamir, 1988), married nurses, managers, and social
workers from Hong Kong (Chiu, 1998), and profes-
sional and managerial women sampled from the
Who's Who of Canadian Women (Beatty, 1996).
Likewise, in a study of married professional women
employed in Singapore, Aryee (1992) separated WFC
into three types (job-parent, job-spouse, and job-
homemaker) and found that all three types of WFC
were related to global job satisfaction.
Mixed results within studies have also been
reported. In several of these studies, the differences
have been across gender. Using a one-item measure of
job satisfaction and a sample of dual-career parents
with children attending day-care centers, Wiersma
and Van den Berg (1991) found a significant
relationship for women but not for men. Similarly,
Greenglass, Pantony, and Burke (1988) found that
three aspects of role conflict (professional vs. self;
professional vs. parent; professional vs. spouse) each
related to job satisfaction for women but not for men.
Kopelman et al. (1983) included two samples in their
287
study. In the college alumni sample, job satisfaction
was related to WFC. In the student sample, the
relationship was nonsignificant.
Some researchers have found no relationship
between job satisfaction and WFC. On the basis of a
sample of employed MBA and graduate students,
Wiley (1987) found no relationship between WFC
and a global measure of job satisfaction. O'Driscoll et
al. (1992) found that job interferences with nonwork
activities were not related to summed facets of job
satisfaction. In a small sample study of matched male
and female executives, Lyness and Thompson (1997)
found a nonsignificant relationship between WFC and
job satisfaction. Likewise, Thompson and Blau
(1993) obtained nonsignificant results with a sample
of female employees. Most recently, a nonsignificant
relationship was observed among employed parents
in dual-earner families in Hong Kong (Aryee, Luk,
Leung, & Lo, 1999).
Career-related variables have been the target of
several investigations. It is interesting that the two
studies that have examined WFC and career satis-
faction have found no relationship. Neither Aryee
and Luk (1996) nor Parasuraman et al. (1996) found
a significant relationship between WFC and ca-
reer satisfaction in samples of Hong Kong dual-
earner couples and entrepreneurs, respectively. The
weighted mean across the two samples was -.04.
Peluchette (1993) examined the relationship be-
tween subjective career success and WFC with a
sample of full-time faculty members. The results
indicated that individuals reporting a greater degree
of WFC tended to report lower levels of subjective
career success.
Organizational commitment is another work-
related variable that has been studied in association
with WFC, with equivocal results. Significant results
were obtained by Netemeyer et al. (1996) and Good et
al. (1988), who found that as WFC increases,
organizational commitment decreases. Lyness and
Thompson (1997) examined three different types of
commitment. They found that WFC was negatively
related to affective commitment, positively related to
continuance commitment, and not related to norma-
tive commitment. Both Wiley (1987) and O'Driscoll
et al. (1992) found that job interferences with
nonwork activities were not related to organizational
commitment. Likewise, Anderson-Kulman and Paludi
(1986) found no relationship between WFC and work
commitment. The weighted mean correlation ob-
served across studies was -.23. It should be noted that
most of these studies were based on affective
288 ALLEN, HERST, BRUCK, AND SUTTON
commitment; therefore, the individual correlations
for continuance and normative commitment were
excluded from the statistical analysis.
Researchers have also been interested in the
relationship between WFC and turnover. One study
has examined actual turnover, finding that increased
WFC was related to greater turnover (Greenhaus,
Collins, Singh, & Parasuraman, 1997). The results
have also fairly consistently indicated that greater
levels of WFC are associated with greater intentions
to leave the organization (R. 1. Burke, 1988; Good et
al., 1988; Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999; Greenhaus
et al., 1997; Lyness & Thompson, 1997; Netemeyer et
al., 1996). Similarly, in a study of naval personnel,
Jones and Butler (1980) found that WFC was
inversely related to intentions to reenlist in the Navy.
Additionally, Aryee (1992) found that turnover
intentions were related to job-spouse conflict and
job-parent conflict but not to job-homemaker con-
flict. Aryee's study highlights the implications of
using global versus specific measures of WFC, as
specific facets of WFC may be differentially related to
outcomes. The weighted mean correlation observed
across studies, excluding the one study examining
actual turnover, was .29.
