Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
with Abaqus
Motivation
Tire
Mount
Bushing
Boot
Day 1
Workshop 1
Workshop 3
Additional Material
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Revision Status
Lecture 1 3/09 Updated for 6.9 Workshop 1 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 2 3/09 Updated for 6.9 Workshop 2 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 3 3/09 Updated for 6.9 Workshop 3 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 4 3/09 Updated for 6.9 Workshop Answers 2 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 5 3/09 Updated for 6.9 Workshop Answers 3 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 6 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 7 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 8 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 9 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 10 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 11 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Appendix 1 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Appendix 2 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Appendix 3 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Appendix 4 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Appendix 5 3/09 Updated for 6.9
5
Notes
6
Rubber Physics
Lecture 1
L1.2
Overview
Solid Rubber
Network Structure
Vulcanization
Temperature and Time Dependence
Damage
Real Stress - Strain Response
Anisotropy
Rubber Foams
Cellular Structure
Compressive vs. Tensile Behavior
L1.4
L1.6
Temperature dependence
The mobility of these long-chain molecules is strongly temperature
dependent.
At extremely low temperatures (relative to the glass transition
temperature) the chains are very immobile and the material
behaves as a brittle or glassy solid very stiff.
At higher temperatures the long-chain molecules are more mobile
and the material exhibits what we call a rubbery behavior.
Even in the rubbery regime, the long-chain mobility is still quite
temperature dependent and the force-displacement behavior, stress-
strain behavior, or modulus becomes softer as the temperature rises.
Viscoelastic behavior
The sliding of entangled long-chain molecules gives rise to rubbers
time-dependent or viscoelastic behavior
L1.8
Hysteresis behavior
Long-molecules rub against each other (dissipate energy). In a
load/unload cycle this appears as hysteresis.
Dissipated energy appears as heat.
Idealized
behavior
L1.10
Anisotropy
Certain elastomers such as fiber-reinforced or particle-filled rubbers and
soft biological tissues exhibit anisotropic behavior.
axial
circumferential
Rubber Foams
12
L1.13
Rubber Foams
L1.14
L1.16
Rubber Foams
15
16
Notes
17
Notes
18
Rubber Elasticity Models
Lecture 2
L2.2
Overview
Introduction
Solid Rubber Models
Automatic Material Evaluation
Choosing a Strain Energy Function
Mullins Effect
Foam Rubber Model
L2.4
Introduction
Introduction
21
L2.7
Abaqus includes many different models for solid rubber. Each model
defines the strain energy function in a different way.
Physically-motivated models:
Physically-motivated models consider the material response from
the viewpoint of the microstructure.
The rubber is idealized as long chains of cross-linked polymeric
molecules.
Models based on phenomenological theory:
Phenomenological theory treats the problem from the viewpoint of
continuum mechanics.
A mathematical framework is constructed to characterize the
observed stress-strain behavior without reference to the
microscopic structure.
L2.8
Phenomenological models
Polynomial (order N) 2N
Mooney-Rivlin (1st order) 2
Reduced polynomial (independent of I 2 ) N
Neo-Hookean (1st order) 1
3
Yeoh (3rd order)
2N
Ogden (order N)
N/A
Marlow (independent of I 2 )
L2.10
L2.12
Neo-Hookean Model
Earliest rubber material model
from the 1930s.
Cannot capture the upturn in
the stress-strain curve.
Good approximation at small
strains.
Simple to use.
Single material shear parameter:
1
U C10 ( I1 3) ( J el 1)2 .
D1
Positive C10 guarantees stability
but produces curves of fixed Note that in this figure, a better
shape; D1 controls fit would result if the last two
compressibility. data points were omitted.
L2.14
2
0 2(C10 C01 ) K0
D1
L2.16
3 3
1
U Ci 0 ( I1 3)i ( J el 1)2i .
i 1 i 1
Di
Ogden Model
The Ogden model is also a phenomenological model.
Ogden (1972) proposed using the principal stretches instead of
invariants.
This model also uses real powers (rather than integer powers); this
allows a great deal of model accuracy.
N N
2 1
U 2
i
( 1 i
2
i
3
i
3) ( J el 1)2i ,
i 1 i i 1
Di
L2.18
Arruda-Boyce Model
This model is also called the Arruda-Boyce 8-chain model because it
was developed based on a representative volume (hexahedron) element
where 8 chains emanate from the center to the corners of the volume.
This is a two-parameter shear model, based only on I1:
5
Ci 1 J el2 1
U (I i
2i 2 1
i
3) ( ln( J el )).
i 1 m D 2
L2.20
- Changing the initial shear modulus scales the curve in the vertical
(stress) direction.
- Changing the locking stretch m scales the curve in the horizontal
(strain) direction.
- Changing the interaction parameter a changes the shape of the
curve.
- The linear mixture parameter controls the relative shape changes
of the different deformation modes.
forces an I1 model
L2.22
Marlow Model
The Marlow model is a general
first invariant model that can Marlow model response
exactly reproduce the test data
from one of the standard modes
of loading (uniaxial, biaxial, or
planar)
No curve fit required.
The responses for the other Gum stock data
L2.24
U U dev ( I1 ) U vol ( J el )
L2.26
The hyperelastic
material curve
fitting capability
allows you to
compare different
hyperelastic
models with the
test data.
L2.28
Evaluation procedure
Unit cube datacheck
Key features
Only batch preprocessing required
Evaluation is robust
No licensing issues
Works with either analysis product; uses no solver tokens
L2.30
L2.32
Mullins Effect
L2.34
The foam rubber model uses an energy function similar to that used in
the Ogden model, but it is designed for highly compressible elastic
foams.
The implementation in Abaqus follows the same procedure as the
implementation of the Ogden material model.
The model should be calibrated using test data corresponding to the
dominant deformation mode (tension or compression).
N
2 i 1
U 2 1
i
2
i
3
i
3 ( J el i i
1) ,
i 1 i i
i
The user inputs rather than : i .
1 2 i
36
Notes
37
Notes
38
Physical Testing
Lecture 3
L3.2
Overview
Modes of Deformation
Uniaxial Tension
Planar Tension
Uniaxial Compression
Equibiaxial Tension
Volumetric Compression
Loading History
Summary
L3.4
Modes of Deformation
Modes of Deformation
L3.6
Modes of Deformation
L3.8
Measure strain only in the region where a uniform state of strain exists
Use non-contact
measurements:
Laser Extensometer
Video Extensometer
L3.10
Modes of Deformation: Planar Tension,
aka Plane Strain Tension
Strain measurement is
particularly critical
Some material flows
from the grips
The effective height is
smaller than starting
height so >10:1
width:height is needed
Requirements:
Uniaxial loading
No lateral constraint
L3.12
Why?
Same strain state as
compression
Cannot do pure
compression
Can do pure biaxial
L3.14
L3.16
L3.18
Confined compression
Technically, this test is called a confined compression test. We make
use of the fact that for solid rubber the bulk modulus is much higher than
the shear modulus. At very low stress the material shears to fill the rigid
container, and the response is dominated by the bulk (volumetric)
properties of the material.
L3.20
Loading History
49
L3.23
Loading History
1.2
1.0
0.8
Stress (MPa)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Strain
L3.24
Loading History
1.2
1.0
0.8
Stress (MPa)
Initial Loading
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Strain
Loading History
Consistency
Be careful that the real component and the test specimen share the
same load history and pre-conditioning.
Is the analysis for a 1st load condition (installation for instance)?
Then test the virgin material.
Is the analysis for a repeated use condition?
Then test the specimen after pre-conditioning.
Be careful to test at consistent strain rates for each deformation mode.
Test at strain rates consistent with the real component use situation.
L3.26
Loading History
L3.28
Biaxial
Tensile Volumetric
Planar tension
Summary
53
L3.31
Summary
54
Notes
55
Notes
56
Curve Fitting
Lecture 4
L4.2
Overview
Material Stability
L4.4
Remember all the things learned about polynomial least squares curve
fitting.
Material models, especially the phenomenological ones, have no basis
in rubber physics, not material law.
Data points are nothing but weight points in the procedure.
To enhance fit in certain strain range, increase the number of data points
in that range (or reduce the number of data points elsewhere).
Abaqus does the curve fitting as part of the datacheck phase of a job.
The material evaluation capability of Abaqus/CAE automates this.
To manually perform the curve fits and generate stress-strain data
for plotting, see Abaqus Benchmark Problem 3.1.4, Fitting of rubber
test data.
L4.6
Check Stability. The curve fitting process does not guarantee a stable
material model. It is up to you to check. Besides a visual check, you can
check the stability limits in the Material Parameters and Stability Limit
Information dialog box of Abaqus/CAE or in the data (.dat) file.
We have made some comments about model coefficients as an indicator
of material stability; in general, a set of all positive coefficients
guarantees stability. However, some negative coefficients do not
necessarily mean the model is unstable (it just means it might be
unstable). Typically lower-order models have fewer stability problems.
L4.8
Material Stability
Stability
What do we mean by material stability?
Drucker postulate: 0.
Graphically, in a stress vs. strain plot:
Instability Point
Stress
Strain
Material Stability
L4.10
Material Stability
Material Stability
L4.12
Material Stability
Material Stability
63
L4.15
L4.16
L4.18
To display context-sensitive
help for specific buttons, text
fields, and other options in the
Test Data Editor, you must
select the option of interest
and then press F1.
St = simple tension
_treloar = test data from Treloar
_abq = stress strain format
Click OK in the ASCII File Selection dialog
box.
Click OK in the Read Data from ASCII File
dialog box.
L4.20
L4.22
We are finished with test data input, so click OK in the Edit Material
dialog box.
L4.24
L4.26
Ogden Form, N = 2.
L4.28
Material stability
Material coefficients and stability information for each of the selected
models is automatically displayed in the Material Parameters and Stability
Limit Information dialog box.
L4.30
L4.32
Curve options
The XY Curve Options can be used to modify the line and symbol
attributes for each data set. Line color, line style, and line thickness can
be modified. You can choose to show or not show the line. Several
symbol types are available. You can choose to show symbols or not;
and you can modify the symbol types, symbol size, symbol color, and
symbol frequency.
