C h a p te r O n e

M e th o d o lo g y
D a v i d N u n a n , U n iv e r s ity o f H o n g K o n g ( C h in a )

A t t h e e n d o f t h is c h a p t e r , y o u s h o u l d b e a b l e t o :
G o a ls

d e f i n e m e th o d o lo g y .

e x p l a i n h o w m e t h o d o lo g y is r e la te d to c u r r ic u lu m d e v e lo p m e n t
a n d s y lla b u s d e s ig n .

I d e s c r i b e t h e m e th o d s d e b a te .

e x p l a i n t h e b a s ic p r in c ip le s o f c o m m u n ic a tiv e la n g u a g e te a c h in g ,
a n d d e s c r ib e its c u r r e n t im p o r ta n c e in la n g u a g e te a c h in g p e d a g o g y .

d i s c u s s s o m e o f t h e r e s e a r c h f in d in g s t h a t h a v e in flu e n c e d
la n g u a g e te a c h in g m e th o d o lo g y .

c r e a t e in s tr u c tio n a l s e q u e n c e s t h a t in c o r p o r a te th e p r e ta s k , ta s k ,
a n d fo llo w - u p c y c le .

3
1. W h a t is m e th o d o lo g y ?
The fie ld of c u r r ic u lu m d e v e lo p m e n t is l a r g e a n d c o m p le x . It
i n c lu d e s a ll o f th e p l a n n e d le a r n in g e x p e r i e n c e s in a n e d u c a t i o n a l s e ttin g .
C u r r ic u lu m h a s th re e m a in s u b c o m p o n e n t s : s y lla b u s d e s i g n , m e t h o d o lo
g y , a n d e v a lu a t io n . S y l l a b u s d e s i g n h a s t o d o w i t h s e l e c t i n g , s e q u e n c i n g ,
a n d ju s t ify in g c o n t e n t . M e t h o d o l o g y h as to do w ith s e le c tin g , s e q u e n c in g ,
a n d ju s t ify in g le a r n in g ta sk s a n d e x p e r ie n c e s . E v a lu a t io n h a s t o d o w it h h o w
w e ll stu d e n ts h a v e m a s t e r e d th e o b je c t iv e s o f th e c o u r s e a n d h o w e ffe c tiv e ly
th e c o u r s e h a s m e t th e ir n e e d s . T h e f o llo w in g d ia g r a m s h o w s h o w th e s e d if
fe r e n t e le m e n t s fit to g e t h e r .

C u r r ic u lu m
com ponent Focus D e fin in g q u e s tio n s

S y lla b u s d esig n C o n te n t W h a t c o n te n t s h o u ld w e te a c h ?
In w h a t o rd e r s h o u ld w e te a c h th is c o n te n t?
W h a t is th e ju s tific a tio n fo r s e le c tin g th is
c o n te n t?

M e th o d o lo g y C la ss ro o m te c h n iq u e s W h a t e x e rc is e s , tas ks , a nd a c tiv itie s sh o u ld

and p ro c e d u re s w e u se in th e c la s s ro o m ?
H o w s h o u ld w e s e q u e n c e a nd in te g ra te th e s e ?

E v a lu a tio n L e a rn in g o u tc o m e s H o w w e ll h ave o u r s tu d e n ts d o n e ?
H o w w e ll h as o u r p ro g ra m s e rv e d o ur
s tu d e n ts n e e d s?
V
F i g u r e 1 S u b c o m p o n e n ts o f a c u rric u lu m

T h is b o o k is b a s i c a l l y a b o u t la n g u a g e te a c h in g m e t h o d o lo g y . In oth er
w o r d s , t h e f o c u s o f t h e c h a p t e r s is p r i n c i p a l l y o n t e c h n i q u e s a n d p r o c e d u r e s
f o r u s e in th e c la s s r o o m , a lt h o u g h m o s t c h a p te r s a ls o t o u c h o n a s p e c ts o f c o n
te n t s e le c t io n a n d e v a lu a tio n .
The L ongm an D ic tio n a r y o f A p p lie d L in g u i s t i c s d e fin e s m e th o d o lo g y "
as ...

1. ... th e s tu d y o f th e p ra c tic e s a nd p ro c e d u re s u sed in te a c h in g , and th e

p rin c ip le s and b e lie fs th a t u n d e rlie the m .

M e th o d o lo g y in c lu d e s

a . s tu d y o f th e n a tu re o f la n g u a g e s k ills (e.g., re ad in g , w ritin g , s p ea k in g ,

liste n in g , a nd p ro c e d u re s fo r te a c h in g th e m )
V __________________ _____________________ J
4 C h a p te r 1
 b. s tu d y o f th e p re p a ra tio n of le ss on p lans , m a te ria ls, and te x tb o o k s for
te a c h in g la n g u a g e s k ills

c. th e e v a lu a tio n and c o m p a ris o n o f la n g u a g e te a c h in g m e tho d s

(e.g., th e a u d io lin g u a l m e th o d)

2. s uch p ra c tice s, p ro c e d u re s , p rin c ip le s, a nd b e lie fs th e m s e lv e s .

(R ic h a rd s, e t al. 1985, p. 177)

V ___________ ________________________________________^
F rom th e t a b le o f c o n t e n t s y o u w ill s e e th a t th is b o o k a d d r e s s e s m o s t o f
th e s e a rea s. S e c tio n 1 fo c u s e s o n t h e l a n g u a g e s k il ls o f l i s t e n i n g , s p e a k i n g ,
r e a d i n g , a n d w r i t i n g . S e c t i o n 2 l o o k s a t a s p e c t s o f l a n g u a g e d i s c o u r s e , g r a m
m ar, v o c a b u la r y , and p r o n u n c ia tio n . S e c tio n 3 e x p lo r e s e le m e n ts th a t
s u p p o r t th e le a r n in g p r o c e s s , i n c l u d i n g le a r n in g s ty le s a n d s tr a t e g ie s , c o n t e n t -
b a s e d in s tr u c tio n , u s in g t e x t b o o k s , u s in g c o m p u t e r s , fo s t e r in g a u t o n o m y a n d
in d e p e n d e n c e , a n d c la s s r o o m -b a s e d a s s e s s m e n t a n d e v a lu a tio n .

2. B a c k g ro u n d to la n g u a g e te a c h in g m e th o d o lo g y

T h e m e th o d s d e b a te

A la n g u a g e t e a c h in g m e t h o d is a s i n g l e s e t o f p r o c e d u r e s w h i c h t e a c h
e rs a r e t o f o l lo w in th e c la s s r o o m . M e t h o d s a re a ls o u s u a lly b a s e d o n a se t o f
b e lie fs a b o u t th e n a tu r e o f la n g u a g e a n d le a r n in g . F o r m a n y y e a r s , th e g o a l
o f la n g u a g e pedagogy w as to fin d th e r ig h t m e t h o d - a m e th o d o lo g ic a l
m a g i c f o r m u l a th a t w o u l d w o r k f o r a ll le a r n e r s at a ll tim e s ( B r o w n , 2 0 0 2 ) .
M e t h o d s c o n tr a s t w ith a p p ro a c h e s, w h ic h a r e m o r e g e n e r a l, p h ilo s o p h ic a l
o r ie n ta tio n s s u c h as c o m m u n ic a t iv e la n g u a g e te a c h in g ( s e e p a g e 6 )
th at c a n e n c o m p a s s a r a n g e o f d iffe r e n t p r o c e d u r e s .
T h e d o m i n a n t m e t h o d f o r m u c h o f th e la s t c e n t u r y w a s th e gram m ar-
tr a n s la t io n m e t h o d . T h i s w a s c h a l l e n g e d i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d 1 9 6 0 s b y a u d i-
o lin g u a lis m , a m e t h o d t h a t is s t ill v e r y p o p u l a r t o d a y , a n d w h o s e i n f l u e n c e
c a n b e s e e n in a v a r ie t y o f d r ill-b a s e d te c h n iq u e s a n d e x e r c is e s .
A u d i o l i n g u a l i s m w a s t h e f ir s t m e t h o d t o b e b a s e d o n a t h e o r y o f l e a r n i n g
b e h a v io r is m , w h i c h v i e w e d a l l l e a r n i n g a s a p r o c e s s o f f o r m i n g h a b i t s , a n d
o n a th e o ry o f la n g u a g e -stru ctu ra l lin g u is tic s . B e h a v i o r i s m a n d s t r u c t u r a l
lin g u is tic s p r o v i d e d th e f o l l o w i n g k e y c h a r a c t e r is tic s o f a u d io lin g u a lis m :

P r i o r i t y is g i v e n t o s p o k e n r a t h e r t h a n w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e .

