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Elias C. Nyanza,1,2 Petro Yohana,1 Background. Tanzania has seen explosive development in small scale gold mining (SGM)
Deborah S.K. Thomas,3 Wilfreda E. operations. Recently, the use of cyanide has become more common in SGM, especially in the
Thurston,2 Eveline Konje,1 Deborah reprocessing of mercury-amalgamated tailings from artisanal mining sites.
Dewey2,4 Objectives. The primary objective of this study was to examine the level of knowledge
and adherence to the Cyanide Code among workers and managers at SGM operations in
1 School of Public Health, Catholic northwestern Tanzania that use cyanide for gold extraction, focusing on workers safety.
University of Health and Allied Sciences, Methods. A cross-sectional study of workers and managers at 17 selected SGM sites was
Mwanza, Tanzania conducted. A random-cluster approach was used to recruit 215 mine workers and 23 mine
2 Department of Community Health managers who worked at the same sites for more than three months. Individuals participated
Sciences, Cumming School of Medicine, in structured face-to-face interviews. Site evaluation checklists were also administered to
University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada assess adherence.
3 Department of Geography & Results. The majority of the SGM workers (61.4%, n=132) were not aware of the Cyanide
Environmental Sciences, University of Code. Among the mine managers, 64.2% (n=15) were aware of the Cyanide Code. Fifty-four
Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, USA percent of workers and 39.1% of managers did not adhere to the Cyanide Code. Workers who
4 Department of Paediatrics and Owerko reported being trained on the Cyanide Code were significantly more likely to have knowledge
Centre at the Alberta Childrens Hospital about the Cyanide Code guidelines compared to untrained workers (adjusted odds ratio
Research Institute, Cumming School of =20.3, confidence interval: 7.5 54.8).
Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Discussion. Wide variations in knowledge of and adherence to the Cyanide Code were
Canada found. A managers knowledge of Cyanide Code was significantly associated with workers
knowledge. High worker and manager knowledge was associated with increased site safety
Corresponding Author: performance. Even though all the SGM sites were physically visited, some potentially
Elias C. Nyanza hazardous practices may not have been revealed by managers and workers because of fear
Tel. +255 753 883 200 of possible regulatory actions due to disclosure of concerns related to their operations safety
elcnyanza@gmail.com compliance.
Conclusions. The limited knowledge of the Cyanide Code among workers and managers,
combined with poor adherence to cyanide waste management practices, indicates that there
is a need for education, health promotion and sensitization among workers and managers to
improve worker safety and minimize environmental health impacts.
Introduction Participant Consent: Obtained
Competing Interests. The authors declare no competing financial interests.
Many low- and middle-income Ethics Approval: Ethical approval was obtained from the Conjoint Catholic University
countries have seen explosive of Health and Allied Sciences and Bugando Medical Centre Research Review and Ethics
development of the artisanal and Committee (Ref. BREC/001/35/2014). Permission to conduct research in Geita District was
small-scale gold mining industry obtained from the respective authorities at the regional and district levels and from owners of
(ASGM). While no strict definition the SGM sites.
exists differentiating artisanal from Keywords. cyanide; code of practice; gold mining; occupational health; safety; ecosystem
small-scale mining, artisanal mining Received March 27, 2017. Accepted May 8, 2017.