Select the st_treloar data set, and click Show symbol. Set the symbol
color to Orange, the symbol type to +, and the symbol size to Large.
Suppress the visibility of the line.
Select the other three uniaxial data sets ([Shift]+Click), and do the
following:
Choose a solid line style, increase the line thickness one level and toggle off
Show symbol.
Set the line color of R_POLY_N1 to red; POLY_N1 to blue; and OGDEN_N2 to
green.
Edit the legend text to remove rubber_1 at the end of the description.
L4.34
Axis options
Double-click the X-axis; change the scale to range from a min value of
0.0 to a max value of 4.5; change the axis font to 12 bold Arial and the
title to Engineering Strain and the title font to 18 bold Arial.
Double-click the Y-axis; change the scale to range from a min value of
0.0 to a max value of 2.0; change the axis font to 12 bold Arial and the
title to Engineering Stress (MPa) and the title font to 18 bold Arial.
Legend options
Double-click the legend.
In the Contents tabbed page of the Chart Legend Options dialog box,
change the legend font size to 12.
In the Area tabbed page of the dialog box, toggle on Inset.
Dismiss the dialog box.
Drag the legend over the chart.
L4.36
L4.38
L4.40
L4.42
A few notes
Recall, if you input no D values, the material is incompressible (bulk
modulus is infinite).
This is okay for the vast majority of analyses where there is plenty of
room for the material to shear.
Compressibility information is needed when the part is highly confined;
seals, especially O-rings, can be highly confined.
Data for volumetric is in the form of Pressure, Volume Ratio
Volume ratio is J = 1 2 3.
Cannot perform volumetric curve fit alone. This is because you are
always curve fitting an energy potential you always need to calculate
the deviatoric part. Must include simple tension, equibiaxial, or planar
data.
Typical K = 2000 MPa = 290,000 psi 2 2
K and D1
Typical D1 = 0.001 1/MPa = 7E 6 1/psi D1 K
L4.44
Volumetric response
The single element model created for
plotting the curve fit response is a unit
cube undergoing volumetric deformation.
Data is input as Pressure and Volume
Strain. The default XY plot is generated
using Pressure and Volume Strain.
For the Test Setup the input data source
defaults to Test data and both Uniaxial and
Volumetric will be chosen (highlighted) by
default. Under the Standard Tests area
select only Volumetric; the Volume Ratio
range is chosen by default.
For the Strain Energy Potential de-select
the defaults and select only the Neo-
Hookean model for curve fitting. Our
concern will be the calculation of the value
of D1.
Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus
L4.46
L4.48
81
Notes
82
Abaqus Usage
Lecture 5
L5.2
Lecture Overview
Introduction
Test Data Guidelines
Abaqus Test Data Usage
Choosing a Strain Energy Function
Defining a UHYPER user subroutine
Mullins Effect
Hyperfoam Material Model
L5.4
Introduction
Material
description
Introduction
Click mouse
button 3
Nominal stress
and strain
L5.6
Introduction
Entering coefficients
Temperature-dependent
coefficients
Introduction
With both polynomial models and Ogden model enter the order, N, of the
series expansion.
L5.8
Introduction
Introduction
L5.10
Introduction
Introduction
L5.12
Introduction
Suitable elements
The hyperelastic and hyperfoam material models can be used with solid,
truss, beam, rebar, and finite-strain shell elements.
- They cannot be used with S4 shell elements.
- They have not been implemented for use with small-strain shell
elements (S4R5, S8R, S8R5, S9R5, etc.)
- The hyperelastic material model, when incompressible, must be used
with hybrid elements.
- The hyperfoam material model is quite compressible and therefore
should not be used with hybrid elements.
L5.14
Test availability
The availability of sufficient and accurate test data is the most significant
factor in choosing a rubber material model.
Use data from as many modes of deformation as possible
Uniaxial tension and compression
Planar tension and compression
Equibiaxial tension and compression
If compressibility is important, volumetric compressibility (Ds) must also
be specified.
For example, highly confined applications such as O-rings under
significant compression.
L5.16
Damage
It is not uncommon for elastomers to exhibit elasticity damage and
hysteresis during the cyclic loading. As shown in the figure, a few cycles
of loading result in a decrease in stiffnessthis is termed Mullins effect.
Abaqus provides a material model to capture Mullins effect.
To calibrate the model, supply data
from several loading cycles for
analyses of components that are
in repeated use conditions.
If you do not wish to model
Mullins effect, pre-condition the
test specimen prior to testing.
Test virgin specimens for a 1st-use
component analysis (installation).
L5.18
L5.20
L5.22
Typical Usage
*MATERIAL, NAME=VITON
*HYPERELASTIC, POLYNOMIAL, N=1, TEST DATA INPUT
*UNIAXIAL TEST DATA
0.00,0.00
0.03,0.02 data lines are
0.15,0.10 nominal stress, nominal strain
0.23,0.20
...
*PLANAR TEST DATA Suboptions of
... *HYPERELASTIC
*BIAXIAL TEST DATA
...
*VOLUMETRIC TEST DATA (to define optional
compressibility)
...
*EXPANSION (to define optional CTE)
...
*VISCOELASTICITY (to define optional time-
dependency)
...
Volumetric
*VOLUMETRIC TEST DATA (to define optional compressibility)
pressure_1, volume_ratio_1
pressure_2, volume_ratio_2
L5.24
Thermal Expansion
*EXPANSION
**(to define optional CTE)
Alpha1, temp1
Alpha2, temp2
...
Defines the volumetric CTE
(coefficient of Thermal Expansion)
for the material.
Abaqus uses a total, or secant,
measure from a reference
temperature.
L5.26
L5.28
L5.30
The importance of using multiple types of test data when calibrating the
models is discussed next.
The recommended selection procedure is then summarized.
In each case, the models are listed in order of preference
The suggested approach considers physically motivated models
first.
Tips:
Use simple models first.
Keep the order, N, as low as possible to describe the data.
L5.32
L5.34
L5.36
A-B coefficients
Curve Fit in Abaqus
from paper
L5.38
set to 0.0
set by curve fitting (edit input file)
L5.40
A-B coefficients
Curve Fit in Abaqus
from paper
L5.42
L5.44
Summary (cont'd)
Full test suite of data (i.e., multi-axial data)
Van der Waals model ( 0)
Ogden model
The Full Polynomial model may be OK, but generally it doesnt fit
data as well as the Ogden model.
It is better to use this model with data that have already been
calibrated.
UHYPER
105
L5.47
UHYPER
UHYPER syntax
You may define your own elastomer behavior through the use of a user
subroutine called UHYPER. You provide Fortran code to define the
energy function, U, and first and second derivatives of U with respect to
1 and 2.
To invoke its use, the Abaqus input file looks like this:
*MATERIAL, NAME=...
*HYPERELASTIC, USER, TYPE=..., PROPERTIES=...
*EXPANSION (to define optional CTE)
...
*VISCOELASTICITY (to define optional time-dependency)
...
L5.48
UHYPER
L5.50
Mullins Effect
Mullins Effect
Idealized responseAbaqus
model
Does not model progressive
damage during the first few
cycles Energy dissipated once (damage);
no subsequent hysteresis or
Does not take into account progressive damage
permanent set and
viscoelasticity
No permanent set or
viscoelasticity
L5.52
Mullins Effect
Mullins Effect
L5.54
Mullins Effect
Output variables:
DMENER: Damage dissipation density at an integration point
ELDMD: Damage dissipation in an element
EDMDDEN: Damage dissipation per unit volume in an element
ALLDMD: Total damage dissipation in the whole model (or over a user-
specified element set)
Mullins Effect
Uniaxial unloading-reloading
data from three different
strain levels (stabilized
cycles)
L5.56
Mullins Effect
Example: Load-deflection of a
stationary solid rubber disk
Rigid surface displaced up
against fixed disk
Unloaded
Reloaded to deformation
levels that are higher than the
first loading
Above deformation pattern
constitutes two loading cycles
Mullins Effect
Dissipate
more energy
Unload/reload at
constant damage
111
L5.59
L5.60
Nominal stress
and strain
L5.62
Volumetric Information
There are several ways to indicate the volumetric behavior of the foam
material.
Using model parameters:
i i
Give the model parameters i i = , i = .
1 - 2 i 1 + 2 i
Using test data:
- Use the POISSON parameter to define a single Poissons ratio; this is
commonly used to set Poissons ratio to zero.
- Give lateral strain/stress information for one or more of the shearing
mode test data.
- Give the pressure, volume ratio data for the *VOLUMETRIC TEST
DATA input
L5.64
N=3 N=3
L5.66
L5.68
117
Notes
118
Modeling Considerations and
Usage Tips in Abaqus
Lecture 6
L6.2
Overview
Modeling Issues
Contact
Element Selection
Meshing Considerations
Constraints and Reinforcements
Stability
Special Features
L6.4
Modeling Issues
Contact
Contact occurs routinely in elastomer analyses.
It is imperative to understand contact master-slave relationships.
E.g., only slave nodes are checked for contact in a pure-master
slave formulation (default formulation)!
Incorrect Correct
Master surface placed on fine mesh Master surface placed on coarse mesh
Gross penetration into slave surface Minimal penetration into slave surface
Modeling Issues
L6.6
Modeling Issues
Modeling Issues
Element Selection
Abaqus offers a variety of elements for use with the hyperelastic and
hyperfoam material models. For a given state of stress (plane stress,
plane strain, generalized plane strain, axisymmetric, or fully three-
dimensional) the user faces a number of choices:
L6.8
Modeling Issues
Modeling Issues
L6.10
Modeling Issues
rubber
steel
Modeling Issues
Severe hourglassing
occurs with stiffness-
based hourglass control
No hourglassing
with enhanced
hourglass control.
L6.12
Modeling Issues
Regular elements are used for plane stress and hyperfoam analysis.
Modeling Issues
L6.14
Modeling Issues
Complex geometry
In general, quad and hex elements are preferred.
These elements perform well, both for stress and contact.
Their CPU performance is also good.