L a n g u a g e l e a r n i n g is b a s i c a l l y a m a t t e r o f d e v e l o p i n g a s e t o f h a b i t s
t h r o u g h d r illin g .

M e th o d o lo g y 5
 T e a c h th e la n g u a g e , n o t about th e la n g u a g e . (A v o id te a c h in g g r a m m a r
r u l e s . G e t l e a r n e r s t o d e v e l o p t h e i r s k il ls t h r o u g h d r i l l a n d p r a c t i c e
t e a c h t h r o u g h a n a l o g y n o t a n a l y s i s . ) ( M o u l t o n , 1 9 6 3 )

In th e 1 9 6 0 s, b e h a v io r is m a n d s tr u c tu r a l lin g u is tic s w e r e s e v e r e ly c r it i
c iz e d as b e i n g in a d e q u a t e r e p r e s e n ta tio n s o f b o t h th e le a r n in g p r o c e s s a n d th e
n a tu re o f la n g u a g e . In p la c e o f b e h a v io r is m , p s y c h o lo g is ts p r o p o s e d c o g n it iv e
p s y c h o l o g y w h ile th e lin g u is t C h o m s k y d e v e l o p e d a n e w t h e o r y c a l le d tr a n s -
fo r m a t io n a l-g e n e r a t iv e g r a m m a r . B o t h a p p r o a c h e s e m p h a s i z e d t h i n k
in g , c o m p r e h e n s i o n , m e m o r y , a n d th e u n iq u e n e s s o f la n g u a g e le a r n in g t o th e
hum an s p e c ie s . M e th o d o lo g is ts s e iz e d on th e th e o r ie s and d e v e lo p e d a
m e th o d k n o w n as c o g n itiv e c o d e le a r n in g . T h i s a p p r o a c h p r o m o t e d l a n
g u a g e le a r n in g as a n a c tiv e m e n ta l p r o c e s s ra th e r th a n a p r o c e s s o f h a b it f o r
m a t io n . G r a m m a r w a s b a c k in fa s h io n , a n d c l a s s r o o m a c tiv it ie s w e r e d e s ig n e d
th a t e n c o u r a g e d le a r n e r s t o w o r k o u t g r a m m a r r u le s f o r t h e m s e lv e s t h r o u g h
in d u c t iv e r e a s o n in g . (F o r e x a m p le s , s e e N u n a n , C h a p t e r 8 , th is v o lu m e .)
In a d d it io n to m e t h o d s b a s e d o n th e o r ie s o f le a r n in g a n d la n g u a g e , th e r e
e m e r g e d a n u m b e r o f m e t h o d s th a t w e r e b a s e d o n a h u m a n is tic a p p r o a c h to
e d u c a tio n . T h e s e m e t h o d s e m p h a s iz e d th e im p o r t a n c e o f e m o t io n a l fa c to r s
in le a r n in g , a n d p r o p o n e n t s o f th e s e m e t h o d s b e l i e v e d th a t lin g u is t ic m o d e l s
a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r ie s w e r e le s s i m p o r t a n t t o s u c c e s s f u l la n g u a g e a c q u i
s itio n th a n e m o t io n a l o r a ffe c t iv e fa c to r s . T h e y b e l ie v e d th a t s u c c e s s fu l le a r n
i n g w o u l d t a k e p l a c e i f l e a r n e r s c o u l d b e e n c o u r a g e d t o a d o p t t h e r i g h t a t t i
tu d e s a n d in t e r e s t s in r e la t io n t o th e ta r g e t la n g u a g e a n d ta r g e t c u lt u r e . T h e
b e st k n o w n o f th ese m e th o d s w e r e th e s ile n t w a y , s u g g e s to p e d ia a n d
c o m m u n it y la n g u a g e le a r n in g . T h e b e s t in t r o d u c t io n to h u m a n is tic le a r n in g
w it h in la n g u a g e e d u c a tio n is S t e v i c k (1 9 9 7 ). S t e v ic k becam e in te r e s te d in
h u m a n is m a fte r h e o b s e r v e d b o t h a u d io lin g u a l a n d c o g n it i v e c o d e le a r n in g
in a c t io n . H e f o u n d th a t b o t h m eth od s c o u ld e ith e r b e q u ite s u c c e s s fu l o r
e x t r e m e ly u n s u c c e s s fu l. H o w is i t , h e a s k e d , t h a t t w o m e t h o d s b a s e d o n
r a d ic a lly d iffe r e n t a s s u m p tio n s a b o u t th e n atu re o f la n g u a g e and le a r n in g
c o u ld b e s u c c e s s fu l o r u n s u c c e s s fu l, as th e c a s e m a y b e ? H e c o n c lu d e d th a t
p a r t ic u la r c l a s s r o o m t e c h n iq u e s m a t t e r e d le s s th a n e s t a b lis h in g th e r ig h t e m o
t io n a l c lim a t e f o r th e le a r n e r s .

C o m m u n ic a tiv e la n g u a g e t e a c h in g (C L T )

D u r in g th e 1 9 7 0 s, a m a jo r r e a p p r a is a l o f la n g u a g e o c c u r r e d . L in g u is ts
began to lo o k a t l a n g u a g e , n o t as i n t e r l o c k i n g se ts o f g r a m m a t i c a l, l e x i c a l ,
a n d p h o n o lo g ic a l ru le s, b u t as a t o o l fo r e x p r e s s in g m e a n in g . T h is r e c o n c e p
t u a liz a t io n h a d a p r o f o u n d e f f e c t o n la n g u a g e t e a c h in g m e t h o d o l o g y . I n th e
e a r lie s t v e r s io n s o f C L T , m e a n i n g w a s e m p h a s iz e d o v e r f o r m , f l u e n c y o v e r
a c c u r a c y . It a ls o le d to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f d iffe r e n t ia t e d c o u r s e s th a t r e fle c t

6 C h a p te r 1
e d th e d if f e r e n t c o m m u n i c a t i v e n e e d s o f le a r n e r s . T h is n e e d s - b a s e d a p p r o a c h
a ls o r e in fo r c e d a n o t h e r tr e n d th a t w a s e m e r g in g at th e t im e - t h a t o f le a r n
e r -c e n t e r e d e d u c a t io n ( N u n a n , 1 9 8 8 ) .
In r e c e n t y e a r s , th e b r o a d ap p roach know n as C L T has b e e n r e a liz e d
m e th o d o lo g ic a lly b y ta s k -b a s e d la n g u a g e t e a c h in g ( T B L T ) . I n T B L T ,
la n g u a g e le s s o n s a r e b a s e d o n le a r n in g e x p e r ie n c e s th a t h a v e n o n lin g u is t ic
o u t c o m e s , a n d i n w h i c h t h e r e is a c l e a r c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t h i n g s l e a r n
e r s d o in c la s s a n d th e th in g s t h e y w ill u lt im a t e ly n e e d t o d o o u t s id e o f th e
c la s s r o o m . S u c h ta sk s m ig h t i n c lu d e lis t e n in g t o a w e a t h e r f o r e c a s t a n d d e c i d
in g w h a t to w ear, o r d e r in g a m e a l, p la n n in g a p a rty , fin d in g o n e s w ay
a r o u n d t o w n a n d s o o n . I n t h e s e t a s k s , l a n g u a g e is u s e d t o a c h i e v e n o n l a n
g u a g e o u t c o m e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e u l t i m a t e a i m o f o r d e r i n g a m e a l is n o t t o
u s e c o r r e c t ly f o r m e d w h -q u e s t io n s , b u t to g e t f o o d a n d d r in k o n th e ta b le .