typically refers to informal processes J Health Pollution 14: 4-14 (2017)
that are predominantly manual and
have low levels of production. Those
that are more organized with some
mechanization and higher production
levels are referred to as small scale gold 2010 Mining Act recognizes SGMs There are more than 16 million active
mining (SGM) operations.1,2 Small as mining operations whose capital gold miners participating in ASGM
scale can also refer to the size of the investment is less than US$ 100,000.3 in more than 55 countries worldwide;
operation; for example, Tanzanias and ASGM provides a direct and/or
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Journal of Health & Pollution Vol. 7, No. 14 June 2017 Nyanza et al
Research The Cyanide Code Among Small-scale Gold Miners in Northern Tanzania
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Nyanza et al Journal of Health & Pollution Vol. 7, No. 14 June 2017
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In Tanzania, the Cyanide Code was The Public Health Act of Tanzania Improving health and safety
formally introduced in 2006 and was stipulates that waste producers are for workers and reducing the
immediately adopted by the large- expected to take responsibility for the environmental risks associated with
scale gold mining industry. In later collection, transportation, storage, the use of cyanide in SGM operations
years, a few of the SGM operators who and treatment of waste.27 The Act depends upon the workers and
were using cyanide as a lixiviant a delegates waste management to managers knowledge of, motivation
liquid medium to selectively extract producers of waste by requiring them and skills in implementing the
gold from the ore also implemented to follow existing waste management Cyanide Code.14 However, despite the
the Cyanide Code.8,18,26 Currently, standards and procedures in handling increased use of cyanide in the SGM
government mining officers are waste produced by Tanzanian mines. industry in Tanzania, the extent of
obliged to provide guidance to all However, compliance with health and workers and managers knowledge
registered SGM operations using safety codes and codes of practice, regarding the safety practices
cyanide on how to use and adhere such as the Cyanide Code, remain associated with cyanide use and their
to the Cyanide Code throughout undocumented. adherence to the Cyanide Code is
the entire gold production process; unknown. The primary purpose of this
however, there are many other SGM Reports from SGM mining areas in study was to investigate knowledge of
operations that are not registered with Tanzania suggest a lack of enforcement and adherence to the Cyanide Code
the government.3 Implementation and of environmental safety regulations, among workers and managers involved
adherence to the Cyanide Code by the as well as occupational health and in SGM operations in northwest
gold mining industry in Tanzania is safety regulations.10,31 Furthermore, Tanzania, with a focus on worker
required under the following mining many of the individuals involved in health and safety.
and environmental management SGM lack education and training
acts and regulations: 1) The Mining on mine site occupational health Methods
(Environmental Protection for Small and safety and do not use protective
Scale Mining) Regulations of 2010; measures.5 In Tanzania, training in Setting
2) The Mining (Safety Occupational cyanide management knowledge This study was conducted in Geita
Health and Environmental Protection) about safe methods of handling, using District, which has a population of
Regulations of 2010; 3) Industrial and and disposing of cyanide residual in 807,617.32 This district was chosen
Consumer Chemical (Management most cases remains the responsibility because it has the largest number
and Control) Act of 2003; 4) The of SGM owners in collaboration with of ASGM and SGM gold mining
Environmental Management Act regulatory authorities, and may not operations around the Lake Victoria
of 2004; 5) The Environmental be a priority among mining managers goldfield and is one of Tanzanias main
Management (Hazardous Waste and owners; however, this has not been gold producing districts.9,11 It has four
Control) Regulations of 2009; and 6) studied.3,27-29 Essential equipment for major small scale gold mining centres,
The Tanzania Occupational Health and safe mining practices is frequently Nyarugusu, Nyakagwe, Mgusu and
Safety act of 2003.3,27-29 The Tanzanian absent from SGM mining sites.5 Rwamagasa, and there are more than
government has also recognized the Finally, efforts to protect surrounding 21 SGM operations using cyanide
importance of the SGM industry by communities are very limited or to leach mercury amalgamated
establishing and enacting several nonexistent.10 This is consistent with tailings. These operations provide
policies and regulations through the the findings of a recent study in direct employment to more than
Ministry of Energy and Minerals. northern Tanzania that suggested that 560 workers.33 Note that this study
These include the Tanzanian Mining a lack of knowledge among ASGM focused on SGM, and did not include
Policy of 1997, the Mining Act of miners contributed to an absence of artisanal gold miners as the latter do
1998, and the Mining Act of 2010, environmental monitoring and poor not currently use cyanide in mining
which legalized the SGM industry, waste management practices among processes.26
and established a set of basic miners.31 The findings of this study
environmental and safety standards highlighted the need for community Design
and a new permitting system.3,29 health education and policy changes This cross-sectional study conducted
Although these regulations are in to safeguard the health of the miners face-to-face interviews with SGM
place, compliance in the SGM industry and the communities located near gold workers and managers between June
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Journal of Health & Pollution Vol. 7, No. 14 June 2017 Nyanza et al
Research The Cyanide Code Among Small-scale Gold Miners in Northern Tanzania
2014 to February 2015. A semi- accuracy and language consistency. of the SGM sites. Each individual
structured questionnaire adapted Various tools (viz., semi-structured was assigned a unique number.