However, complicated three-dimensional geometry necessitates the
use of automatic mesh generation algorithms.
The resulting mesh is composed of tetrahedral elements.
In two-dimensions, automatic quad mesh algorithms are
generally available (e.g., Abaqus/CAE offers such a capability)
Abaqus offers CPE6(H)M, CAX6(H)M, and C3D10(H)M just for this
case.
Use CPE3(H), CAX3(H), C3D4(H), C3D6(H) only for fill-in.
Otherwise, the model will be overly stiff.
Modeling Issues
Meshing Considerations
The usual meshing considerations for linear analysis apply to the
analysis of elastomers as well.
Often, elastomeric components are subjected to large strains and strain
gradients.
High strain gradients lead to distorted elements, particularly in
incompressible materials.
Compared to similar problems using hyperelastic materials, there will be
less distortion in elements using the hyperfoam model because of the
large compressibility of foams, as shown in the following example.
The hyperfoam model experiences less lateral deformation.
L6.16
Modeling Issues
Modeling Issues
Element Distortions
L6.18
Modeling Issues
Modeling Issues
Rebars
The element on the left will shear without any stress in the
reinforcement.
L6.20
Modeling Issues
Stability
Elastomeric components can exhibit structural instability similar to elastic
structures.
Solid rubbers can exhibit surface instabilities when high compressive
stresses develop tangential to a free surface.
These instabilities cause surface wrinkles and can be very
detrimental to the convergence of iterations.
Stability problems arise more often than you might expect!
Four classes of instability:
Material
Dynamic
Global (geometric)
Local (material, geometric)
Modeling Issues
Material stability
Check coefficients, check the .dat file, visual check in Abaqus/CAE
Check stability in all modes of deformations
Check stability outside range of data
L6.22
Modeling Issues
Local instabilities
These can be caused by local buckling, wrinkling, folds, etc.
Such local instabilities can be controlled by the automated
stabilization algorithm (*STATIC, STABILIZE).
With this algorithm Abaqus/Standard chooses the damping
coefficients so that energy dissipated by viscous damping is a
small fraction of the strain energy in the model.
Modeling Issues
3-D arch
Special Features
130
L6.25
Gasket elements
Engine sealing, gasket elements
Four cylinder engine assembly (block/gasket/head)
L6.26
L6.28
L6.30
plunger
rubber seal
Asymmetric motion
Installed extremely
geometry leaking large strain
*IMPORT
L6.32
carcass belts
Coupled structural-acoustics
Used to analyze the acoustic signature of a tire design.
L6.34
Abaqus offers many other special features to make your work easier
Automated pressure penetration (Abaqus Example Problems Manual)
Ex 1.1.16, Pressure penetration analysis of an air duct kiss seal
Hydrostatic fluid elements (Abaqus Example Problems Manual)
Ex 1.1.9, Hydrostatic fluid elements: modeling an airspring
Recent applications of Abaqus to the analysis of automotive rubber
components, by Dr. Ken Morman
See also http://www.simulia.com/events/search-ucp.html to
search proceedings online
L6.36
Material model
The Polynomial, N = 2 model parameters came from the customer. We
can use Abaqus/CAE evaluate feature to show us the material response
for these coefficients. What can we tell about stability just from looking at
the coefficients?
The material definition is:
*MATERIAL,NAME=S121-67
*HYPERELASTIC,N=2
1.325, -0.1895, 2.527e-4, -1.416e-3, 5.178e-4
L6.38
L6.40
Single Step analysis with Riks fails! Split Step into two Steps.
Window frame rigid surface moves This runs to completion.
down.
*STEP,INC=100,NLGEOM
*STATIC
** Single Step w/ Riks 0.02,1.0
*STEP,INC=100,NLGEOM *BOUNDARY
*STATIC, RIKS 9999,2,2,10.5
0.02,1.0,,,1.0 *END STEP
*BOUNDARY ** Continue with Riks
9999,2,2,12.5 *STEP, INC=200, NLGEOM
*END STEP *STATIC, RIKS
.020, 1.0,,,1.0
*BOUNDARY, OP=MOD
9999,2,2,12.5
*END STEP
L6.42
9999,2,2,12.5 9999,2,2,10.5
L6.44
Dynamic analysis
Motivation: The physical event becomes dynamic.
This can be more troublesome than you might think
*STEP,INC=100,NLGEOM
Define two steps (more efficient):
*STATIC
1st step is static. 0.02,1.0
2nd step is dynamic. *BOUNDARY
9999,2,2,10.5
*END STEP
First phase is truly static. Trying to run
** Dynamic Portion
as a single DYNAMIC step would run
*STEP, INC=400, NLGEOM
much longer. Need to answer the
*DYNAMIC,HAFTOL=10,INITIAL=NO
following:
.00100, 0.20
How do I set HAFTOL?
*BOUNDARY, OP=MOD
What about the total time period? 9999,2,2,12.5
Is some damping needed? *END STEP
L6.46
L6.48
Final results are shown here for a successful run (to completion),
using 0.1.
L6.50
144
L6.53
What is Abaqus/Explicit?
Abaqus/Explicit solves a dynamics problem resolving wave propagation.
It is a separate piece of software, not part of Abaqus/Standard.
Originally used just for highly dynamic eventsexplosions, crash.
Used extensively in sheet forming to solve quasi-static problems.
Also used to solve quasi-static rubber problems.
Input syntax similar to Abaqus/Standard, but not exactly the same.
Learn about time scaling and mass scaling techniques.
For tough three-dimensional elastomer and contact problems, try
Abaqus/Explicit.
L6.54
L6.56
L6.58
L6.60
149
L6.63
groove (aluminum)
L6.64
This is 1, 1, 2, 2, 3 , 3 , D1, D2
D3, Temperature
G0 is 1.141; K0 is 2/D1 = 228 (units are MPa, mm).
L6.66
Material model
stress-strain behavior
This is the standard
Abaqus/CAE response
plot after using the
evaluate function.
Hard to compare scales.
L6.68
Abaqus/Explicit Abaqus/Standard
Force vs displacement
Why so different? Abaqus/Explicit
Abaqus/Standard
L6.70
L6.72
Abaqus/Explicit Abaqus/Standard
Mesh distortion
due to presence of
springs (not as
weak as intended).
L6.74
Abaqus/Explicit Abaqus/Standard
L6.76
157
158
Notes
159
Notes
160
Viscoelastic Material Behavior
Lecture 7
L7.2
Overview
L7.4
Definition
Certain materials are rate-dependent and behave elastically.
When unloaded, they return to their undeformed state.
These materials are called viscoelastic.
Examples
Polymers such as plastics
Glass
Rubber
Foams
Solid rocket propellants
prescribed stress
L7.6
Creep
Also occurs in metals,
Typically not recoverable (inelastic)
Creep material model is viscoplastic, not viscoelastic
Significant at high temperature (with respect to the melting point)
Creep of polymers is significant starting at low temperatures ( 200 oC)
For viscoelastic materials full elastic recovery occurs upon unloading
prescribed strain
L7.8
L7.10
Linear Viscoelasticity
One-Dimensional Idealization
Linear and finite-strain viscoelasticity are idealized as series pairs of
springs and dashpots in parallel with a spring
Linear Viscoelasticity
1
cr A , where A
Viscosity
The spring response may be linear or nonlinear:
For classical linear viscoelasticity the springs are linear.
This implies a linear elastic material model in Abaqus
For finite-strain viscoelasticity the springs are nonlinear.
This implies a hyperelastic or hyperfoam material model in
Abaqus
L7.12
Linear Viscoelasticity
Linear Viscoelasticity
Stress Normalized
Stress (MPa)
0.8
0.4
0.3
0.7 20% Strain
0.2 40% Strain
0.6 60% Strain
0.1 80% Strain
100% Strain
0 0.5
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (secs) Time (secs)
L7.14
Linear Viscoelasticity
Linear Viscoelasticity
L7.16
Linear Viscoelasticity
L7.18
Temperature Dependence
L7.20
i t
(t ) 0e
i( t )
The material responds with a stress, (t ) 0e
where is called the loss angle.
Loss Angle,
The strain lags behind the stress by an angle
Purely elastic response (no damping) 0.
Polymers and Elastomers 0.
L7.22
Complex Modulus
It is convenient to separate the viscoelastic response into in-phase and
out-of-phase components.
strain 0 sin t
stress 0 sin( t )
shear stress
G* ( ) Complex Shear Modulus
shear strain
i( t )
0e
G* ( ) i t
0e
0 0
cos i sin
0 0
Gs i Gl
L7.24
0
Gs cos
0
Characterizes the in-phase shear modulus
Loss Modulus, Gl :
0
Gl sin
0
Characterizes the out-of-phase shear modulus
L7.26
Gl
The ratio: tan is commonly referred to as tan delta
Gs
For unfilled rubbers this ratio is often nearly a constant (over some
frequency range of interest).
Typical value for natural rubber is 0.2.
Loss modulus
174
L7.29
L7.30
Thus, natural rubber, with its low hysteresis, is the preferred material for
vibration applications.
Damping
In many practical applications the damping characteristics of rubber are
important, and are often the reason that an elastomer is chosen for the
application.
Any vibration isolation application, mounts, gaskets, etc., depends upon
the damping characteristic of the elastomer.
Damping characteristics can be strongly dependent upon the chemical
composition.
Damping characteristics can be strongly influenced by fillers in the
rubber:
Carbon black
Silica
176
Notes
177
Notes
178
Time Domain Viscoelasticity
Lecture 8
L8.2
Overview
L8.4
L8.6
Definitions
We decompose the total stress into shear and volumetric parts by:
1 1
S pI where p tr ( ) (11 22 33 ).
3 3
We decompose the total strain into shear and volumetric parts by:
1
e vol I where vol tr ( ) (11 22 33 ).
3
The elastic stress-strain relations decompose into:
where S0 (t ) and p0 (t ) are the deviatoric and pressure stress states that
would exist for the current strain state if the material were behaving
purely elastically.
L8.8
L8.10
Abaqus will determine the appropriate G and K values from the user
specified E and values.