R e se arch

D u r in g th e w h a t s th e b e s t m e t h o d ? p h a s e o f la n g u a g e te a c h in g , s e v e r
a l s tu d ie s w e r e c a r r ie d o u t t o s e ttle th e q u e s t io n e m p ir ic a lly . F o r e x a m p l e ,
S w a ffa r , A r e n s a n d M o r g a n (1 9 8 2 ) s e t o u t t o d e c i d e w h i c h w a s s u p e r io r , a u d i-
o l i n g u a l i s m o r c o g n i t i v e c o d e l e a r n i n g . T h e r e s u l t s w e r e i n c o n c l u s i v e , a n d it
a p p e a r e d th a t, a t th e l e v e l o f c l a s s r o o m t e a c h in g , f e w t e a c h e r s a d h e r e d r ig id
ly to o n e m e t h o d ra th e r th a n th e o th e r. In s te a d , t h e y e v o lv e d a r a n g e o f p r a c
t i c e s t h a t r e f l e c t e d t h e i r o w n p e r s o n a l t e a c h i n g s t y l e s . A m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , it
w a s s tu d ie s s u c h as t h e s e th a t g r a d u a lly l e d p e o p l e t o a b a n d o n th e s e a r c h f o r
th e r ig h t m e t h o d .
I n th e 1 9 7 0 s , a s e r ie s o f in v e s t ig a t io n s w e r e c a r r ie d o u t th a t h a d (a n d c o n
tin u e to h a v e ) a g r e a t d e a l o f in flu e n c e o n m e t h o d o lo g y . T h e s e c a m e to b e
k n o w n as th e m o r p h e m e o r d e r s tu d ie s . T h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s e t o u t t o
e x a m in e th e o r d e r in w h i c h c e r t a in ite m s o f g r a m m a r w e r e a c q u ir e d . (F o r a
m ore d e ta ile d d e s c r ip t io n , see N unan, C h a p ter 8, th is v o lu m e .) The
r e s e a r c h e r s c o n c lu d e d f r o m th e ir in v e s t ig a t io n s th r e e s ig n ific a n t p o in t s : o n e ,
th a t t h e r e w a s a n a tu r a l o r d e r in w h ic h g r a m m a r w a s a c q u ir e d ; t w o , th a t
th is o r d e r d id n o t r e f l e c t t h e o r d e r in w h ic h ite m s w e r e t a u g h t; a n d t h r e e , th a t
th e n a t u r a l o r d e r c o u l d n o t b e a lt e r e d b y in s t r u c t io n . A c c o r d i n g to o n e o f th e
r e s e a r c h e r s , th e im p lic a t io n s fo r th e c la s s r o o m w e r e c l e a r : it w a s n o t n e c e s
s a r y t o d r ill g r a m m a r (K r a s h e n , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 2 ). A l l th a t w a s n e e d e d in o r d e r to
te a c h a n o t h e r la n g u a g e w a s to e n g a g e le a r n e r s in n a tu r a l c o m m u n ic a t iv e
ta sk s th a t w e r e r o u g h ly p itc h e d at th e ir le v e l o f p r o f ic ie n c y (K r a s h e n and
T e r r e ll, 1 9 8 3 ).
As you w ill s e e in th e ch a p ter on gram m ar, su bsequ en t research has
d e m o n stra te d th a t a g r a m m a r f o c u s in c la s s d o es s e e m to b e b e n e fic ia l fo r
m o s t le a r n e r s . H o w e v e r , th e in s ig h t s p r o v i d e d by K rash en and o th e r s d id

M e th o d o lo g y 7
 h e l p t o a d v a n c e th e f ie ld , a n d m a n y o f h is s u g g e s t io n s h a v e f o u n d th e ir w a y
in to cu r r e n t m e t h o d o lo g ic a l a p p r o a c h e s .
O u t o f t h e r e s e a r c h ju s t c it e d g r e w t h e q u e s t io n : W h a t k in d s o f c o m m u
n i c a t iv e ta sk s s e e m m o s t b e n e fic ia l fo r s e c o n d la n g u a g e a c q u is itio n ? A g reat
d e a l o f r e s e a r c h h a s g o n e i n t o t h is q u e s t i o n i n t h e l a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s . (F o r a
r e v ie w see N unan, 1999, p a r t ic u la r ly C h a p ter 2 .) W h ile r e s u lts fr o m t h is
research are v a r ie d , one c h a r a c te r is tic th a t s e e m s p a r t ic u la r ly b e n e f i c i a l is
r e q u ir e d i n f o r m a t io n e x c h a n g e ta sk s. T h e s e a r e ta sk s in w h ic h t w o o r m o r e
le a r n e r s , w o r k in g in p a ir s o r s m a ll g r o u p s , h a v e a c c e s s to d iffe r e n t in fo r m a t io n .
T h is i n f o r m a t io n n e e d s to b e s h a r e d in o r d e r f o r th e ta sk to b e c o m p l e t e d s u c
c e s s fu lly . ( A n e x a m p l e o f a r e q u ir e d in f o r m a t io n e x c h a n g e t a s k is p r o v i d e d
b e l o w . ) I t is h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t r e q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n e x c h a n g e t a s k s f o r c e s t u
d e n t s t o n e g o t i a t e w i t h e a c h o t h e r , a n d t h is is h e a l t h y f o r l a n g u a g e d e v e l o p
m e n t b e c a u s e it p u s h e s th e le a r n e r s to r e fo r m u la t e a n d e x t e n d th e ir la n g u a g e .

3. P rin c ip le s fo r la n g u a g e te a c h in g m e th o d o lo g y

1. F o c u s o n t h e le a r n e r .

A le a r n e r -c e n te r e d c la s s r o o m is one in w h ic h le a r n e r s are a c tiv e ly

i n v o l v e d in th e ir o w n le a r n in g p r o c e s s e s . T h e r e a r e t w o d i m e n s i o n s t o th is
l e a r n e r i n v o l v e m e n t . T h e f i r s t o f t h e s e is t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f l e a r n e r s i n m a k
in g d e c is io n s a b o u t w h a t t o le a r n , h o w to le a r n , a n d h o w to b e e v a lu a te d . T h e
s e c o n d is i n m a x i m i z i n g t h e c l a s s t i m e i n w h i c h t h e l e a r n e r s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e
te a c h e r , d o th e w o r k .

R e f l e c t io n

1. W h a t d o y o u th in k s o m e o f th e o b je c tio n s to th e tw o d im e n s io n s o f
le a rn e r in v o lv e m e n t o u tlin e d a b o v e m ig h t b e ?
2. B ra in s to rm p o s s ib le s o lu tio n s to th e s e o b je c tio n s .