from a similar questionnaire used questionnaires for managers and The numbers were then mixed up
in our previous research was used workers, and standardized checklists) in a closed container to give each
to examine workers and managers were used to increase the rigor of the individual an equal chance of being
knowledge of the Cyanide Code.31 study and ensure the reliability of the selected. Since each of the SGM sites
The questionnaire consisted of seven findings. had either one or two managers, all
questions (Supplemental Material managers were invited to participate
1). The percent correct of the seven The study tools were pre-tested at in the study provided they had been
questions was calculated to provide Ishokela mining sites (i.e., SGM in their position for more than three
a total score. Individuals with a total operations that use cyanide) in months.
percent correct score of 50% were Misungwi District to ensure that the
classified as knowledgeable and those interview questions and checklists Analysis
with a percent correct score of < 50% had face validity and were understood Data were analyzed using the Statistical
were classified as not knowledgeable. by the interviewers and respondents. Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)
The data collected at Ishokela was v. 17.0. Chi-square tests or Fishers
Knowledge on adherence to the not included in the current study. A exact tests were used as appropriate to
COO among mining workers and total of 57 workers and 6 managers investigate the associations between
managers was also examined using from four sites participated in these socio-demographic variables (for
a semi-structured questionnaire pre-test activities. Unclear and example, age, sex, marital status,
administered in the form of a face-to- ambiguous questions were modified education, work station, number of
face interview (Supplemental Material and/or rephrased where necessary. years at work, number of hours worked
2). Mine workers and managers with Two researchers on our team (PY and a day, and any training on cyanide
a total percent correct of 50% were ECN) also completed the checklists management) and knowledge of the
classified as knowledgeable about independently to assess usability. The Cyanide Code. Sociodemographic
adherence to the Cyanide Code and scores of two team members were information, training and years of work
those who scored < 50% were classified then compared and discrepancies experience were used to calculate the
as not knowledgeable. were resolved through discussion odds of being knowledgeable. Results
based on the evidence provided and were considered statistically significant
Adherence of SGM industry sites to changes were made to the checklists as when p-values were < .05 and were
the Cyanide Code was also assessed necessary. reported with 95% confidence intervals.
using two site audit checklists: 1) a
17-item checklist developed using Twenty-one SGM sites in Geita Ethical Approvals
the requirements by the International District that used cyanidation Ethical approval was obtained from
Cyanide Management Institute technology and had a cyanide leaching the Conjoint Catholic University
(Supplemental Material 2 and 3) an permit were invited to participate of Health and Allied Sciences and
observation checklist adapted from in this study; 19 sites agreed to take Bugando Medical Centre Research
Rosia Montana Gold Corporation part and 2 sites declined. A total of Review and Ethics Committee (Ref.
(Supplemental Material 4).25,34 A SGM 215 workers and 23 managers who BREC/001/35/2014). Permission to
site with a score 50% was considered had worked at their respective sites conduct research in Geita District
to be adhering to the Cyanide Code. for more than three months agreed to was obtained from the respective
If it obtained a score of <50%, it participate. None of the participants authorities at the regional and district
was classified as not adhering to the withdrew from the study. The criteria levels and from owners of the SGM
Cyanide Code. A pictorial presentation of working at a specific site for a sites. Participation in the study was
of the SGM site operation is presented minimum of three months was used to voluntary. Written consent was
in Supplemental Material 5. ensure that participants were familiar sought from participants prior to
with the routine working practices at recruitment. Participation in this study
The questionnaires and checklists were that SGM site. was on a voluntary basis. No names
translated from English to Swahili (the of respondents have been used in this
primary language of most of Tanzania) A random sampling technique was article or any other reports. During the
and back translated to English used to recruit SGM workers from fieldwork, numbers were assigned to
using a second translator to ensure the list of all the workers at each participants to ensure anonymity.