If the user specifies long-term elastic moduli, Abaqus will compute the
instantaneous elastic moduli using the relaxation information
N N
G G0 1
k 1
g kp
K K 0 1
kkp
k 1
Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity
184
L8.13
Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity
C (I D (J
1
U ij 1 3) ( I 2 3)
i j
el 1) 2i .
i j 1 i 1 i
1
0 1 ki p (1 e / i )
Di ( ) Di i 1
1
where Cij0 and 0 define the instantaneous shear and volume
response. Di
L8.14
Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity
2i
N N
D (J
i i i 1
U 2
(1 2 3 3) el 1)2i ,
i 1 i i 1 i
1 K
N
1
0 1 ki p (1 e / i )
Di ( ) Di i 1
1
where i and 0 define the instantaneous shear and volume
0
response. Di
Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity
L8.16
Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity
N
G
( ) 1
0
i 1
gip (1 e / i )
1 K
N
k
1
0 1 p
(1 e / i )
D( ) D
i
i 1
1
where and 0 define the instantaneous shear and volume
0
response. D
Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity
2i i i i
N
1 i i
U 3 ( J 1) ,
i 1 i2
1 2 3
i el
Note the deviatoric and volumetric behavior is fully coupled.
*VISCOELASTIC should obey g kp kkp ; that is, the shear and volume
relaxation rates should be equal.
The relaxation behavior is governed by Prony series:
N
i ( ) i 1
0
i 1
gip (1 e / i )
L8.18
Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity
L8.20
0 , time0
1 , time1
2 , time2
3 , time3
Because this is linear viscoelasticity only one curve may be used. If your
material is not exactly linear in its viscoelastic response, then test at an
applied strain that is close to your component analysis strain level of
interest.
L8.22
nonlinear least
squares fits
pairs of gi and i
p G
pairs of ki and i
p K
L8.24
L8.26
groups of gi , ki , and i
p p
L8.28
g0 , time0
g1 , time1
g2 , time2
g3 , time3
Because this is linear viscoelasticity only one curve may be used. If your
material is not exactly linear in its viscoelastic response then test at an
applied stress that is close to your component analysis stress level of
interest.
and input this data using the *SHEAR TEST DATA suboption of
*VISCOELASTIC, TIME=CREEP TEST DATA.
L8.30
nonlinear least
squares fits
pairs of gi and i
p G
pairs of ki and i
p K
L8.32
groups of gi , ki , and i
p p
L8.34
196
L8.37
*MATERIAL, NAME=...
*ELASTIC,MODULI=... Or
*HYPERLEASTIC,MODULI=... Or
*HYPERFOAM
... (data lines)
*VISCOELASTIC, TIME=PRONY,
g1p , k1p , 1
g 2p , k2p , 2 1 2 3
g3p , k3p , 3
L8.38
N=3 Better
198
L8.41
L8.42
L8.44
Usage Hints
Interpolation / Extrapolation
Experimental data must cover the time domain of interest in the analysis.
Prony series can only represent behavior over the fitted time domain.
Extrapolation does not work.
Usage Hints
L8.46
Usage Hints
Procedures
Time-domain viscoelasticity can be used with:
*STATIC (viscoelastic behavior ignored)
*VISCO
*DYNAMIC
*COUPLED TEMPERATURE-DISPLACEMENT
*STEADY STATE TRANSPORT
Usage Hints
Procedures (cont'd)
Instantaneous elastic response
The *STATIC procedure can be used to apply loads instantaneously:
*STATIC
The instantaneous modulus characterizes the response
*STATIC, LONG TERM
The long term (long-time) modulus characterizes the response
L8.48
Usage Hints
Procedures (cont'd)
203
Notes
204
Frequency Domain Viscoelasticity
Lecture 9
L9.2
Overview
L9.4
G Gs iGl
*
K K s iK l
*
G0
K0
G K
G* ( ) Gs ( ) iGl ( )
and
K * ( ) K s ( ) iKl ( ),
respectively.
The storage moduli Gs and Ks and the loss moduli Gl and Kl are
measured as a function of frequency f = /2p.
L9.6
m1 ( f ) Gl G
m2 ( f ) 1 Gs G
m3 ( f ) K l K
m4 ( f ) 1 K s K
L9.8
Tabular data
Abaqus usage:
*MATERIAL, NAME=...
*ELASTIC
E,
*VISCOELASTIC, FREQUENCY=TABULAR
m1( fn ), m2 ( fn ), m3 ( fn ), m4 ( fn ), fn
G Gs iGl
*
Abaqus Usage Examples
G0
*MATERIAL, NAME= ELASTMAT storage
*ELASTIC, ...
: G
:
loss
*VISCOELASTIC, FREQUENCY=TABULAR
: K0
:
VOLUMETRIC K
SHEAR
L9.10
*material, name=rubber
*elastic Test data
: Long term modulus G1= 486.6 psi
: from (long-term) elastic constants
*viscoelastic, frequency=tabular
0.0020552, 0.0011858, 0, 0, 1.0
0.0184966, 0.0340686, 0, 0, 10.0 storage modulus
0.0369931, 0.0751721, 0, 0, 100.0
0.0822069, 0.1368273, 0, 0, 200.0 loss modulus
0.1233104, 0.0957238, 0, 0, 400.0
0.1644139, 0.0237927, 0, 0, 500.0
L9.12
Formula data
Dimensionless relaxation moduli are
approximated by a power law formula:
m1 ( f ) 2p f s1 f a
m2 ( f ) 2p f s2 f a
m3 ( f ) 2p f s3 f b
m4 ( f ) 2p f s4 f b
where a and b are real constants.
Abaqus usage:
*MATERIAL, NAME=...
*ELASTIC
E, s1 s2 a
*VISCOELASTIC, FREQUENCY=FORMULA
s1, s2, a, s3, s4, b
GL G 2p s1 s
K L K 2p s3 b .
L9.14
L9.16
D D
D D without preloads
If use data at prestrain levels other than the one at which they were
measured, are assuming properties are independent of prestrain
level.
Direct specification of storage and loss moduli as functions of frequency
and prestrain.
More general; allows for data at multiple prestrain levels; does not
assume independence of data and prestrain level.
L9.18
L9.20
L9.22
Procedures
*FREQUENCY
*COMPLEX FREQUENCY
Procedures
216
Notes
217
Notes
218
Time-Temperature Correspondence
Lecture 10
L10.2
Overview
Reduced Time
Measuring Temperature Dependence
Input Data for Temperature Effects
WLF Examples
L10.4
Reduced Time
Reduced Time
L10.6
Reduced Time
E0
70C
Reduced Time
E 70 C (t ) E 20 C (t 0.03).
This is called the reduced-time concept:
ET (t ) ET0 (t A( )).
A( ) is the time reduction factor at temperature relative to the
reference temperature 0.
L10.8
Reduced Time
t
t d ( )
(t , ) E 0
d .
A( ) d
Reduced Time
Shift function
E (t )
This time-temperature
correspondence is often
0
represented by the
logarithmic time shift: h( 0 )
0
h( ) log( A( ))
0
extrapolated measured extrapolated
log t
L10.10
Reduced Time
Note that:
When > 0 A( ) < 1 and h( ) > 0 (viscous flow speed up).
When = 0 A( ) = 1 and h( ) = 0.
When < 0 A( ) >1 and h( ) < 0 (viscous flow slow down).
For thermo-rheologically simple materials, the viscoelastic properties at
0 and logarithmic time shift h( ) characterize viscoelastic properties for
all temperatures .
L10.12
The time shift property can be used to extrapolate the relaxation data to
very long or very short times:
Instead of testing for very long times, test at high temperature.
Instead of testing for very short times, test at low temperature.
The extrapolation procedure works as follows:
1. Relaxation tests are carried out for a given time range and for a
given temperature range.
For example, t between 1 sec and 1000 sec.
For example, between 0 and 0 +
(where 0 is the reference temperature).
E (t )
h( 0 )
0
0
extrapolated measured extrapolated
log t
L10.14
L10.16
Williams-Landell-Ferry (WLF)
The shift functions for materials about a reference temperature
commonly fit the Williams-Landell-Ferry (WLF) form
C1 ( 0)
h( ) log10 ( A) .
C2 ( 0)
L10.18
g
C1
C1
g
1 ( 0 g ) C2
g
C2 C2 0 g
L10.20
E0 1 1
h( ) ln( A)
R Z 0 Z
L10.22
Usage:
*TRS, DEFINITION=USER
L10.24
WLF Examples
Example 1:
Calculate the time reduction factor of rubber at 293 K (20 C) relative to
its glassy transition temperature of 200 K. Use the data in the table.
Resolution:
From the table: C1g 16.7 and C2g 53.6 K.
WLF Examples
Example 2:
Calculate the time reduction factor of rubber at 343 K (70 C) relative to
room temperature (293 K, 20 C).
Resolution A:
Recall that h( ) = log (A( )).
Then, relative time shift from rubber at 293 K to rubber at 343 K is
given by
h h(343 K) h(293 K)
log( A(343 K)) log( A(293 K))
A(343 K)
log
A(293 K)
L10.26
WLF Examples
16.7
C1293 K 6.106
1 (293 200) 53.6
C2293 K 53.6 293 200 146.6 K
233
Notes
234
Modeling Advanced Behaviors
Lecture 11
L11.2
Overview
Hysteresis in Elastomers
Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
L11.4
Hysteresis in Elastomers
Hysteresis in Elastomers
In filled and some unfilled rubbers the creep or relaxation rate is not
proportional to the stress.
Typically, creep and stress relaxation are more pronounced at
higher stress levels.
In addition, at higher stress levels creep and stress relaxation occur
faster initially and reach a plateau more slowly than with
viscoelasticity.
This leads to hysteresis-type behavior in cyclic loading, where the
amount of hysteresis increases with loading amplitude but is
relatively independent of the cycling frequency.
This kind of general nonlinear, finite-strain, time-dependent
behavior is what the hysteresis model attempts to capture.
L11.6
Hysteresis in Elastomers
1. Bergstrom, J.S., and M.C. Boyce, Constitutive Modeling of the Large Strain Time-
Dependent Behavior of Elastomers, Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, vol.