I n r e l a t i o n t o t h e f ir s t d i m e n s i o n , i t is s o m e t i m e s a r g u e d t h a t m o s t l e a r n
e rs d o n o t h a v e th e k n o w le d g e o r e x p e r ie n c e to m a k e in fo r m e d d e c is io n s
a b o u t w h a t t o le a r n , h o w t o le a r n , a n d h o w to b e a s s e s s e d . A c c o r d i n g t o th is
v i e w , t h e t e a c h e r i s t h e b o s s , a n d it is t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e
t e a c h e r t o m a k e t h e s e d e c i s i o n s . A c o u n t e r v a i l i n g v i e w is t h a t u l t i m a t e l y i t is
th e l e a r n e r w h o h a s t o d o th e le a r n in g .

8 C h a p te r 1
 O n e p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n t o t h i s d i l e m m a is f o r t h e t e a c h e r t o m a k e m o s t o f
th e d e c is io n s a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e le a r n in g p r o c e s s . T h e n g r a d u a lly , t h r o u g h
a p r o c e s s o f l e a r n e r t r a i n i n g , b e g i n d e v e l o p i n g i n t h e l e a r n e r s t h e s k i ll s t h e y
n e e d in o r d e r t o b e g i n t a k in g c o n t r o l o f th e ir o w n le a r n in g p r o c e s s e s . (S e e
C h r is t is o n , C h a p t e r 13, th is v o lu m e .)
I n f a c t , it is n o t a n a l l o r n o t h i n g i s s u e i n w h i c h e i t h e r t h e t e a c h e r o r t h e
l e a r n e r m a k e s a l l o f t h e d e c i s i o n s . I n m o s t c l a s s r o o m s i t is s o m e w h e r e i n
b e t w e e n , w it h t e a c h e r a n d stu d e n ts n e g o t ia t in g th in g s su c h as w h e n to s u b m it
a s s ig n m e n t s , w h e t h e r t o d o a ta s k in s m a ll g r o u p s o r p a ir s , w h e t h e r t o d o a
r e a d in g ta sk b e fo r e a lis te n in g ta sk o r v ic e -v e r s a , and so on. H ow ever, a
tea ch er w h o is c o m m i t t e d to th is p r i n c ip l e w ill l o o k fo r o p p o r t u n it ie s to
in v o lv e le a r n e r s in b e c o m i n g m o r e r e fle c t iv e a n d in m a k in g m o r e d e c is io n s
a b o u t th e ir o w n le a r n in g .
H e r e a r e s o m e w a y s o f g e t tin g le a r n e r s m o r e i n v o l v e d in th e ir o w n le a r n
i n g p r o c e s s a n d t o g r a d u a l l y t a k e c o n t r o l o f t h a t p r o c e s s . E a c h s t e p e n t a i ls
g r e a te r a n d g r e a te r i n v o l v e m e n t o f le a r n e r s in th e ir o w n le a r n in g p r o c e s s e s .

/ " "\
I n v o l v i n g l e a r n e r s in t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s

1. M a ke in s tru c tio n a l g o a ls c le a r to le a rne rs.

2. H elp le a rn e rs to c re a te th e ir o w n g oa ls.

3. E n c o u ra g e le a rn e rs to u se th e ir s e c o n d la n g u a g e o u ts id e o f th e
c la s s ro o m .

4. H e lp le a rn e rs to b e c o m e m o re a w a re o f le a rnin g p ro c e s s e s and
s tra te g ie s .

5. S h o w le a rn e rs h o w to id e n tify th e ir o w n p re fe rre d s ty le s a nd s tra te g ie s.

6. G ive le a rn e rs o p p o rtu n itie s to m a ke c h o ic e s b e tw e e n d iffe re n t o p tio n s in

th e c la s s ro o m .

7 . Teach le a rn e rs h o w to c re a te th e ir o w n le a rnin g task s.

8. P rovide learners w ith o pp ortu n itie s to m a ster so m e a sp e ct of th e ir second

la n g u a g e and th e n te a c h it to o the rs .

9 . C re a te c o n te x ts in w h ic h le a rn e rs in v e s tig a te la n g u a g e a nd b e c o m e th e ir
o w n re s e a rc h e rs o f la n g u a g e .

(F o r e x a m p le s o f h o w to m a k e th e s e id e a s w o rk in th e c la s s ro o m , se e
N u na n , 1 99 9 .)

F i g u r e 2 Inv o lv in g le a rne rs in th e le a rnin g p ro c e s s

M e th o d o lo g y 9
 2. D e v e lo p y o u r o w n p e r s o n a l m e t h o d o lo g y .

A s w e s a w i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d s e c t i o n o f t h is c h a p t e r , t h e s e a r c h f o r t h e o n e
b e s t m e t h o d w a s e l u s i v e a n d u l t i m a t e l y p r o v e d t o b e fu t ile . W h e n r e s e a r c h e r s
l o o k e d a t w h a t te a c h e r s a c tu a lly d id in th e c la s s r o o m as o p p o s e d to w h a t p r o p o
n e n ts o f o n e m e t h o d o r a n o th e r sa id th e y o u g h t to d o , th e y f o u n d th a t te a c h e rs
h a d a r a n g e o f p r a c t ic e s th a t w e r e w i d e l y u s e d r e g a r d le s s o f th e m e t h o d th a t a n y
g i v e n t e a c h e r w a s s u p p o s e d t o f o l l o w . T h e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e lie s , n o t i n t h e ta s k s
t h e m s e lv e s , b u t in t h e o r d e r i n g a n d p r io r it iz in g o f th e ta sk s. I n o t h e r w o r d s , in
t e r m s o f a c t u a l c l a s s r o o m p r a c t i c e s t h e s a m e t e c h n i q u e s m i g h t b e u s e d , b u t t h e ir
o r d e r in g a n d e m p h a s is w o u l d b e d iffe re n t.
A n o t h e r r e la t e d o b s e r v a t i o n is th a t ju s t a s le a r n e r s h a v e th e ir o w n le a r n
i n g s ty le s , s o t e a c h e r s h a v e t h e ir o w n t e a c h in g s ty le s . T h e y a r e d e r i v e d f r o m
th e ir p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a in in g a n d e x p e r i e n c e a s w e ll a s t h e ir o w n e x p e r i e n c e s as
l e a r n e r s . W h i l e o n e t e a c h e r m i g h t c o r r e c t e r r o r s o v e r t l y , o t h e r s m i g h t d o it
t h r o u g h m o d e l i n g th e c o r r e c t u t t e r a n c e . T h e s e t w o s ty le s a r e e x e m p l i f i e d in
th e fo llo w in g e x a m p le s .

f
E x a m p le 1

S tu d e n t: I g o h o m e a t t h r e e o c lo c k , y e s t e r d a y .
Teacher A : N o . R e m e m b e r L u is , t h e p a s t t e n s e o f g o is w e n t.

r E x a m p le 2

S tu d e n t:
Teacher B :
I g o h o m e a t t h r e e o c lo c k , y e s t e r d a y .
O h , y o u w e n t h o m e a t t h r e e , d id y o u L u i s ?