Two studies were located that examined the
relationship between WFC and absenteeism. Using a
sample of health care workers, Thomas and Ganster
(1995) found no relationship between WFC and
self-reports of absenteeism. Goff, Mount, and Jamison
(1990) studied the relationship between WFC and
company-provided records of absenteeism before and
after the implementation of an onsite child care
center. The bivariate correlations were nonsignificant;
however, regression results indicated that WFC was
significantly related to absenteeism after child care
center implementation. The weighted mean correla-
tion across these two studies was -.02.
Several studies have examined the relationship
between job performance and WFC with mixed
results. Frone, Yardley, and Markel (1997) found a
significant relationship using a multiple-item self-
rated measure of in-role job performance. Aryee
(1992) used a four-item self-report measure of work
quality and found that it was related to job-parent
conflict but not to job-spouse or job-homemaker
conflict. Netemeyer et al. (1996) used a multiple-item
self-rated measure of sales performance and found
null results. Likewise, nonsignificant results were
obtained using a 13-item measure of performance
provided by the employee's supervisor (Greenhaus et
al., 1987). The weighted mean correlation observed
across studies was -.12.
Summary of Work-Related Outcomes
and Suggestions for Future Research
As mentioned earlier, WFC has been measured a
variety of ways. Additionally, the outcome variables
studied have often been operationalized very differ-
ently. This operational variability is one possible
explanation for the inconsistent results concerning
job satisfaction. For example, some studies measured
job satisfaction using a global measure (e.g., Rice et
al., 1992), some summed multiple facets (e.g.,
Bedeian et al., 1988), whereas others used a
combination of the former two (Staines et al., 1986).
As noted by Specter (1997), correlations among job
satisfaction facets tend to be small. This suggests that
people may not have global feelings that produce the
same level of satisfaction with every job aspect. For
example, WFC may correlate more highly with
specific facets of job satisfaction such as supervision
and benefits than with others.
Although job satisfaction is the outcome variable
that has received the most attention by researchers,
our review revealed that intentions to turnover was
the work-related variable most highly related to
WFC. This finding suggests that a common response
to a high degree of WFC may be a desire to flee the
situation. Employees may seek alternative employ-
ment with organizations that offer environments that
are supportive of work-nonwork balance. It should be
noted that only one study has examined actual
turnover rate (Greenhaus et al., 1997). The correlation
between WFC and turnover in Greenhaus et al. was
.14, substantially lower than the average correlation
observed with turnover intentions. More research is
needed to determine the extent that WFC is related to
actual turnover. Research has also shown that job
satisfaction is an antecedent to turnover (Maertz &
Campion, 1998). Future studies may examine if job
satisfaction mediates the relationship between WFC
and turnover intentions.
Although the average weighted correlation be-
tween WFC and affective organization commitment
was moderately strong, the individual study results
were highly inconsistent. It appears that smaller
effects were found in studies that used more random
samples (e.g., employed mothers working in different
occupations at different organizations) than studies in
which employees came from the same occupation or
organization. Future studies are needed to examine
organization and job type as a moderator of the
WFC-organizational commitment relationship.
The findings suggest the need for more research
 WORK-TO-FAMILY CONFLICT
examining work-related behavioral outcomes. Only a
handful of studies have examined the effect of WFC
on variables such as absenteeism, job performance,
and turnover. For example, only two studies have
examined the relationship between absenteeism and
WFC. Although these two studies suggest that there is
little relationship between the two, it is difficult to
reach a firm conclusion on the basis of this limited
information. Perhaps more organizations could be
convinced to implement programs designed to reduce
WFC if there was stronger evidence that WFC can
influence these economic bottom-line indicators.