46, pp. 931-954, 1998.
Hysteresis in Elastomers
L11.8
Hysteresis in Elastomers
Hysteresis in Elastomers
L11.10
Hysteresis in Elastomers
Hysteresis in Elastomers
Normalized stress
for four different strains using
0.60
the hysteresis model.
The stress for each case is 0.40
normalized with respect to
the instantaneous stress. 0.20
L11.12
Hysteresis in Elastomers
cr A( cr
1)C m
.
The positive exponent m, generally greater than 1, characterizes the
(scalar) effective stress dependence of the effective creep strain
rate.
The exponent C, restricted to the interval [ 1, 0], characterizes the
creep strain dependence (through the creep stretch cr) on the
creep strain rate.
The nonnegative constant A maintains dimensional consistency in
the equation.
Hysteresis in Elastomers
5
S 1.6, A m
(sec) 1 (MPa) m
, m 4, C 1.0.
( 3)
Usage: the above four values in the given order are entered on the
data line for the HYSTERESIS option.
L11.14
Hysteresis in Elastomers
Restrictions
Hysteresis is active in the following procedures only:
STATIC
VISCO
DYNAMIC
The model requires the HYPERELASTIC option to define the elastic
behavior.
Hysteresis can be used only with elements that permit hyperelastic
materials; thus, is can be used only in large-strain problems.
Hybrid elements can be used only when the accompanying
hyperelasticity definition is incompressible.
Hysteresis in Elastomers
Restrictions (cont'd)
The hysteresis material properties cannot be temperature dependent;
however, the elastic material properties can be temperature dependent.
The model does not model Mullins effect or the softening of an
elastomer when it is first subjected to loading.
Before material properties are measured, the rubber should be
stretched repeatedly to operating strain levels.
L11.16
Hysteresis in Elastomers
Abaqus usage
The elasticity of the model is defined by using the HYPERELASTIC
option.
The MODULI parameter may be set to either LONG TERM (to
define the long-term behavior of the material; default setting) or
INSTANTANEOUS (to define the instantaneous behavior).
The stress scaling factor and the creep parameters for network B are
input directly on the data line of the HYSTERESIS option.
Both the HYPERELASTIC option and HYSTERESIS option must be
used together in the material definition.
The hysteresis material model creates unsymmetric stiffness matrices,
so Abaqus/Standard uses unsymmetric matrix storage and solution by
default.
Typical values of the material parameters are given in the Abaqus
Analysis Users Manual.
Hysteresis in Elastomers
L11.18
Hysteresis in Elastomers
Example
This example is taken from the Abaqus Verification Manual.
The material being modeled is Chloroprene rubber (15 pph carbon
black filler).
Material model
The rubber is modeled with the Arruda-Boyce hyperelasticity model
with the following values for the models parameters:
The hysteresis behavior is modeled with the following values for the
parameters:
Hysteresis in Elastomers
Loading
The test specimen is subjected to this compressive loading history.
The constant strain rate loading is interrupted by relaxation segments
during the loading and unloading phases of the test.
0.0
0.20
A
Applied strain
0.40
B
0.60
Time
L11.20
Hysteresis in Elastomers
Results
End
0.0
unloading
Start
0.40
A
At strain level A, the
B
Stress
0.80
stress decreases
(becomes less
compressive) during
loading "loading" relaxation
1.20
At strain level B, the segments.
stress increases
(becomes more 1.60
"unloading" Strain
relaxation segments.
L11.22
Loading
Unloading / reloading
(Mullins' effect)
Permanent set
Approach
plastic part of the
deformation gradient
F Fe F p Lee (1969)
elastic part of the
deformation gradient
L11.24
L11.26
Abaqus/CAE
plug-in
Loading, unloading
and permanent set
Calibration script
Material (*Hyperelastic,
*Plastic, *Mullins)
L11.28
Validation
L11.30
All parameters based on pure axial and torsional response of the specimen
Reduced polynomial strain energy function used for hyperelasticity
y y p
Linear hardening function used for plasticity o H
All units are MPa except r and , which are dimensionless
c10 146.74, c20 6.5252, c30 0, c 40 0.028648
r 3, m 56.282, 0.1
y
0 29.6679, H 8168.04
L11.32
Loading paths
Results Path H
L11.34
Summary
Multiplicative split of deformation gradient
Following keywords can be combined
*HYPERELASTIC
*MULLINS EFFECT (optional)
*PLASTIC, TYPE=ISOTROPIC
Can be used to model filled elastomers and thermoplastics that show
Permanent strain upon removal of load and/or
Damaged unloading behavior
Process test data through an Abaqus/CAE plug-in
Current limitations
Cannot include rate effects such as hysteresis or viscoelasticity
Available only for rate-independent isotropic hardening plasticity
L11.36
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
Overview
Provides a capability for modeling materials that exhibit highly
anisotropic and nonlinear elastic behavior, such as biomedical soft
tissues and fiber-reinforced elastomers
Two forms of strain energy potentials are available:
Generalized Fung form
Holzapfel-Gasser-Ogden form
User-defined forms of the strain energy potential supported via two sets
of user subroutines:
(V)UANISOHYPER_STRAIN for strain-based formulations
(V)UANISOHYPER_INV for invariant-based formulations
These models can be combined with
Mullins effect to include stress softening (damage) behavior
Viscoelasticity to include rate effects (Abaqus/Explicit only)
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
Applications
Biomedical
E.g., modeling arterial walls in simulations of balloon angioplasty
and implantation of Nitinol stents
L11.38
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
Applications (contd)
Consumer products
Fiber reinforced molded plastics
Fibrous polymers, paper, cloth, etc.
Others
Reinforced rubber and polymers, composites, etc.
General capability to model fiber-induced anisotropy
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
G
U U( , J)
U U (C , A ) 1,..., N
Invariant representation:
U U ( I1 , I 2 , J , I 4 , I5 ; ) , 1,..., N
L11.40
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
U U ( I1 , I 2 , J , I 4 , I5 ; ) , 1,..., N
Invariants:
I1 tr ( C); I2 1
2 ( I1 tr ( C 2 )); J det F
Pseudo-invariants:
I 4( ) A C A
I 5( ) A C2 A
A A
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
c 1
U (exp(Q) 1) ( J 2 1 2ln J )
2 2D
G G G G
Q :b: ij bijkl kl
L11.42
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
Holzapfel-Gasser-Ogden form
Constitutive model for arterial walls
Includes the effects of dispersion in the fiber directions
N
1 k1 2
U C10 ( I1 3) ( J 2 1 2ln J ) exp k2 E 1
2D 2k 2 1
E ( I1 3) (1 3 )( I 4( ) 1)
User interface:
*ANISOTROPIC HYPERELASTIC, HOLZAPFEL, LOCAL DIRECTIONS=N
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
L11.44
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
Local directions are written to the output database (.odb) file and can
be visualized in Abaqus/Viewer using symbols plots
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
The components of the Green strain are referred to the material basis in
the reference configuration (specified with *ORIENTATION).
Inside (V)UANISOHYPER_STRAIN, user defines
G
U U( , J)
L11.46
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
The fiber directions are defined by the local directions specified with the
orientation definition for the section
Inside (V)UANISOHYPER_INV, user defines
U U ( I1 , I 2 , J , I 4 , I5 ; ) , 1,..., N
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
= 49.98
L11.48
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
Model uses
C3D8H elements
Stress in the
direction of
applied load.
Strip cut in Strip cut in
axial direction circumferential
direction
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
Model uses
C3D8H elements
Stress in the
direction of
applied load.
Strip cut in Strip cut in
axial direction circumferential
direction
L11.50
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
Load-displacement results
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
L11.52
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
Results
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
Limitations
Cannot model compressible material behavior with
Hybrid elements
Plane-stress elements
Initial stress conditions cannot be defined
Results can only be transferred into Abaqus/Explicit (not
Abaqus/Standard)
Cannot be used with viscoelasticity in Abaqus/Standard
261
262
Notes
263
Notes
264
Finite Deformations
Appendix 1
A1.2
Overview
A1.4
The motion of the body takes the reference configuration R0 into the
current configuration R.
An essential assumption of continuum mechanics is that the motion can
be described as
for every X in R0
x x( X , t )
for every x in R
In above expression, X act as independent variables; this is a
Lagrangian (material) description of the problem.
A1.6
x X u
or
u x X.
Lagrangian description:
u( X , t ) x( X , t ) X .
A1.8
xi
ai AR ,
XR
xi
where is the stretch ratio and FiR is the deformation gradient.
XR
269
A1.11
xi
The nine quantities, , are the components of the deformation
XR
gradient tensor, F :
xi
FiR .
XR
A1.12
1
a F A
2
A FT F A
1
A F a
2
a ( F 1 )T F 1
a
Remarks:
If there is no motion, x = X, and so F = I (identity).
F is important in the analysis of deformation, but it is not a measure of
deformation only (the motion includes rotation).
We need measures that do not change when no deformation takes
place; i.e., we want them to remain unchanged under rigid body motions:
QT Q Q QT I rotation
x Q X c
c translation (does not vary with position)
271
A1.15
C F T F.
A1.16
2 T 1
a F F a,
stretch of material line element
with direction a in current configuration.
A1.18
1
E (C I ).
2
A nice feature is that E = 0 for rigid body motions.
C, B, and E are symmetric second-order tensors, so they have real
principal values and orthogonal principal directions.
A1.20
Decomposition of a Deformation
same
F RU V R
describes rotation of body right left stretch
stretch tensor
tensor
Decomposition of a Deformation
C FT F U2
B F FT V2
275
A1.23
Recall 2 = A C A.
Find directions A for which takes extreme values.
Find the minimum and maximum of 2 = A C A under the
constraint A A = 1.
Results in eigenvalue problem:
C A* 2
A*.
A1.24
1 2 3
principal stretches
Moreover, U has 3 orthogonal principal directions:
A , A2 , A3
1
principal axes of U
A , A2 , A3 a1 R A1 , a2 R A2 , a3 R A3
1
principal directions of U principal directions of V
A1.26
1 2
The principal values of E are ( i 1) i 1, 2, 3.