S im ila r ly , o n e t e a c h e r m a y p r e f e r t o g iv e e x p l i c i t e x p l a n a t i o n a n d p r a c
t i c e o f a n e w g r a m m a r p o i n t b e f o r e g e t t i n g s t u d e n t s t o u s e it i n a c o m m u
n ic a t iv e a c t iv ity . A n o t h e r t e a c h e r m a y p r e f e r t o i n t r o d u c e th e g r a m m a r p o i n t
in th e fo r m o f a c o n t e x t u a liz e d d ia lo g u e a n d o n l y d r a w th e a tte n tio n o f th e
s tu d e n t to th e g r a m m a tic a l fo r m a f t e r t h e y h a v e u s e d it c o m m u n i c a t i v e l y o r
p s e u d o c o m m u n ic a tiv e ly .
W h a t is i m p o r t a n t , t h e n , is t h a t t e a c h e r s d e v e lo p th e ir o w n p r e fe r r e d
c l a s s r o o m p r a c t ic e s b a s e d o n w h a t w o r k s b e s t f o r t h e m in th e ir o w n p a r t ic u
la r situ a tio n a n d c ir c u m s t a n c e s a n d g iv e n th e le a r n e r s t h e y h a v e at th e tim e .
A s c ir c u m s ta n c e s , stu d e n ts, a n d le v e ls o f e x p e r ie n c e c h a n g e , s o w ill th e p r a c
t i c e s . ( I f y o u a r e t e a c h i n g l a r g e c l a s s e s , it m a y n o t b e f e a s i b l e t o d o m u c h p a i r
o r g r o u p w o r k , n o m a t t e r h o w h i g h l y y o u t h i n k o f t h e m .)
T h is is n o t t o say th a t a ll p r a c t ic e s are e q u a lly v a lid fo r a ll le a r n e r s .
E x p e r im e n t w ith d iffe r e n t p r a c t ic e s . T r y o u t n e w id e a s . R e c o r d y o u r le s s o n s ,
o b s e r v e y o u r te a c h in g , i f p o s s ib le h a v e a p e e r o b s e r v e y o u r te a c h in g , a n d
a b o v e a ll r e f l e c t o n w h a t h a p p e n s in y o u r c l a s s r o o m . I f y o u h a v e t im e , k e e p

10 C h a p te r 1
 a r e fle c t iv e jo u r n a l a n d se t o u t o b s e r v a t io n s , q u e s tio n s , c h a lle n g e s , a n d p u z
z le s . E v e n i f y o u h a v e r e la t iv e ly little e x p e r i e n c e , y o u w ill b e s u r p r is e d a t h o w
m u c h y o u c a n le a r n a b o u t p r o c e s s e s o f t e a c h in g a n d le a r n in g b y s y s te m a ti
c a lly r e fle c t in g o n w h a t h a p p e n s in y o u r c la s s r o o m .

P rin c ip le 2 (p a g e s 10-11) m e n tio n s s e lf-o b s e rv a tio n , p e e r o b s e rv a tio n , and

re fle c tiv e jo u rn a ls . B ra in s to rm o th e r w a y s o f o b ta in in g in fo rm a tio n and fe e d b a c k
on y o u r te a c h in g . D e s ig n a plan fo r g e ttin g fe e d b a c k o n y o u r te a c h in g .

3. B u ild in s t r u c t io n a l s e q u e n c e s b a s e d o n a p r e ta s k ,
t a s k , a n d f o llo w - u p c y c le .

S u c c e s s fu l in s tr u c tio n a l sequ en ces sh a re c e r ta in th in g s in com m on ,

r e g a r d le s s o f th e m e t h o d o lo g ic a l p r in c ip le s o r a p p r o a c h e s th a t d r iv e th e m .
F i r s t o f a l l, t h e m a i n t a s k , w h e t h e r it b e a d r i l l , a r o l e - p l a y , o r a l i s t e n i n g c o m
p r e h e n s i o n , is s e t u p th ro u g h one o r m o r e p r e ta s k s . P re ta sk s h a v e several
fu n c t io n s : t o c r e a t e in te r e s t , h e l p b u i ld s t u d e n t s sc h e m a in r e la t io n to th e
t o p ic , in t r o d u c e k e y v o c a b u la r y , r e v is e a g r a m m a t ic a l p o in t , e tc.
F o l l o w i n g t h e p r e t a s k s c o m e s t h e t a s k i t s e lf . T h i s w i l l u s u a l l y c o n s i s t o f
s e v e r a l ste p s o r su b ta sk s. I n th e c o m m u n ic a t iv e c la s s r o o m , th e t e a c h e r w ill
s e e k to m a x im iz e th e tim e th a t th e stu d e n ts a re p r o c e s s in g th e la n g u a g e o r
in t e r a c t in g w ith each oth er (a lth o u g h , o f c o u r s e , th is w ill d e p e n d on th e
r a t io n a le f o r th e in s t r u c t io n a l s e q u e n c e ) . T h e t e a c h e r w ill a ls o c a r e f u lly m o n
ito r th e stu d e n ts to e n s u r e th a t th e y k n o w w h a t th e y a r e s u p p o s e d to d o a n d
a re c a r r y in g o u t th e ta sk s c o r r e c t ly .
F o llo w in g th e ta sk p r o p e r , t h e r e s h o u ld b e s o m e s o r t o f f o llo w - u p . T h is
a ls o h a s a n u m b e r o f fu n c t io n s : to e lic it fe e d b a c k f r o m th e stu d e n ts a b o u t
th e ir e x p e r ie n c e , to p r o v id e fe e d b a c k to th e stu d e n ts o n h o w t h e y h a d d o n e ,
to c o r r e c t e r r o r s th a t th e t e a c h e r m ig h t h a v e n o t ic e d in th e c o u r s e o f th e
in s tr u c tio n a l s e q u e n c e , a n d t o g e t stu d e n ts to r e fle c t o n th e task s a n d e n g a g e
in s e lf-e v a lu a tio n .
A c t io n

S e le c t a la n g u a g e -le a rn in g ta s k fro m a te x tb o o k o r o th e r s o u rc e a nd d e s ig n a

I p re ta s k and fo llo w -u p to it.

4. C la s s ro o m te c h n iq u e s a n d ta s k s
In th is s e c t io n , w e l o o k at s o m e o f th e te c h n iq u e s a n d id e a s th at h a v e
b e e n in t r o d u c e d in th e p r e c e d in g s e c tio n s . T h e r e a r e s o m a n y o f th e s e th a t I

M e th o d o lo g y 11
 h a v e h a d to b e h ig h ly s e le c tiv e . I h a v e ch osen t o o r g a n iz e th is s e c t io n in
t e r m s o f p r e t a s k , ta sk , a n d fo llo w - u p .

P re ta s k A s w e h a v e s e e n , p r e t a s k s h a v e s e v e r a l f u n c t i o n s : t o c r e a t e in t e r e s t ,
h e lp b u ild s tu d e n ts s c h e m a in r e la tio n to th e t o p ic , in t r o d u c e k e y v o c a b u la r y ,
a n d r e v i s e g r a m m a r i t e m s p r i o r t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e t a s k p r o p e r . T h e r e is
a lm o s t n o lim it to th e n u m b e r o f th in g s th a t c a n b e d o n e a t th e p r e ta s k sta g e .
H e r e a re s o m e e x a m p le s :

H a ve s tu d e n ts

lo o k a t a list o f c o m p re h e n s io n q u e s tio n s and try to p re d ic t th e a n s w e rs

b e fo re c a rry in g o u t a lis te n in g ta s k ;
classify a set of w o rd s fo r describing em o tion s as p ositive, neg a tive, and n eu
tra l before reading a m a g azine article a b o ut em o tion s;
p ra c tic e a m o de l c o n v e rs a tio n and th e n in tro d u c e th e ir o w n v a ria tio n s b efore
d o in g a ro le -p la y;
s tu d y a p ic tu re o f a g ro u p o f p eo p le a t a p a rty a nd try to g u e s s w h ic h p e o ple
a re m a rrie d /g o in g o u t w ith e ac h o th e r b e fo re h e a rin g a c o n v e rs a tio n a b o u t
th e c o u p le s ;
b ra in s to rm w a y s in w h ic h c itie s o f th e fu tu re w ill be d iffe re n t fro m n o w b e fo re
w ritin g a n e w s p a p e r a rtic le ;
m a tc h n e w s p a p e r h e a d lin e s and p h o to s b e fo re re a d in g a rtic le s;
c h e c k o ff w o rd s in a v o c a b u la ry list th a t a re a s s o c ia te d w ith living in a fo re ig n
c u ltu re b e fo re lis te n in g to a p e rs o n re c o u n tin g th e ir e x p e rie n c e s o f living
a b roa d ;
ra n k fro m m o st to lea st im p o rta n t a list o f fa c to rs p re d ictin g if a re la tio n s h ip w ill
last b e fo re liste n in g to a m in ile ctu re on th e s u bje c t;
d is c u s s th e b e s t y e a r th e y e v e r had b e fo re ta k in g p a rt in an in fo rm a tio n gap
e x e rc is e ;
lo o k a t p ic tu re s ta k e n fro m a d v e rtis e m e n ts and g u e s s w h a t th e a d s are try in g
to sell b e fo re lis te n in g to th e ads.