The findings to date are especially unclear
regarding the outcome of job performance. WFC may
have a greater impact on other domains of perfor-
mance such as organizational citizenship behavior
(Organ, 1988). Individuals experiencing a high
degree of WFC may feel compelled to keep the
task-related behaviors that are typically the focus of
performance evaluations at an acceptable level, but
they may not be willing to go above and beyond the
call of duty for the organization. Additionally,
individuals experiencing a high degree of WFC may
be less likely to engage in other work-related
extrarole behaviors such as mentoring relationships.
The career-related benefits of mentoring for the
mentor and the protege' are well-documented (cf.
Allen, Poteet, & Burroughs, 1997; Scandura, 1992),
but these relationships often involve activities that
take place outside of the work domain. Individuals
experiencing WFC may be reluctant to put in the time
and energy required to develop such relationships.
Finally, additional research is needed using more
objective indicants of job performance (e.g., sales
volume) or supervisor ratings in addition to self-
report ratings.
There is also limited research examining the
relationship between WFC and career-related out-
comes. The new conceptualization of employee
careers places a greater emphasis on subjective
success than in the past (Hall, 1996; Hall & Mirvis,
1995). Research is needed to support that of
Peluchette (1993), who found a significant relation-
ship between WFC and subjective career success.
This may be explained by the concept of spillover.
Specifically, if individuals have difficulty managing
the extent their work is interfering with family, these
conflicts may flow into negative feelings concerning
career success. Closer examination of the relationship
between WFC and objective career-related outcomes
is also needed. How do competing demands between
work and family differentially affect the career
outcomes of men and women? Similarly, to what
289
extent does WFC influence career decision making?
For example, is WFC related to capitalizing on
learning and development opportunities, decisions to
accept a promotion, or the decision to relocate for the
company?
Nonwork-Related Outcomes
Variables in this category were those associated
primarily with nonwork aspects of life. Table 3
contains a summary of these studies. Life satisfaction
is the variable most often associated with WFC in the
nonwork domain. In their meta-analysis, Kossek and
Ozeki (1998) reported a weighted mean correlation of
.31. Our analysis yielded a weighted mean correla-
tion of .28. In general, these studies reported that
greater levels of WFC were associated with lower
levels of reported life satisfaction. Drawn from the
same sample of married professionals with children
living at home, Duxbury and Higgins (1991) and
Higgins and Duxbury (1992) found that WFC was
related to life satisfaction. In studies based on the
same sample of accounting professionals, Greenhaus
et al. (1987), Bedeian et al. (1988), and Parasuraman
el al. (1989) found that WFC was strongly related to
quality of life. Two studies using QES data also found
a significant relationship between WFC and life
satisfaction (Rice et al., 1992; Staines et al., 1986).
Other studies finding support for the relationship
between WFC and life satisfaction include Adams et
al. (1996), Aryee et al. (1999), Chiu (1998), Googins
and Burden (1987), Judge et al. (1994), Kopelman et
al. (1983), Netemeyer et al. (1996), O'Driscoll et al.
(1992), and Wiley (1987). Additionally, Aryee (1992)
found that life satisfaction was related to all three of
the specific types of WFC studied: job-spouse,
job-parent, and job-homemaker.
In contrast, two studies have failed to support the
relationship between WFC and life satisfaction.
Cooke and Rousseau (1984) had a sample of teachers
complete a combined WFC and FWC measure of
interrole conflict. The result was a nonsignificant
relationship between WFC and life satisfaction.
Beutell and Greenhaus (1982) found that wives'
number of role conflicts and role intensity were not
related to either their own or their husbands' life
satisfaction.
Several studies have focused on relationship or
marital satisfaction/functioning as WFC outcomes with
somewhat mixed results. Increased levels of WFC
were found to be inversely related to marital adjust-
ment (Barling, 1986; Beatty, 1996; Bedeian et al.,
1988; Chiu, 1998; Duxbury et al., 1996, Greenglass et
al., 1988; Greenhaus et al., 1987; Parasuraman et al.,
290 ALLEN, HERST, BRUCK, AND SUTTON

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 WORK-TO-FAMILY CONFLICT

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292 ALLEN, HERST, BRUCK, AND SUTTON

a s;
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 WORK-TO-FAMILY CONFLICT
1989; Suchet & Barling, 1986). Using the QES data,
Coverman (1989) found that higher WFC was related
to lower marital satisfaction for men but not for
women. In contrast, two studies revealed significant
relationships for women but not for men (Kinnunen &
Mauno, 1998; Matthews, Conger, & Wickrama,
1996). Aryee (1992) found that job-spouse conflict
and job-parent conflict were related to marital
satisfaction, but job-homemaker conflict was not.