2
2 2 2
The principal values of B are 1 , 2, 3.
A1.28
Strain Invariants
I1 tr( B ) tr( F F T ),
1 2
I2 ( I1 tr( B B )),
2
J det( F ).
In terms of the principal stretches these invariants are
2 2 2
I1 1 2 3,
2 2 2 2 2 2
I2 1 2 2 3 3 1,
J 1 2 3.
Strain Invariants
13
F J F, F J 1 3F ,
I1 tr( B ) tr( F F T ),
1 2
I2 ( I1 tr( B B )).
2
13
In terms of principal deviatoric stretches, i J i, the revised
invariants have the form
2 2 2
I1 1 2 3,
2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1
I2 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 2 2
,
1 2 3
where
1 2 3 1.
Summary
279
A1.31
Summary
A1.32
Summary
U 1 A1 A1 2 A2 A2 3 A3 A3 .
V 1a1a1 2 a2 a2 3a3a3 ,
aI R AI .
Summary
A1.34
Summary
N nominal strain ( 1 1) A1 A1 ( 2 1) A2 A2 ( 3 1) A3 A3 ,
ln log strain ln 1 A1 A1 ln 2 A2 A2 3 A3 A3 ,
or, in the current configuration,
283
Notes
284
Rubber Elasticity Models:
Mathematical Forms
Appendix 2
A2.2
Overview
A2.4
U U ( I1 , I 2 , I 3 ).
In general, the response of rubber is completely different to volumetric or
deviatoric deformations.
This suggests an additive split of the strain energy function.
In Abaqus we write this modified strain energy function as
U U1 ( I1 3, I 2 3) U 2 ( J el 1).
There are several forms of the strain energy function for solid rubber in
Abaqus.
Most forms are expressed in terms of series expansions.
For all strain energy functions expressed in terms of a series
expansion, some terms are common:
N is the order of the strain energy function.
The Di coefficients introduce compressibility into the material
behavior.
When the material is incompressible, the terms with Di are
ignored.
A2.6
Polynomial model
The polynomial strain energy function has the following form:
N N
i j 1
U Cij ( I1 3) ( I 2 3) ( J el 1) 2i .
i j 1 i 1
Di
The constants Cij and Di are calibrated from experimental test data.
Abaqus allows up to N = 6 terms in the above function.
The initial shear modulus and bulk modulus are given by
2
0 2(C10 C01 ), K0 .
D1
If D1 is equal to zero, Abaqus requires that all Di must be zero.
A2.8
Mooney-Rivlin model
This form is obtained when N = 1 in the full polynomial form:
1 el
U C10 ( I1 3) C01 ( I 2 3) (J 1) 2 .
D1
If D1 is equal to zero, the material is fully incompressible.
The initial shear and bulk moduli are given by
2
0 2(C10 C01 ), K0 .
D1
N N
i 1 el
U Ci 0 ( I1 3) (J 1)2i .
i 1 i 1
Di
Curve fitting with experimental test data for polynomial models with this
parameter can be performed up to N = 6.
A2.10
Neo-Hookean model
The simplest form of the strain energy function, U, proposed by Treloar
in 1943, is
1 el
U C10 ( I1 3) (J 1)2 ,
D1
where C10 is a calibration constant.
1
C10 0, where 0 is the initial shear modulus.
2
Yeoh model
The Yeoh strain energy function is a special case of the general reduced
polynomial model with N = 3:
3 3
i 1 el
U Ci 0 ( I1 3) (J 1)2i .
i 1 i 1
Di
The initial shear and bulk moduli are given by
2
0 2C10 , K0 .
D1
The following relationships are usually seen between the Ci0:
C20 is negative and 12 orders of magnitude smaller than C10.
C30 is positive and 34 orders of magnitude smaller than C10.
A2.12
Ogden model
The Ogden strain energy function is based on the principal stretch ratios,
I:
N N
2 1 el
U 2
i
( 1 i
2
i
3
i
3) (J 1)2i ,
i 1 i i 1
Di
where 1
J 3
i i
A2.14
Marlow Model
The Marlow strain energy function has the following form
U U dev ( I1 ) Uvol ( J el )
Arruda-Boyce model
The Arruda-Boyce strain energy function has the following form:
5
Ci 1 J el2 1
U 2i
( I i 3i )
2 1
ln( J el ) .
i 1 m D 2
A2.16
3
2 2 I 3 2 1 J el2 1
U ( m 3) ln(1 ) a ln( J el ) ,
3 2 D 2
where
I 3
I (1 ) I1 I 2 and 2
.
m 3
A2.18
294
A2.21
The energy function for the foam rubber model has the following form:
N
2 i 1
U 2 1
i
2
i
3
i
3 ( J el i i
1) ,
i 1 i i
A2.22
0 i,
i 1
while the initial bulk modulus follows from
N
1
K0 2 i i .
i 1
3
For each term in the energy function the coefficient i determines the
degree of compressibility. i is related to the Poissons ratio, i, by the
expressions
i i
i , i .
1 2 i 1 2 i
If i is the same for all terms, we have a single effective Poissons ratio,
.
This Poissons ratio is valid for finite values of the logarithmic principal
strains e1, e2, e3 ; in uniaxial tension e2 = e3 = e1.
A2.24
( x ln a)2 ( x ln a)3
ax 1 x ln a ,
2! 3!
N
2 i
U 2 1
i
2
i
3
i
3 i ln J el .
i 1 i
A2.26
Mullins Effect
U dev U dev ( i , ).
U dev
0.
Mullins Effect
The damage variable may be either active or inactive or may switch from
active to inactive; it always varies continuously.
When it is inactive, it is set to the constant value of 1.
In this case the energy density reduces to the primary strain energy
density function given by
The primary strain energy density function defines the response of the
material under monotonic straining (usual hyperelastic potential)
A2.28
Mullins Effect
U dev ( i , ) U dev ( i ) ( )
The above modified energy function leads to the following expression for
the deviatoric stress tensor:
S S
Mullins Effect
A2.30
Mullins Effect
1 max ever
U dev U
1 erf max ever
r m U dev
r, m, and are material parameters
max ever
U dev is the maximum strain energy
density experienced on the primary
curve during the loading history
Mullins Effect
Error function:
x
2
erf(x) exp( w2 ) dw
0
A2.32
Mullins Effect
Mullins Effect
U( i, ) U dev ( i ) ( ) U vol ( J el )
( i, ) S ( i ) p ( J el ) I .
A2.34
Mullins Effect
U re ( i , ) U ( i , ) ( m )
303
Notes
304
Linear Viscoelasticity Theory
Appendix 3
A3.2
Overview
A3.4
A3.6
t
(t ) = -
E ( t - ) e 0 d ( ) d = E (t ) e 0
(t )
or E (t ) =
e0
where (- ) = 0.
J ( t ) is the creep function, or creep compliance.
A3.8
t
e (t ) =
-
J ( t - ) 0 d ( ) d = J (t ) 0
or
e (t )
J (t ) = .
0
t
J (t - ) E ( ) d = t
0
Abaqus uses this relation to convert user-supplied creep test data into
relaxation data.
This is valid only for linear viscoelasticity.
A3.10
dE ( )
( t ) = E0 e (t ) 0 d
e ( t - ) d
or
dE ( )
1
( t ) = 0 (t ) 0 ( t - ) d
E0 0 d
A3.12
A similar expression holds for the shear stress S in terms of the shear
strain g ( t ) for a specimen in a time history of pure shear:
dG ( )
1
S ( t ) = S0 (t ) S0 ( t - ) d .
G0 0 d
311
Notes
312
Harmonic Viscoelasticity Theory
Appendix 4
A4.2
Overview
A4.4
E (t )
Introduce e(t ) 1 (dimensionless relaxation function).
E
t d ( )
(t ) E (t ) E e(t ) d
d
t d ( )
(t ) e(t ) d .
d
Letting t yields
d (t )
(t ) (t ) e( ) d .
0 d
Harmonic Excitation
315
A4.7
Harmonic Excitation
(t ) exp(i t ).
d
(t ) E (t ) e( ) (E exp(i (t ))) d
0 d
E 1 i e( )exp( i )d (t ).
0
A4.8
Harmonic Excitation
In other words, t E* t ,
Since e* Re e* i Im e* :
E * ( ) E (1 Im(e* )) i E Re(e* )
Es ( ) El ( )
Harmonic Excitation
Es ( )
Im( e* ) 1
E
data required by Abaqus
* El ( )
Re( e )
E
A4.10
Harmonic Excitation
The storage and loss moduli can be measured with excitation tests in
the frequency domain.
The data produced can be used not only in frequency domain
analyses but also to derive short-term time domain data.
If the time periods of interest are of the same order as the response
time of the equipment used to measure relaxation or creep data,
this may be the only way to obtain such data.
Consider the complex modulus E* known (measured). Calculate an
intermediate function:
E* ( )
e( ) 1.
E
Harmonic Excitation
e( )
e* ( ) ,
i
1 e( ) 1 e( ) i t
e(t ) F e d .
i 2 i
Then
E (t ) E (1 e(t )).
318
Notes
319
Notes
320
Suggested Reading
Appendix 5
A5.2
Suggested Reading
Introductory
Aklonis, J. J., et al., Introduction to Polymer Viscoelasticity, 2nd ed.,
Wiley, New York, 1982.
Mathematical
Flugge, W., Viscoelasticity, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, New York,
1980.
Pipkin, A. C., Lectures on Viscoelasticity Theory, 2nd ed., Springer-
Verlag, New York, 1986.
Standard reference
Ferry, J. D., Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers, 3rd ed., Wiley,
New York, 1980.
Suggested Reading
A5.4
Suggested Reading
323
Notes
324
Workshop Preliminaries
325
WP.2
326
WP.3
327
328
Notes
329
Notes
330
Workshop 1
Goals
When you complete this workshop, you will be able to:
Use experimental data to derive coefficients for hyperelastic material models
within Abaqus/CAE.
See how very limited test data (such as using only uniaxial data) can yield poor
material model predictions.
Use Abaqus/CAE to visualize the accuracy of any given material model response
and compare the accuracy of various material models against each other.