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Nyanza et al Journal of Health & Pollution Vol. 7, No. 14 June 2017
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Discussion
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Previous research has suggested that Although almost two-thirds of the where most SGM operations did not
workers low levels of knowledge mining managers were knowledgeable comply with Cyanide Code standards
and poor adherence to the Cyanide about the Cyanide Code, this resulting in the pollution of rivers and
Code could be attributed to reliance knowledge did not appear to have been other receiving environments due to
on traditional methods in mining translated to the mine workers. This improper waste mismanagement at
activities.10,17 Also, lack of knowledge suggests that managers knowledge of SGM sites.15
about cyanide use and inadequate the Cyanide Code did not significantly
supervision have been reported influence their actions regarding The massive shift of SGM from
as some of the reasons for poor the protection and training of their rudimentary mercury use to cyanide
cyanide management in most of the workers on cyanide exposure. This technology in Tanzania may be
gold mining industries.14,24 In other finding is consistent with those seen as an excellent opportunity to
studies, lack of monitoring tools reported by the United Nations minimize the introduction of mercury
and inadequate management skills Environmental Programme (UNEP), into the environment. However,
have been reported to be factors and a study in Zimbabwe that reported there is a significant need to protect
associated with lack of adherence to discrepancies between managers and mine workers and the surrounding
the Cyanide Code.14,17 Training of mine mine workers knowledge.5,35 Even communities from cyanide toxicity
workers should be a high priority, as when managers reported that workers and associated cyanide wastes and
individuals with inadequate training had been given primary safety gear, compliance to the Cyanide Code
could place themselves and others such as gloves and safety boots, very should therefore be a priority. The
at significant risk.16,35 Interestingly, few of the mine workers were observed reprocessing of rudimentary mercury
married individuals were found wearing them, and it appears that no tailings at SGM sites using cyanide
to be more concerned and more actions were taken by the managers may produce a combined toxic
knowledgeable of the Cyanide Code to ensure that the workers utilized mercury-cyanide complex that results
compared to unmarried individuals. this gear while on the mine site. in mercury becoming bioavailable
This could be due to their seniority Similar findings have been reported in and soluble, and increases the chances
in the mining industry and/or to Zimbabwe and Ecuador.14,35 for methylation of mercury into
their concerns for their own safety, its more toxic form.20,21 Evidence
the safety of their families, or the In the present survey, most SGM from the literature suggests that
importance of having a secure future sites did not meet the basic Cyanide for gold processing operations that
livelihood. Even though workers Code requirements set by the use cyanidation technology and
stated that they worked mainly in International Cyanide Management where there is possibility of mercury
cyanidation, proccessing or the Institute. Generally, most of the SGM contamination, treating wastes
laboratory, information obtained sites did not have guidelines for with strong precipitants such as
during the site audit suggested that cyanide management, and did not sulphides is vital.21 Soluble sulphides
workers were rotated to different provide proper personal protective have the potential to convert all
sections of the worksite and performed equipment for their workers. Lack mercury cyanide complexes into
different jobs depending on where of specifically trained personnel for insoluble metal sulhides at all pH
the need was on a specific day. This administering antidotes and other first values, reducing the chance that the
could be due to the small size of most aid services were other areas in which mercury methylation process occurs.20
SGM operations. Individual workers many SGM operations displayed a However, treatment of wastes with
working in the cyanidation unit, the lack of compliance to the Cyanide sulphides was not performed at any
processing plant and the laboratory Code. A practice of concern that was of the SGM operations in northern
could be at higher risk of exposure to observed at many of the SGM sites Tanzania. Because of the widespread
cyanide compared to support staff. was the storage of cyanide chemicals presence of SGM sites in northern
During our assessment of the SGM together with other chemicals; this Tanzania and their current use of
operations, we did not use human could result in increased chemical mercury amalgamated tailings, not
exposure monitors for cyanide. Follow exposure hazards at these sites. An treating wastes from mines that use
up studies that monitor exposure levels even greater concern was the lack of cyanide technology could result in the
in different sections of SGM mining emergency procedure guidelines in spread of mercury beyond the original
operations are needed to ensure the case of an accident and/or spillage mining sites and into communities
safety of workers. at most of the SGM sites. Similar that are directly involved in mining
findings were observed in Brazil activities.