Lastly, in their three-sample study, Netemeyer et al.
(1996) found that WFC was not related to marital
satisfaction among elementary and high school
educators but was related to marital satisfaction
among small business owners and real estate sales
employees. Similarly, MacEwen and Barling (1994)
found that increased WFC was related to marital
withdrawal for both male and female Canadian
married parents but was only related to marital anger
for the female sample. The weighted mean correlation
found across studies was .23.
WFC has also been related to family satisfaction.
On the basis of two different samples, Kopelman et al.
(1983) found that general family satisfaction was
negatively related to WFC. Similar results based on
the QES were reported by Rice et al. (1992) and by
Frone, Barnes, and Farrell (1994). Most recently,
Aryee et al. (1999) also found that family satisfaction
was inversely related to WFC. In contrast, two studies
conducted by Parasuraman and her colleagues found
no relationship between family satisfaction and WFC
(Parasuraman, Greenhaus, & Granrose, 1992; Para-
suraman et al., 1996). The weighted mean correlation
observed across these studies was .17. Finally,
single studies have shown WFC to be negatively
related to satisfaction with leisure activities (Rice et
al., 1992), family performance (Frone, Yardley, &
Markel, 1997), and parental satisfaction (Kinnunen &
Mauno, 1998).
Summary ofNonwork Variables
and Suggestions for Future Research
Among the nonwork variables, life satisfaction was
most strongly related to WFC. It is interesting to note
that the two studies with the lowest correlations for
life satisfaction were conducted in the early 1980s.
More recent studies have found that increased WFC is
consistently related to decreased life satisfaction. This
trend may reflect employees' greater desire for
balance between their work and family lives. As
people have come to expect more balance, they may
293
experience more dissatisfaction with their life when
that sense of balance is violated.
Although the average weighted correlation be-
tween WFC and marital satisfaction was moderately
strong, the individual study results were highly
inconsistent. The discrepant findings are puzzling as
no clear themes or explanations for the variability
emerged from the review. Especially telling were the
findings from Netemeyer et al. (1996) that included
three different samples composed of similar demo-
graphic backgrounds. Whereas two of the samples
yielded moderate-sized correlations between WFC
and marital satisfaction, the third sample yielded a
correlation of .01. The results suggest the involve-
ment of moderator variables. Indeed, Suchet and
Barling (1986) found evidence for spouse support as a
moderator. Specifically, with a sample of employed
mothers, Suchet and Barling found that when spouse
support was high, WFC was not associated with
marital functioning. Similarly, Barling (1986) found
that hardiness moderated the relationship between
WFC and marital functioning. In future studies, it
may be helpful to examine possible reciprocal effects
between marital satisfaction and WFC. Specifically,
individuals may purposively engage in more work
because of marital problems that in turn creates greater
WFC, subsequently escalating marital dissatisfaction.
More research is needed examining different
aspects of nonwork life. A limited number of studies
have examined family satisfaction and WFC, with
somewhat inconsistent results. Although the meta-
analytic results suggests there is a low to moderate
relationship between WFC and family satisfaction,
additional studies would help clarify the nature of this
relationship. Only one study examining WFC and
parental satisfaction and one study examining WFC
and leisure satisfaction were identified in the review.
Research of this nature could be conducted using a
multidimensional measure of life satisfaction such as
that developed by Alfonso, Allison, Rader, and
Gorman (1996). This would generate a better understand-
ing of the specific aspects of life (e.g., satisfaction
with social life) related to WFC.