Create and compare hyperelastic material models.
Use the correct keywords in Abaqus/Standard to define a material model for
hyperelasticity.
Introduction
For this workshop you will use experimental data gathered by L.R.G. Treloar based on
his work with lightly vulcanized natural rubber (The Physics of Rubber Elasticity, 1949).
Treloars data is presented in Table W11. Note that it is presented in the form of
engineering stressstrain values (also called nominal stressstrain). This is consistent
with the form required by Abaqus.
331
W1.2
Problems
A text file named st_treloar_abq.txt is provided which contains the data given in
the above table (note that st stands for Simple Tension).
332
W1.3
8. In the lower left corner of the dialog box, click Save As. Name the X-Y data
ST_TRELOAR and click OK.
9. In the XY Data From ASCII File dialog box, click Plot and then click Cancel.
10. From the main menu bar, select OptionsXY OptionsCurve (or click in
the toolbox).
11. Toggle on Show symbol, and set the symbol size to Large. Dismiss the dialog
box.
12. By default, the X- and Y-axes are labeled Strain and Stress, respectively. You
can specify alternate axis titles using the Axis Options (OptionsXY
OptionsAxis or simply double-click an axis). For example, double-click the X-
axis, switch to the Title tabbed page of the Axis Options dialog box and type
Engineering Strain as the title. Similarly, specify the Y-axis title
Engineering Stress (MPa). Change the axis title font size for each axis to
18.
13. In the Axis Options dialog box, switch to the Axes tabbed page. Change the axis
label font size for each axis to 12.
14. In the Scale tabbed page, specify an X-axis major increment size of 0.5.
The resulting stressstrain curve is shown below in Figure W11.
333
W1.4
In this workshop you will use only the simple tension (uniaxial tension) test data, but it is
important to understand what the typical responses are for the planar tension and
equibiaxial tension modes of deformation. Figure W12 shows the stress-strain curves for
all three modes of deformation. These data are taken from Treloars work. However, the
general trend you see here is common for a broad variety of elastomers. For instance,
even in the absence of equibiaxial test data, we know that the equibiaxial stressstrain
response should be about 1.5 to 2 times higher than the uniaxial response. This rule of
thumb allows us to have a reasonable expectation for the approximate equibiaxial
response even when the data are not available.
334
W1.5
4. In the Read Data from ASCII File dialog box, click Select to browse for the test
data file. In the ASCII File Selection dialog box, select the file
st_treloar_abq.txt and click OK. In the Read Data from ASCII File dialog
box, click OK. In the Test Data Editor, click OK.
5. You should now be back in the material editor. If you wanted to read in more
experimental data you would repeat this process, selecting Biaxial Test Data,
Planar Test Data, or Volumetric Test Data from the Test Data pull-down
menu. You have finished importing test data for this workshop; thus, click OK in
the material editor.
6. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the material named Treloar; in the
menu that appears, select Evaluate.
The Evaluate Material dialog box has two tabbed pages: Test Setup and Strain
Energy Potentials.
7. In the Test Setup tabbed page, you will accept most of the defaults. However,
you will change the nominal strain values. Enter the value 0.0 in the Min Strain
field and 4.0 in the Max Strain field for the Uniaxial, Biaxial, and Planar tests.
This simply changes the range over which the material model response will be
plotted.
8. Switch to the Strain Energy Potentials tabbed page. Notice that the default
choices for the energy potentials are (full) Polynomial (N=2) and Ogden (N=3).
In addition to these two material models, also select the neo-Hookean model
(expand the Reduced Polynomial list and select N=1 (Neo-Hooke)).
9. When you click OK in the lower left corner of the Evaluate Material dialog box,
Abaqus performs a datacheck analysis to extract the material constants; then the
material response is calculated using a simple set of equations within
Abaqus/CAE. Once the evaluation is complete, the coefficients (such as Mooney-
Rivlin coefficients C10 and C01) and stability limit information are given in the
Material Parameters and Stability Limit Information dialog box. For example,
the Polynomial, N=2 data for this material are shown in Figure W13:
335
W1.6
All of the data in the Material Parameters and Stability Limit Information
dialog box are also written to the data (.dat) file produced by the material
evaluation analysis. Click Dismiss to close the dialog box.
The test results from the material evaluation are automatically displayed in the
Visualization module of Abaqus/CAE, as shown in Figure W14. Each of the
deformation modes is displayed in a separate viewport (you can maximize each
viewport to see the results more clearly). The first thing to notice, by looking at
the uniaxial results, is that the neo-Hookean, Polynomial N=2, and Ogden N=3
models all fit the uniaxial test data reasonably well. However, by looking at the
biaxial and planar results you can see that the Polynomial N=2 response in these
deformation modes is off the scale compared to the responses predicted by the
other two models. The Polynomial N=2 model is in fact very inaccurate in this
case and should not be used. In general, full polynomial models should not be
used when only limited test data are available (for instance, when only uniaxial
tension data are available).
336
W1.7
Next you will use the X-Y plotting capability of the Visualization module to look
further at the Ogden N=3 and neo-Hookean material models.
10. Maximize the viewport with the uniaxial test results.
11. In the Results Tree, expand the XYData container.
12. Use [Ctrl]+Click to select the three data objects associated with the OGDEN_N3
model, the three data objects associated the R_POLY_N1 model and the original
uniaxial test data (Test Data UNIAXIAL Treloar_1). Click mouse button 3,
and from the menu that appears, select Plot.
The resulting X-Y plot is shown in Figure W15.
337
W1.8
Biaxial,
Ogden (N=3)
Notice that the Ogden N=3 biaxial material model response is overly stiff. We
conclude that the Ogden N=3 material model based only on uniaxial test data
should not be used. Like the conclusion drawn earlier for full polynomial models,
this conclusion is indeed generally true.
13. In the XYData container of the Results Tree, select just the three R_POLY_N1
(neo-Hookean) curves and the uniaxial test data. Plot these curves. The resulting
plot is shown in Figure W16.
338
W1.9
Uniaxial
neo-Hookean
Uniaxial
test data
While the uniaxial neo-Hookean response is not as good as we might like, the
neo-Hookean material model predictions in the planar tension and equibiaxial
modes are much better than the Ogden and full polynomial predictions.
14. Using a text editor, open the input (.inp) file that this curve fitting exercise
produced. In this file search for the string *MATERIAL. You will see a fragment of
text such as:
*MATERIAL, NAME=OGDEN_N3
*HYPERELASTIC, OGDEN, N=3, TEST DATA INPUT
*UNIAXIAL TEST DATA
0.0,0.0
0.03,0.02
0.15,0.1
0.23,0.2
0.33,0.34
0.41,0.57
0.51,0.85
0.59,1.13
0.67,1.4
0.86,1.98
1.04,2.55
1.22,3.0
1.59,3.77
1.95,4.37
This is the appropriate syntax for using experimental data to define the Ogden
material model in an Abaqus input file. Following this text you will see the
definitions for the POLYNOMIAL, N=2 and the REDUCED POLYNOMIAL, N=1
339
W1.10
340
Notes
341
Notes
342
Workshop 2
Interactive Version
Note: This workshop provides instructions in terms of the Abaqus GUI
interface. If you wish to use the Abaqus Keywords interface instead, please
see the Keywords version of these instructions.
Goals
In this workshop you will:
Use experimental data from a uniaxial tension test to calibrate various
hyperelastic models in Abaqus/Standard.
Use the Visualization module of Abaqus/CAE to create X-Y plots.
Introduction
Ogden (1972) computed the inflation pressure vs. radial displacement of a spherical
balloon assuming a material stress-strain relationship based on a 3-term fit to Treloars
rubber data (1944):
Initial radius = 10 cm
Thickness = 0.4 mm
343
W2.2
References:
1) Ogden, R.W., Large Deformation Isotropic Elasticity: on the Correlation of
Theory and Experiment for Incompressible Rubberlike Solids, Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, Series A, Vol. 326, pp. 565-584, 1972
2) Treloar, L.R.G., Stress-Strain Data for Vulcanized Rubber under Various Types
of Deformations, Trans. Faraday Soc., Vol. 40, pp. 59-70, 1944
The purpose of this workshop is to simulate the inflation of a spherical balloon and to
compare the FEA results with Ogdens solution, which can be found in the file
balloon_cur.inp.
344
W2.3
Fitting Case 1
First, perform the simulation with the best possible fit to the experimental data:
1. Edit the material definition so that the Ogden strain energy potential of order 3 is
used.
a. In the Model Tree, expand the Materials container and double-click the
material named rubber.
b. Select Ogden as the material strain energy potential.
c. Increase the strain energy potential order to 3.
d. Click OK.
Question W21: How do you pressurize the shell model, given that as the
balloon is inflated the applied pressure increases to a
maximum and then further inflation is achieved with a
reduced pressure?
2. In the Step module, activate the DOF monitor (OutputDOF Monitor). Monitor
the radial displacement (degree of freedom 1) of the set monitor (click Points
in the prompt area).
3. Create a history output request to write the radial displacement (U1) of the set
monitor to the output database (.odb) file (in the Model Tree, double-click
History Output Requests).
4. Apply a pressure load to the inner surface of the balloon (in the Model Tree,
double-click Loads). Choose an arbitrary magnitude for the pressure load (e.g.,
1.0). The magnitude is arbitrary because the problem is solved using the
modified Riks method, and the analysis terminates only when the displacement in
the radial direction passes a specified value: 70 cm in this case.
345
W2.4
5. Edit the job case1 so that model definition data will be printed during
preprocessing (in the Model Tree, double-click the job named case1; activate the
option in the General tabbed page of the job editor). With this option Abaqus will
write detailed model information, including the coefficients used for the
hyperelastic material model, to the data (.dat) file.
6. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the job named case1; in the menu
that appears select Submit to run the analysis job.
7. While the job is running, create a data object containing the Ogden data.
a. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
b. Select ASCII file as the source and select the file balloon_cur.inp.
c. Set the X-axis quantity type to Displacement. This will facilitate
comparison with the curves that will be created later.
d. Save the data as Ogden.