Task T h e n u m b e r o f ta sk s th a t c a n b e u s e d to a c tiv a te la n g u a g e in th e c la s s
room is a l s o l a r g e . S o m e o f t h e m o r e p o p u l a r t a s k t y p e s i n t h e c o m m u n i c a
tiv e c la s s r o o m in c lu d e : r o le -p la y s , s im u la tio n s , p r o b l e m - s o lv in g , lis t e n in g to
a u th e n tic a u d i o /v id e o m a te r ia l, d is c u s s io n s , d e c is io n -m a k in g , a n d in fo r m a
tio n g a p s . I n fo r m a t io n g a p task s in w h ic h t w o o r m o r e stu d e n ts h a v e a c c e s s
t o d if f e r e n t i n f o r m a t io n th a t t h e y h a v e t o s h a r e in o r d e r to c o m p l e t e th e ta sk
are p o p u la r b e c a u s e

t h e y w o r k w e ll w ith le a r n e r s at m o s t le v e ls o f p r o f ic ie n c y fr o m p o s t
b e g in n e r to a d v a n c e d ;

stu d e n ts p a r tic ip a te a c tiv e ly ;

12 C h a p te r 1
 a ll s tu d e n ts h a v e t o ta k e p a r t i f th e ta s k is t o w o r k ;

t h e y w o r k w e ll w ith m i x e d le v e l g r o u p s .

H e r e is a n e x a m p l e o f a n i n f o r m a t i o n g a p t a s k . T h i s t a s k is p e r s o n a l i z e d
in th a t th e s tu d e n ts c r e a t e th e ir o w n i n f o r m a t io n g a p b a s e d o n c o n t e n t f r o m
th e ir o w n liv e s .

I E x a m p le

M a ke a n ote o f th e th in g s yo u h ave to do th is w e e k. L ea v e tw o s p a c e s fre e.

r _ M o n da y T u es d a y W e d n e sd ay T h ursd a y F rida y \

A fte rn o o n

E ve n in g

J
N o w w o rk w ith tw o o th e r s tu d e n ts . A rra n g e a tim e to se e a m o vie. You m ig h t
h ave to c h a n g e y o u r s ch e d u le .

R e f le c t io n

1. W h a t le v e l o f p ro fic ie n c y d o y o u th in k th e ta s k a b o v e is d e s ig n e d fo r?
2. W h a t la n g u a g e d o y o u im a g in e th a t s tu d e n ts w ill n e e d to u s e ?
3. W h a t la n g u a g e fu n c tio n s a re th e s tu d e n ts p ra c tic in g ?

D e sign y o u r o w n in fo rm a tio n g a p task . S p e c ify th e vo c ab u la ry, g ra m m a r, and

s tru c tu re s th a t yo u th in k th e s tu d e n ts w ill nee d in o rd e r to c o m p le te th e task.

F o llo w -u p As a lr e a d y in d ic a te d , th e fo llo w -u p phase a lso p r o v id e s lo t s o f

s c o p e . T h e te a c h e r c a n g iv e fe e d b a c k to th e stu d en ts, d e b r ie f th e m on som e
a s p e c t o f th e p r e c e d in g task , o r e n c o u r a g e th e m to r e fle c t o n w h a t t h e y le a r n e d
a n d h o w w e ll th e y a re d o in g .

M e th o d o lo g y 13
 H e r e a r e s o m e e x a m p l e s o f r e f l e c t i o n ta sk s.

I E x a m p le

1. W rite d ow n five n e w w o rd s you lea rne d in to d a y s lesson. W rite s e nte n c e s

using th ree o f th e s e n ew w o rd s. W rite d ow n th ree n ew s e nte n c e s or q u e s
tio n s you learned.

2. R e v ie w th e la n g u a g e fu n c tio n s yo u p ra c tic e d in th is lesso n. C irc le y o u r

a n sw e rs.

C a n y o u ...
ta lk a b o u t p a s t e v e n ts ? Y es A little N o t ye t
g iv e and re c e iv e m e s s a g e s ? Y es A little N ot y e t

3. W h a t w o u ld yo u s a y ?

Y o u r b e s t frie n d in vite s yo u to h is /h e r b irth d a y p a rty b ut yo u c a n t

m a ke it.
You s a y _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

You w a n t s o m e o n e to g e t yo u a b o o k fro m th e library.

You s a y -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. R e v ie w th e la n g u a g e w e p ra c tic e d today. In g ro up s, b ra in s to rm w a y s to
u se th is la n g u a g e o u t of c la ss . Im a gin e yo u are v is itin g an E ng lis h-
sp e a k in g country. W h e re and w h e n m ig h t you need th is la n g u a g e ?

5. M e th o d o lo g y in th e c la s s ro o m

R e f l e c t io n

W h a t is g oing on in E x tra ct 1 (p ag e 1 5 -1 6 )? Is th e e x tra c t ta k en fro m a p reta sk ,

tas k, o r fo llo w -u p ? W h a t is the p u rp o se o f th e in s tru c tio n a l s e q u e n c e ?

14 C h a p te r 1
E x tra c t 1

T stan d s fo r teacher. S re pre s en ts a p articular student. S s stan d s fo r students.

S 1 : T ourist, visito r, tra ve le r, s tu d en t.

S2: S tu d en t.
S1: Y eah.

S2: M u s t b e th a t o n e , y e a h .

T: W h y d o y o u t h in k w h y is s tu d e n t t h e o d d o n e o u t ?

S2: O h , to u ris t, visito r, tra v e le r ... T h e y a r e m o v in g .

S3: Y eah.

S1: T h e y a r e g o in g .

S2: T h e y h a v e s o m e t h in g in c o m m o n , n o ?

T: Y e a h , y e a h . B u t I d lik e y o u t o s a y w h a t i t is t h a t t h e y h a v e in c o m m o n ,
y o u k n o w ? H o w w o u ld y o u d e s c r ib e it ?

S3: O K , s e c o n d . In ve s tig a te , d e te rm in e , e x plo re , in qu ire. I t h in k ,

d e te rm in e ...
S1: D e term in e .
S3: Y e a h , b e c a u s e in v e s tig a te , in qu ire, e x p lo re is . ..

S1: S ynonym ous, synonym ous.

S3: . . . m e a n s t o k n o w s o m e t h in g . M m m . O K .

S1: T h ir d . Elderly, in te llig en t, stupidly, a n d ta lka tive . In te llig e n t a n d stupidly,

y o u k n o w . I t h i n k t h e y h a v e , e r, s o m e r e la t io n s b e t w e e n b e c a u s e t h e r e
is t h e o p p o s it e m e a n in g s .

S3: H o w a b o u t , e r, e ld e rly a n d ta lk a tiv e ?

S 2 : T a lk a tiv e w h a t m e a n s ta lk a tiv e ?

S1: Y e a h , to o m u c h .

S 2 : Ta lka tive.

S1: H o w a b o u t t h e e ld e rly ?

S 3 : A d je c t iv e .

S1: H a d a m o r e e x p e r ie n c e a n d t h e y g e t t h e m o r e .. .