Stress-Related Outcomes
Given the importance most individuals place on
their families, it seems likely that jobs that interfere
with family life would be stressful. Therefore, it is not
surprising that WFC has been associated with a
variety of stress-related outcomes. No specific form
of stress has been a focus. Both physical and
(text continues on page 300)
294 ALLEN, HERST, BRUCK, AND SUTTON

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296 ALLEN, HERST, BRUCK, AND SUTTON

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Table 4 (continued)

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 WORK-TO-FAMILY CONFLICT 297

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298 ALLEN, HERST, BRUCK, AND SUTTON

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 WORK-TO-FAMILY CONFLICT 299

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WFC

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300 ALLEN, HERST, BRUCK, AND SUTTON
psychological stress within work and nonwork
domains have been examined. A summary of studies
examining WFC and stress-related outcomes is
provided in Table 4.
General psychological health has been explored in
several studies. O'Driscoll et al. (1992) found that as
job interference with nonwork activities increased,
psychological strain increased. Psychological strain
was measured by the General Health Questionnaire,
which assessed general mental health, coping with
difficulties, feelings of self-worth, and enjoyment of
daily activities. Beatty (1996) found that increased
levels of WFC were associated with increased levels
of anxiety and irritability/hostility. Similarly, Green-
glass et al. (1988) found increased conflict was
associated with increased anxiety. Matsui, Ohsawa,
and Onglatco (1995) found that WFC among married
Japanese women employed full time was related to a
life strain index that included assessments of
vocational strain, psychological strain, interpersonal
strain, and physical strain. In two studies, Parasura-
man et al. (1992) and Parasuraman et al. (1996) found
that genera] life stress (e.g., feelings such as being
upset, frustrated, or tense) significantly related to
WFC. Similarly, Klitzman, House, Israel, and Mero
(1990) found that WFC was related to negative
feelings outside of work. In contrast, Coverman
(1989) found no relationship between WFC and a
measure of general well-being. The weighted mean
correlation observed across studies was .29.
A number of studies have found a relationship
between increased WFC and increased physical
symptoms or somatic complaints such as poor
appetite, fatigue, and nervous tension (Adams & Jex,
1999; R. J. Burke, 1988; Cooke & Rousseau, 1984;
Greenglass et al., 1988; Guelzow, Bird, & Koball,
1991; Hughes & Galinsky, 1994; Kinnunen &
Mauno, 1998; Klitzman et al., 1990; Nelemeyer el al.,
1996; Reifman, Biernat, & Lang, 1991; Thomas &
Ganster, 1995). In two independent samples, Frone,
Russell, and Barnes (1996) found that increased WFC
was related to a single-item measure of overall
physical health. Research has also shown WFC to be
related to general health and energy (R. J. Burke,
1988; Googins & Burden, 1987; Grandey & Cropan-
zano, 1999; Judge et al., 1994). Several contrasting
results have also been obtained. For example,
Coverman (1989) found that WFC related to psycho-
physiological symptoms for women but not for men.
In their study of health professionals, Thomas and
Ganster (1995) reported that greater WFC was
associated with an elevated blood pressure but was
not related to cholesterol levels. Finally, in a
longitudinal study, Frone, Russell, and Cooper (1997)
found no relationship between WFC and overall
health or between WFC and hypertension. The
weighted mean correlation observed across studies
was .29.
One of the more alarming outcomes linked with
WFC has been depression. All the cross-sectional
studies examining WFC and depression have indi-
cated that increased WFC is related to increased
depression (Frone et al., 1992, 1996; Googins &
Burden, 1987; Greenglass et al., 1988; Klitzman et
al., 1990; MacEwen & Barling, 1994; Netemeyer et
al., 1996; Reifman et al., 1991; Thomas & Ganster,
1995). In another study, Beatty (1996) separated her
sample of female managers and professionals into
those with children and those without. Depression
was significantly related to WFC for women with
children but was not for women without children. We
found a weighted mean correlation across studies of
.32. However, it should be noted that in a longitudinal
study, Frone, Russell, and Cooper (1997) found no
relationship between depression and WFC over time.