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Nyanza et al Journal of Health & Pollution Vol. 7, No. 14 June 2017
Research
The introduction of cyanidation This is the first study in Tanzania to general environment, clear strategies
technology into SGM was in response examine knowledge of and adherence that are agreed upon and supported by
to its increased efficiency in recovering to the Cyanide Code among SGM stakeholders at all levels are required.
gold compared to amalgamation.36,37 workers and managers. Although the
This has resulted in the industry findings cannot be generalized to other Authors Contributions
changing from using one toxic parts of the country or worldwide, ECN contributed to designing the
chemicalmercuryto another they support the contention that present study, developing the survey,
cyanidefor processing and recovering there is a need to develop capacity supervising the data collection,
gold.36,37 Efforts within the industry for training programs on worker analyzing the data, and drafting
have emphasized compliance with the safety, environmental protection, and and writing of the manuscript. PY
Cyanide Code; however, there is a need community health. Furthermore, developed the survey, supervised
to develop and implement alternative while regulatory enforcement is the data collection, coded the open-
safe mining solutions. Studies from important, a multifaceted approach ended questions, analyzed the data,
the Phillipines and Zimbabwe have to improving worker safety and and interpreted the results. WT
reported on the successiful introduction environmental health is needed, contributed to the development of
and operation of a mercury and including the development of the study design and the survey,
cyanide free techniquethe gravity- innovative interventions encouraging interpreted the results, and reviewed
borax method.36,37 The gravity-borax the participation and involvement the manuscript. DSKT contributed to
method uses the same equipment as of miners. We also recommend the study design, development of the
the amalgamation technique, is more in-depth group discussions among survey, interpretation of the findings,
efficient with higher gold recovery mine workers and managers in order as well as writing and reviewing
compared to cyanidation, and much to better to understand their lived the manuscript. EK contributed to
safer to the environment and human experience of occupational and the data analysis and reviewing the
health.36,37 environmental health issues related manuscript. DD contributed to the
to cyanide exposure in SGM sites. development of the study design
The findings of this study strongly Finally, it is important to note that and the survey, interpretation of the
suggest that stakeholders in SGM even though all the SGM mining sites results, and writing of the manuscript.
in Tanzania should strengthen were physically visited during the All authors read and approved the final
compliance to occupational health, study, some potentially hazardous manuscript.
environmental and chemical standards mining practices may have not been
as articulated in the Cyanide Code, revealed and/or observed as managers Acknowledgments
as well as explore opportunities and mine workers might have been The authors acknowledge the School
beyond pure regulatory approaches concerned about possible site closure of Public Health at the Catholic
for improving the situation, including and/or being penalized by regulatory University of Health and Allied
the introduction of the gravity-borax authorities in case the information Sciences, the University of Calgary,
method. There is also a need to collected was disclosed. This should the University of Colorado Denver,
engage the broader artisanal mining be considered as one of the key and regional authorities in Mwanza
communities as SGM operations, the limitations of the present study. and Geita in Tanzania for the
artisanal miner, and Tanzania agencies collaboration of resources that made
and authorities share responsibility Conclusions this possible. The authors would
for environmental stewardship and also like to thank the Vanier Canada
the protection of human health. For The present study found that SGM Graduate Scholarship for funding that
example, the Tanzania Mining Agency workers in Tanzania have limited was used to finalize this work. Finally,
National Environmental Management knowledge of and report poor the authors would like to thank all
Council should take a more active role adherence to the Cyanide Code. the SGM workers and managers in
in ensuring adherence to the Cyanide There is a need for further research the Geita and Mwanza regions for
Code. In addition, the findings of the on government participation in and participating in this study.
present study indicate that greater enforcement of the Cyanide Code
emphasis must be placed on ensuring in Tanzania, especially in SGM Copyright Policy
that mine workers and managers operations. To minimize potential This is an Open Access article
recieve training on and comply with cyanide toxicity among the workers distributed in accordance with
the Cyanide Code. in the local communities and the Creative Commons Attribution
12
Journal of Health & Pollution Vol. 7, No. 14 June 2017 Nyanza et al
Research The Cyanide Code Among Small-scale Gold Miners in Northern Tanzania
License (http://creativecommons.org/ status and challenges of the mining sector Gunson AJ, Bernaudat L. Strategies for reducing
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