S3: In te llige nt, s tu p id ly m a y b e t h a t t h e p a r t o f t h e h u m a n b e i n g . . . w h ic h

is , I t h i n k . . . O K . O h . ..

S1: W a it. W a it a m in u t e . O K , t h is is , t h is is d i f f e r e n t a d . . . k in d o f a d je c t iv e
th a t t h e ....

S2: O K , a l l r ig h t .

T: S o , w h ic h o n e d id y o u d e c id e ?

M e t h o d o lo g y 15
 Ss; E lderly, elderly.
T : W h y s t h a t ?

S2: B e c a u s e , e r, i t s q u it e d if f e r e n t t h is , b e c a u s e t h is m a t c h w it h y o u r a g e ,
w it h y o u r a g e , a n d t h e o t h e r o n e is w it h y o u r . .. k in d o f p e r s o n t h a t
y o u a re .

T: P e r s o n a lit y .

S2: P e r s o n a lit y , y e a h .

S1: E r, utilize, uncover, reveal, disclose. Y e a h , th is is utilize. U ncover, reveal,

d is c lo s e a ll o f t h e m t h e s a m e m e a n in g . U ncover, reveal, disclose.

S2: U n c o v e r? W h a t s u n c o v e r?
S1: Y o u k n o w , c o v e r a n d u n c o v e r ( g e s tu r e s ) .

S2: O h . R e ve al. O K .

S3: G ood.

T : B u t h o w w o u ld y o u d e f in e . . . h o w w o u ld y o u d e f in e t h o s e t h r e e w o r d s ?
W h a t is . . . w h a t w o u ld b e t h e d ic t io n a r y d e f in it io n o f t h o s e t h r e e w o r d s ?

S3: Y o u m e a n t h e u n c o v e r a n d re v e a l?

T : R eveal a n d d isc lo se . W h a t is t h e . .. w h a t is t h e m e a n in g t h a t t h e y s h a r e ?

S2: T o f in d s o m e t h in g a n d t o . ..

S1: U n c over, re ve ale d .

S 3 : A n d t h e o t h e r o n e d o e s n t h a v e a n y t h in g t o d o w it h f in d . T h e o t h e r
o n e m e a n s t h e o p p o s it e o f d o in g s o m e t h in g .

C o m m e n ta ry T h e s e q u e n c e is t a k e n f r o m a p r e t a s k d e s i g n e d t o p r e s e n t a n d
r e v ie w s o m e k e y v o c a b u la r y th a t th e stu d e n ts w o u ld e n c o u n t e r in th e task
p r o p e r a s e l e c t i v e l i s t e n i n g t a s k .
H e r e is th e h a n d o u t t h e y w e r e w o r k i n g f r o m :

/ " "\
S p o t th e o dd w o rd o u t. [T h e w o rd th a t d o e s n t b elo n g in e ac h list.]

E x a m p le : ra d io , c o m p u te r, v id e o , te le v is io n

D is c u s s th e fo llo w in g w o rd s . P ut a c irc le a ro u n d th e o dd w o rd o u t and sa y

w h y it is th e o d d w o rd .

1. to u ris t, v isitor, tra ve le r, s tu d e n t

2. in v e s tig a te , d e te rm in e , e x p lo re , in q u ire
3. e lderly, in te llig e n t, stup idly, ta lk a tiv e
4. u tilize , u nc o v e r, re ve al, d is c lo s e

C h a p te r 1
 E x t r a c t 1 is i n t e r e s t i n g f r o m a n u m b e r o f p e r s p e c t i v e s . T h e s t u d e n t s n e g o
tia te a n d c o l la b o r a t e w e ll t o c o m p l e t e th e ta sk . T h e t e a c h e r a ls o d o e s a g o o d
jo b o f k e e p in g th e stu d e n ts o n tra c k a n d p u s h in g th e m to d e s c r ib e w h a t th e
w o r d s h a v e in c o m m o n .
In th e e x tr a c t, th e tw o p a r tic ip a n ts h a v e h e a r d tw o d iffe r e n t in t e r v ie w in g
c o m m it t e e s d is c u s s in g th e r e la tiv e m e r its o f t h r e e a p p lic a n ts f o r a j o b . T h e ir
t a s k is t o s h a r e t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n a n d d e c i d e w h i c h o f t h e t h r e e w o u l d b e t h e
b e s t p e r s o n fo r th e jo b .

| E x tr a c t 2

A : A r e y o u t a l k in g a b o u t A la n o r G e o f f r e y ? J u s t t h e f ir s t n a m e .

B: W e ll, I u n d e r s t o o d I w a s t a lk in g a b o u t G e o f fr e y , y e a h ? Is t h a t c o r r e c t ?

A : N o t a t a ll.

B: N o t a t a ll. S o I h a v e c o n f u s e d t h e m a n , h a v e I ? I v e m a d e a m is t a k e
h e r e . W h o . .. w h o a r e y o u . . . c a n y o u . .. ? W h a t n o t e s d o y o u h a v e o n
R i c h a r d s ? S e e i f w e c a n g e t t h is s o r t e d o u t fir s t.

A : W e r e t a lk in g a b o u t G e o f fr e y , r i g h t ? A n d h e s c e r t a in ly t h e m a n t h a t h a d
a v e r y g o o d r e p o r t . H e k n o w s t h e jo b , a n d I d o n t s e e w h y w e s h o u ld a t
a ll d is c u s s t h is b e c a u s e i t is s o o b v i o u s to m e .

B: W e ll, i t c o u ld v e r y w e ll b e t h a t I 'm c o n f u s in g t h e n a m e s o f t h e p e o p le
in v o lv e d , s o l e t s m a k e s u r e w e r e t a lk in g a b o u t t h e s a m e p e o p le .

A : H o w a b o u t A la n ?

B: B u t h e s a f o r e m a n r a t h e r t h a n a s u p e r v is o r , I u n d e r s t a n d , a n d t h is is
b a s i c a ll y a u n io n j o b . . . I m e a n I . . . m y in f o r m a t io n is t h a t a ll t h e s e
p e o p le a r e o c c u p y in g m o r e o r le s s t h e s a m e r a n k .

A : Y e s , b u t I m e a n , e r, I a g r e e , t h e y a r e a ll, e r m , f o r e m e n . S u p e r v is o r , b y
t h e w a y , is t h e s a m e t o m e . I s n t i t t o y o u ?

B: U m , n o , i t s n o t q u i t e t h e s a m e t h in g t o m e . A f o r e m a n is , u h , s o m e
w h a t lo w e r o n t h e r a n g e , r ig h t ?

R e f le c t io n
In E x trac t 2, th e le a rn e rs s e e m c o n fu s e d a b o u t th e id e n titie s o f th e in d iv id ua ls .
In w h a t w a ys d o e s th is h elp th e ir la n g u a g e d e v e lo p m e n t? In w h a t w a y s d o e s it
h u rt it?

M e th o d o lo g y 17
 C o m m e n ta ry A t fir st s ig h t, it a p p e a r s th a t th e t e a c h e r in E x t r a c t 2 h a s p r o b
a b l y n o t s e t u p t h i s t a s k v e r y w e l l . T h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n f u s i o n o v e r t h e
id e n t it y o f th e in d iv id u a ls b e i n g i n t e r v ie w e d . H o w e v e r , th is w a s e x a c t ly th e
pu rpose o f th e ta sk . B o t h stu d en ts had d iffe r e n t, and s lig h tly c o n flic t in g ,
i n f o r m a t io n o n t h e t h r e e p a r t ic ip a n t s , a n d th is l e d t o c o n s i d e r a b l e n e g o t ia t io n
b e t w e e n th e t w o stu d e n ts. A s w e s a w in th e b a c k g r o u n d s e c t io n , s u c h n e g o
t ia tio n is h y p o t h e s i z e d t o b e h e a lt h y f o r la n g u a g e a c q u is it io n .