In several studies, Frone and his associates have
found significant relationships between WFC and
alcohol abuse. Specifically, increased WFC was
associated with increased frequency of heavy drink-
ing, drinking to cope, and drinking problems (Frone,
Russell, & Cooper, 1993; Frone et al., 1994, 1996;
Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1997). Furthermore, Frone,
Russell, and Cooper (1997) found that WFC pre-
dicted heavy alcohol use across time. The weighted
mean correlation observed across studies was .13.
One study also found a relationship between cigarette
use and WFC (Frone et al., 1994).
The research examining WFC and stress associated
with the work domain has yielded fairly consistent
significant results. A number of studies specifically
focused on WFC and job burnout, finding that
increased WFC was related to increased job burnout
(Aryee, 1993; Bacharach et al., 1991; R. J. Burke,
1988; Drory & Shamir, 1988; Greenglass & Burke,
1988; Izraeli, 1988; Kinnunen & Mauno, 1998;
Netemeyer et al., 1996). Using a unique sample of
Israeli physician couples, Izraeli (1988) found that
job burnout was related to WFC for men but not for
women. The weighted mean correlation calculated
across studies that examined job burnout was .42.
WFC has also been related to other forms of
work-related stress, such as work alienation (R. J.
Burke, 1988), job tension (Netemeyer et al., 1996;
Stewart & Barling, 1996), affective professionalstress
(Guelzow et al., 1991), negative feelings at work
(Klitzman et al., 1990; Stewart & Barling, 1996),
 WORK-TO-FAMILY CONFLICT
quality of work life (Duxbury & Higgins, 1991;
Higgins & Duxbury, 1992), and job/work stress
(Prone et a]., 1992; Frone, Yardley, & Markel, 1997;
Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999; Greenglass & Burke,
1988; Judge et al., 1994; Kinnunen & Mauno, 1998).
In a study using an experience sampling strategy,
Williams and Alliger (1994) found that WFC was not
significantly related to work-related distress. The
weighted mean correlation found across these studies
was .41.
The limited research examining family-related
stress has also been fairly consistent. Increased WFC
has been related to increased family distress (Frone et
al., 1992; Frone, Yardley, & Markel, 1997; Grandey
& Cropanzano, 1999), affective parental and marital
stress (Guelzow et al., 1991), and quality of family
life (Duxbury & Higgins, 1991; Higgins & Duxbury,
1992). In contrast, Williams and Alliger (1994) did
not find a significant relationship between family-
related distress and WFC. The weighted mean
correlation found across studies was .31.
Summary of Stress-Related Variables
and Suggestions for Future Research
Our review revealed that one of the most consistent
and strongest findings in the literature was the
significant relationship between WFC and stress-
related outcomes. These effects were found in both
the work and nonwork domains. With the exception
of alcohol abuse, the average weighted correlations
within the stress-related category of variables ranged
from .29 to .42. The strongest relationships observed
were those of WFC with burnout and work-related
stress. These findings underscore the extent that
interferences with family brought on by work
demands creates tension within the work domain.
A great degree of variation was observed concern-
ing how physical symptoms were measured. Some
studies have used more general overall health
measures based on one or few items (e.g., Frone et al.,
1996; Judge et al., 1994), whereas others included a
large number of items assessing specific symptoms
and frequency (e.g., Netemeyer et al., 1996). More
studies are needed that use objective health indices
such as blood pressure and cholesterol levels. The
correlations between objective measures and WFC
have been lower than correlations between WFC and
general self-report measures (Frone, Russell, &
Cooper, 1997; Thomas & Ganster, 1995). It would
also be informative to examine WFC and health
ailments associated with stress, such as cardiovascu-
lar disease and gastric disorders.
The research conducted by Frone and his col-
leagues points out the value and the need for
longitudinal studies. As noted previously, most
research involving WFC has been cross-sectional. As
Frone, Russell, and Cooper (1997) illustrated, WFC
may not predict variation in outcomes over time. For
example, the effects for depression disappeared in
their longitudinal analysis. On the other hand,
although the effect size observed between alcohol
abuse and WFC was rather modest, important
implications are raised by the fact that the longitudi-
nal nature of the research does support causal
inferences (Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1997).
The costs associated with stress-related illnesses
are substantial. For example, it has been estimated
that stress-related illnesses cost American business
between $50 billion and $150 billion a year (Hatfield,
1990). One area of future research that appears
warranted is more integration of the stress and
work-family literature. Individual characteristics
have figured prominently into our understanding of
the experience of stress (Latack, 1989). For example,
research has shown that certain personality character-
istics such as Type A behavior, inflexibility, intoler-
ance for ambiguity, and neuroticism may predispose
individuals to generally experience a heightened sense of
stress (Greenhaus & Callanan, 1994). Limited re-
search has examined the role of individual differences
and the experience of WFC. The stress literature
could inform work-family researchers on the interven-
ing and moderating factors that may determine who is
most likely to stay healthy while experiencing WFC
and who is most likely to experience a stress-related
disorder. More empirical research based on integra-
tive models, such as that proposed by Greenhaus and
Parasuraman (1986), that incorporate the stress and
work-family literature is needed.
Conclusions and General Suggestions
for Future Research
The results of this review convincingly demon-
strate the widespread and serious consequences
associated with WFC. Excessive WFC presents
problems for employees, their families, employers,
and for society as a whole (Parasuraman & Green-
haus, 1997). WFC has dysfunctional and socially
costly effects on individual work life, home life, and
general well-being and health. While it should be
acknowledged that the majority of studies referenced
were based on self-reports and nonexperimental
designs that preclude confirmation of causality, we
believe it can be safely concluded that WFC is
302 ALLEN, HERST, BRUCK, AND SUTTON
associated with job, family, and life attitudes, work
behaviors, and a variety of stress-related variables.
Moreover, the results are based on many types of
participants and settings and include samples from a
variety of countries.
A major purpose of this article was to provide a
summary of the empirical research regarding the
outcomes associated with WFC. Despite the volumi-
nous body of extant research, the review identified
several relevant issues and general areas of inquiry
that warrant future research attention.
Measurement Refinement
Some of the inconsistent results revealed in the
review may be attributed to measurement issues. As
noted previously, WFC has been operationalized in
divergent ways. To address this issue, researchers
need more psychometric work establishing the
construct validity of WFC, such as the recent studies
conducted by Netemeyer et al. (1996), Stephens and
Sommer (1996), and Carlson et al. (1998). Their
measures were developed on the basis of advocated
validation procedures. Researchers should avoid
using one-item measures and mixed directional
measures that fail to distinguish between WFC and
FWC.
Other measurement concerns relate to the use of
objective versus subjective measures. WFC has been
most frequently measured through self-report meth-
ods that fail to distinguish between objective and
subjective or psychological role conflict. As discussed
by Greenhaus (1988), the distinction between objec-
tive role conflict from experience or psychological
role conflict is important because each type of conflict
may have different consequences. Many other areas
of study reveal substantial differences between
objective and subjective measures of the same phenom-
ena (e.g.. Judge et al., 1994, concerning subjective and
objective career success; Spector, Jex, & Chen, 1995,
concerning objective and subjective reports of job
characteristics). Research examining WFC by means
of methodologies other than subjective self-reports
should further our understanding of how WFC differen-
tially affects individuals. Improved measurement may
be just as important to furthering our understanding of
WFC as are theoretical advancements.
Tests for Moderators
Qualitatively, differential findings across studies
suggest undetected moderator variables may be
involved. Few researchers have attempted to explain
the frequent occurrence of mixed findings between
WFC and variables such as job satisfaction. One hint
of how third variables can influence these relation-
ships was provided in Beatty (1996). Beatty found
that women with children reported similar levels of
WFC as women without children; however, WFC was
associated with fewer negative health effects for
women without children than for women with
children. Along these lines, it would seem fruitful to
move beyond demonstrating the main effects of WFC
and to examine variables that may influence the
relationship between WFC and consequences. One
recent research trend has been to test integrative
mediation models that examine hypothesized anteced-
ents and outcomes of WFC simultaneously (e.g.,
Frone et al., 1992, 1996). Despite the obvious value
of this type of research, middle-range studies are also
needed to develop WFC theory. For example,
research exploring limited combinations of people
and situations, including possible moderators such as
organizational and personal characteristics, would be
valuable.