R e f le c t io n

E x trac t 3 is a fe e d b a c k s e s s io n fo llo w in g a task . W h a t do yo u th in k th e ta s k

w a s ? W h a t do y o u n o tic e a b o u t th e w a y th e te a c h e r c o n d u c ts the
s e s s io n ? W h a t is th e p u rp o s e o f th e fo llo w -u p ?

| E x tra c t 3

T: O K , l e t s c h e c k y o u r r e s p o n s e s . A t s c h o o l?

S s: Y es, y e s .

T : A t a p a r ty ?

S: Yes.

S: No.

T: N e v e r b e e n t o a p a r t y ? O h , y o u p o o r t h in g , (laughter,) A t t h e m o v ie s ?

S s: N o, no.

T : N o ? W h y n o t?

S s: (In a u d ib le c o m m e n ts a nd laughter.,)
T: W h a t a b o u t a t a s h o p p in g c e n t e r ?

S s: No.

T : S p o rts e v e n t?

S s: Yes. N o .

T: W hy?

S: N o t a t s p o r ts e v e n t.

S: W h a t s p o r ts e v e n t?

S: B a s e b a l l g a m e . S t a d iu m .

S: S t a d iu m . S t a d iu m . Y e s .

T: Y o u m e a n w a tc h in g ?

S: W a t c h in g , y e a h .

18 C h a p te r 1
S: O r p la y in g t e n n is .

(T h e re is s o m e c o n fu s e d d is c u s s io n a m o n g th e students.,)
T: O K , d if f e r e n c e o f o p i n io n t h e r e . W h a t a b o u t a t a c o n c e r t ?

S: No.

T: N o ?

(L a u g h te r)
T: W h a t a b o u t a t a f r ie n d s h o u s e ?

S s: Y es. Y es.

S: N o . (Laughter,)

T : N o a s w e ll. D o n t y o u h a v e a n y f r ie n d s e it h e r ?

S: I d i d n t m e e t n e w p e o p le .

T: N e w p e o p le . O K . W h a t o th e r , w h a t o t h e r p la c e s c a n y o u m e e t ?

S: P a r t - t im e jo b .

T: P a r t - t im e jo b .

(E xc ite d m u rm u rin g )
T: Y e a h ! G o o d o n e . Y eah. A n y m o re ?

S: C h u rc h .

T: C h u rc h .

(S c a tte re d L a u g h te r)
S ; T r a v e l, t r a v e l, t r a v e lin g .
T: T r a v e lin g .

S: S o m e p e o p le m e e t n e w p e o p le a t b e a c h o r, e r, s w im m in g p o o l.

T: OK.

(L a u g h te r and te a s in g o f s tu d e n t m a k in g th is re m a rk .)
T: I s t h is w h e r e y o u m e e t n e w p e o p le ? (L a u g h te r)

S: Huh?

T: Is t h is w h e r e y o u m e e t n e w p e o p le ?

S: Y e a h . (L a u g h te r)

T : A n y o th e rs ?

S: E r . . . o r g a n iz a t io n s .

T: O r g a n iz a t io n s ? W h a t k in d ?

S: O h , lik e , e r, e n v ir o n m e n t a l g r o u p o r . . .

T: E n v i r o n m e n t a l g r o u p s t h a t s g o o d . O K . I t h i n k I l l h a v e t o p u t s o m e o f
t h e s e o n m y li s t b e c a u s e t h e y r e v e r y in t e r e s t in g .

M e th o d o lo g y 19
 C o m m e n ta ry I n t h i s s e c t i o n , t h e t e a c h e r is c o n d u c t i n g a d e b r i e f i n g a n d e l i c
itin g fe e d b a c k fr o m th e stu d en ts. S tu d e n ts had c o m p le te d a r e a d in g ta sk
a b o u t h o w a n d w h e r e s in g le m e n a n d w o m e n in th e U n it e d S ta te s m e e t e a c h
o t h e r a n d th e n t o o k p a r t in a p a ir a n d g r o u p w o r k ta sk b a s e d o n th e f o l l o w
in g w o rk s h e e t.

P a i r w o r k . In y o u r c o u n t r y , w h e r e c a n y o u m e e t n e w p e o p l e ?

Yes No

At school

A t a p arty

A t th e m o v ie s

A t a s h op p in g c e n te r

A t a s p o rts e v en t

A t a c o n c e rt

A t a frie n d s hom e

Y o u r idea:

Y our idea:

Y o u r idea:
)

6. C o n c lu s io n
I n th is s e c t io n , I h a v e p r o v i d e d a b a s ic i n t r o d u c t i o n t o la n g u a g e t e a c h in g
m e t h o d o l o g y , s k e t c h in g o u t h o w t h e f i e ld h a s e v o l v e d o v e r th e la s t f o r t y y e a r s ,
a n d th en lo o k e d at c o n t e m p o r a r y a p p r o a c h e s w ith in th e c o n t e x t o f a c o m
m u n ic a tiv e a p p r o a c h to la n g u a g e te a c h in g . T h is h a d to b e a s e le c tiv e in tr o
d u c tio n . A c o m p r e h e n s iv e te x t o n la n g u a g e te a c h in g m e t h o d o lo g y w o u ld b e
h u n d r e d s o f p a g e s in le n g th . I h o p e , h o w e v e r , th a t it p r o v i d e s a p la t f o r m y o u
c a n b u i l d o n w h e n y o u r e a d th e r e s t o f th e c h a p t e r s in th is v o l u m e .

20 C h a p te r 1
F u rth e r re a d in g s

C e lc e -M u r c ia , M . (e d .) 2 0 0 1 . Teaching E nglish as a S econd or Foreign Language.

T h ir d E d ition . B o s to n , M A : H e in le & H e in le .

T h is e d it e d v o lu m e is o n e o f t h e s t a n d a r d w o r k s in t h e f ie ld . It c o v e r s a ll a s p e c t s o f
la n g u a g e t e a c h in g m e t h o d o lo g y , a n d m a n y c h a p t e r s w o u ld b e e x c e lle n t f o llo w - u p

r e a d in g t o t h e c h a p t e r s in t h is v o lu m e .

N u n a n , D . 1 9 9 9 . Second L an gu age Teaching a n d L earn in g. B o s t o n , M A : H e i n l e &

H e in le .

T h is b o o k p r o v id e s a n in t r o d u c t io n , r a t io n a le , r e s e a r c h b a s is , a n d c la s s r o o m p r o c e

d u r e s f o r t a s k - b a s e d l a n g u a g e t e a c h in g .

R ic h a r d s J . a n d W . R e n a n d y a (e d s .) 2 0 0 2 . M ethodology in L an guage Teaching.

C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P re ss .

A n e d it e d c o l le c t io n o f r e p r in t s o n a ll a s p e c t s o f m e t h o d o lo g y , t h is v o lu m e p r o v id e s

a n o v e r v ie w o f c u r r e n t a p p r o a c h e s , is s u e s , a n d p r a c t i c e s in t e a c h in g E n g lis h to

s p e a k e r s o f o t h e r la n g u a g e s .

H e lp f u l W e b s it e

C e n te r fo r A p p lie d L in g u is tic s , W a s h in g to n D C
(h t t p ://w w w .c a l.o r g / e r ic c ll)

T h is W e b s it e h a s m a n y u s e f u l r e s o u r c e s , in c lu d in g p a p e r s , b i b li o g r a p h ie s , a n d

li n k s t o o t h e r W e b s it e s o f r e le v a n c e t o l a n g u a g e t e a c h in g m e t h o d o lo g y .

R e fe re n c e s

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