One opportunity for future research is to investi-
gate if there are underlying dispositional variables
that explain the relationship between WFC and
affective variables such as life and job satisfaction.
For example, it would be interesting to assess the
extent that individuals who are generally high in
negative affectivity also tend to report higher levels of
WFC and lower levels of job and life satisfaction and
stress (M. J. Burke, Brief, & George, 1993).
Differences in Outcomes of WFC With Special
Segments of the Population
Although WFC studies have incorporated a variety
of samples, the studies that have focused on special
groups have primarily examined gender differences
or dual-career versus single-career couples. Indeed,
many studies examining WFC limit their sample to
married individuals. Given the growing number of
single-parent homes, it seems important to also
examine the effects of WFC on this segment of the
population. In 1991, close to 60% of divorced,
separated, and widowed women with children youn-
ger than 6 years were employed. Moreover, the figure
was 80% for women with children between the ages
of 6 and 17 years (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1992,
as cited by Greenhaus and Callanan, 1994). Likewise,
research examining ethnic differences and the experi-
ence of WFC is virtually nil (for an exception, see
Katz & Piotrkowski, 1983). Minority groups often
 WORK-TO-FAMILY CONFLICT
experience unique career issues such as stereotyping,
restricted advancement opportunities, attributional
biases, and stresses associated with token status
(Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1993; Greenhaus, Para-
suraman, & Wormley, 1990; Kanter, 1977; Pettigrew
& Martin, 1987). These issues serve as likely sources
of stress that may exacerbate WFC.
Another potential area for study would be to
examine individuals of different socioeconomic status
(SES). Our review indicates that most studies have
used middle-class or higher SES samples (e.g.,
managers, accountants, and educators). As noted by
Kelly (1988), the work and family literature has
generally failed to integrate the urban underclass. The
importance of this area for future study is underscored
by the fact that Welfare to Work laws should increase
the number of individuals of lower economic means
who face conflicts between work and family.
Individuals who earn lower incomes may be less able
to afford high-quality child care and lack the
resources for conveniences (e.g., cleaning services,
lawn care) that can mitigate the effects of WFC.
More Sophisticated Research Designs
More sophisticated research designs are desper-
ately needed within the work and family research
arena. Most research has been cross-sectional and
correlational. Longitudinal designs that can track how
WFC changes over time and career stage and that can
track corresponding changes in stress and affective
outcomes would greatly increase our understanding.
As noted by Greenhaus and Callanan (1994), WFC is
likely to vary along with an individual's passage
through different stages of career development.
Moreover, specific life change events or transitional
periods may exacerbate WFC experiences and
outcomes. For example, within the work domain,
organizational restructuring may simultaneously in-
crease WFC and decrease job satisfaction as individu-
als experience job responsibility changes. Within the
family domain, the illness or death of a loved one may
significantly alter an individual's experience of WFC.
The effects of such change events as they relate to
WFC have been virtually unexplored. Additionally,
more research incorporating diverse data collection
strategies can be used to provide a unique perspective
on how individuals cope with daily WFC challenges.
For example, Williams and Alliger (1994) used an
experience sampling method to examine day-to-day
work and family experiences.
303
Conclusion
The objective of this study was to organize and
summarize current research regarding the outcomes
associated with WFC. By reviewing what is known,
we hope we have illuminated possible paths to be
taken in the future by work and family researchers.
There is little to suggest that the conditions that have
generated increasing conflicts between work and
family life will abate in the near future. Continuing
organizational turbulence such as downsizings and
mergers and economic factors such as the need for
two-income families suggest that WFC is likely to
keep affecting employees. Carefully planned and
systematic research based on collaboration among
researchers from diverse disciplines is needed to
develop models for future research.
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Received July 15,1999
Revision received October 15, 1999
Accepted October 19, 1999