8. When the job completes, open the output database file (case1.odb) in the
Visualization module and use the X-Y plotting capability to compare the
simulation results with the Ogden results. A reasonable comparison can be made
by plotting the pressure versus the radial displacement. The pressure at any time
in the analysis is equal to the product of the load proportionality factor and the
magnitude of the distributed load. Detailed instructions to create the pressure
versus the radial displacement curve from the Riks analysis results are provided
below. Your plot should look similar to Figure W24. (Note the axis labels in this
figure have been customized.)
a. In the Results Tree, expand the History Output container underneath the
output database named case1.odb. Select the radial displacement (U1)
variable for the set MONITOR. Click mouse button 3, and from the menu
that appears, select Save As. Name the X-Y data OgdenN3-U.
b. Click mouse button 3 on the load proportionality factor (LPF) variable;
from the menu that appears, select Save As. Name the X-Y data
OgdenN3-LPF.
c. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
d. Choose Operate on XY data as the source and click Continue.
e. In the Operate on XY Data dialog box, select combine(X, X) from the list
of operators. Select OgdenN3-U and click Add to Expression. Repeat
this for OgdenN3-LPF. If necessary, edit the expression to use the load
magnitude specified earlier for the model (this is not necessary if you used
a load magnitude of 1.0). The final expression is:
combine( "OgdenN3-U", "OgdenN3-LPF"* load_magnitude )
where load_magnitude is the magnitude of the pressure load you applied.
f. Click Save As and name the X-Y data OgdenN3-PvU.
g. Plot both curves (Ogden and OgdenN3-PvU) simultaneously.
346
W2.5
Fitting Case 2
Ogdens analysis reveals that for a single-term Ogden strain energy function with
23 3, a maximum inflation pressure exists but no minimum pressure exists.
For such values the pressure reaches a maximum and then decreases eventually to
zero.
Question W22: Can you confirm this numerically?
1. Reduce the strain energy potential order of the material name rubber to 1.
2. Create a new job named case2 and rerun the analysis. Check the value of
(run the job with model data printed during preprocessing and look for
ALPHA_I in the .dat file).
3. Compare the results with case1 using the Visualization module.
347
W2.6
Fitting Case 3
Suppose that not all three types of test data are available and all we have is the
uniaxial test data:
1. Copy the model named case1 to a new model named case3 (in the Model Tree,
click mouse button 3 on the model named case1; in the menu that appears, select
Copy Model).
2. In the new model, delete the biaxial and shear test data.
a. In the Model Tree, expand the Materials container and double-click rubber.
b. At the top of the material editor, select Biaxial Test Data and click Delete.
c. Select Planar Test Data and click Delete.
d. Set the strain energy potential to Ogden N = 3.
e. Click OK.
3. Create a job named case3 and run the analysis.
Question W23: Are the results of the simulation realistic? Are the results
different if we fit the hyperelastic constants to the biaxial test
data only? Why?
Note: With the biaxial test data only, Abaqus fails to
converge on the material coefficients when Ogden N = 3;
use Ogden N = 2.
4. Calibrate the following material models with just the uniaxial test data:
a. Yeoh
b. Reduced Polynomial, N = 2
c. Arruda-Boyce
d. Van der Waals with = 0
e. Marlow
Note: The Marlow model requires that the test data include a data point
corresponding to zero stress at zero strain. You must add this point to the
uniaxial test data to use this material model.
Rerun each to simulate the balloon inflation.
348
Notes
349
Notes
350
Workshop Answers 2
Interactive Version
Question W21: How do you pressurize the shell model, given that as the balloon
is inflated the applied pressure increases to a maximum and then
further inflation is achieved with a reduced pressure?
Answer: The Riks method must be used when a structure has a negative
slope in the global force-deflection curve (a global instability).
With the Riks method both the displacement and load applied to a
structure are considered unknowns.
351
WA2.2
Answer: No. The Ogden N = 3 model calibrated with only uniaxial test
data produces results that are much too stiff.
352
WA2.3
Question W23b: Are the results different if we fit the hyperelastic constants to the
biaxial test data only? Why?
Answer: Yes. When we use just the biaxial test data to curve fit our Ogden
hyperelastic material model the pressure vs. radial displacement
curve looks good out to about 40 cm of radial displacement. The
reason for this is coincidentalthe deformation mode in spherical
balloon inflation just happens to be almost exactly that of
equibiaxial tension. In fact, some researchers use a disk inflation
experiment to measure equibiaxial tension stress-strain
relationships.
353
WA2.4
354
Notes
355
Notes
356
Workshop 3
Interactive Version
Note: This workshop provides instructions in terms of the Abaqus GUI
interface. If you wish to use the Abaqus Keywords interface instead, please
see the Keywords version of these instructions.
Goals
When you complete this workshop, you will be able to:
Obtain an N-term Prony series fit to given relaxation data.
Examine this fit numerically and graphically for N = 1, N = 2, and N = 3.
Modify a model to conduct a shear-relaxation analysis in Abaqus/Standard.
View the shear relaxation modulus versus time in the Visualization module for
N = 1 and N = 3.
Define the temperature-dependent viscoelastic properties, and demonstrate the
effect that raising the temperature has on the relaxation curve.
Attempt gross time integration of viscoelastic equations by using a large
viscoelastic strain error tolerance (CETOL).
Simulate a simple shear creep test and study the effects of using a large
viscoelastic strain error tolerance.
357
W3.2
Introduction
The following is a normalized shear relaxation modulus for polycarbonate of bisphenol
taken approximately from Mercier (1965)1:
1
Mercier, J. P., Journal of Applied Polymer Science, vol. 9, pp 447-459, 1965.
358
W3.3
Problems
359
W3.4
You can use the command line interface (CLI) of Abaqus/CAE as a simple
calculator. Click the tab in the bottom left corner of the Abaqus/CAE
window to activate the CLI.
4. Add viscoelastic properties to Material-1. Use the normalized shear relaxation
modulus data for polycarbonate of bisphenol provided in Table 31 and the file
bis_cur.inp.
a. From the material editor's menu bar, select MechanicalElasticity
Viscoelastic.
b. Select Time in the Domain field and Relaxation test data in the Time
field.
c. Decrease the maximum number of terms in the Prony series to 3 and set
the allowable average root-mean-square error to 0.05.
Note: a fit with an order N that is larger than 3 will not attempted; fewer
terms may be used if the error tolerance is satisfied.
d. Click Test Data and select Shear Test Data.
The Test Data Editor appears. You will read in the normalized shear
relaxation modulus (gR) and time data pairs from the file bis_cur.inp
as follows.
e. In the Test Data Editor, click mouse button 3 in the first cell of the data
table and select Read from File.
360
W3.5
f. In the Read Data from ASCII File dialog box, select the file
bis_cur.inp and click OK.
g. In the Test Data Editor, click, click OK.
h. In the Edit Material dialog box, click OK.
5. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the material named Material-1. In the
menu that appears, select Evaluate.
6. In the Evaluate Material dialog box, select Stress Relaxation as the response
mode (i.e., deselect Creep) and specify a time period of 10000. Click OK.
7. When you click OK in the lower left corner of the Evaluate Material dialog box,
Abaqus performs a datacheck analysis to extract the material constants; then the
material response is calculated using a simple set of equations within
Abaqus/CAE. Once the evaluation is complete, the Prony series terms are given in
the Material Parameters and Stability Limit Information dialog box.
8. The test results from the material evaluation are automatically displayed in the
Visualization module of Abaqus/CAE. By default, linear scales are used for the
plot. Customize the plot as follows:
In the Results Tree, expand the XYData container.
Rename the SHEARRELAXATION* curve to N1-10000.
Delete the first data point of curve N1-10000 and set the X-axis type to
Time and the Y-axis type to Stress (click mouse button 3 on the curve
name and select Edit from the menu that appears).
Plot N1-10000 together with BIS.
Using the method indicated earlier, change both axis types to logarithmic.
Figure W32 (left) shows how the one-term Prony series fits the normalized
relaxation curve. The data is skewed towards times greater than 250 and shows a
constant value.
To get a more complete representation of the fit over the entire timescale,
re-evaluate the material using time periods of 2, 75, and 1000.
After each evaluation, expand the XYData container of the Results Tree,
and rename the corresponding SHEARRELAXATION* curve to N1-2, N1-
75, or N1-1000 (according to the time period).
Delete the first data point of the N1-75 and N1-1000 curves.
Set the X-axis type of each N1-* curve to Time and the Y-axis type of
each to Stress.
Figure W32 (right) shows the complete fit using the four evaluations.
361
W3.6
Test data
N=1 N=1
Test data
The plot seems to indicate that the fit is good for the first four data points, but
after that the fit is poor. However, the logarithmic scale for the Y-axis (which
represents the stress in a relaxation test) tends to exaggerate the misfit for very
small values of gR at large times and understate the misfit at large values of gR.
Question W32: How much should the total stress change as a fraction of the
initial stress after t=100 in a relaxation test?
9. Try making the Y-axis linearly spaced, and assess the fit again.
a. Double-click the Y-axis.
b. In the Scale tabbed page of the Axis Options dialog box, choose the
Linear scale type. Click OK.
The fit is not very good even for the second data point.
10. Modify the viscoelastic properties of Material-1 (in the Model Tree, double-click
Material-1) to decrease the allowable error to 0.025. Evaluate the material using
time periods of 250 and 10000. Rename each curve N2-250 and N2-10000,
respectively. Delete the first data point of each N2-* curve; set the X-axis type of
each to Time and the Y-axis type of each to Stress.
Question W33: What effect does restricting the allowable error have on the
number of terms used?
362
W3.7
11. Modify the viscoelastic properties of Material-1 to further decrease the allowable
error to 0.01. This will force Abaqus to use three terms in the curve fit. Evaluate
the material using time periods of 250 and 10000. Rename each curve N3-250
and N3-10000, respectively. Delete the first data point of each N3-* curve; set
the X-axis type of each to Time and the Y-axis type of each to Stress.
12. Display all the curves in an X-Y plot, as shown in Figure W33.
N=1
N=2
N=3
The long-term behavior is somewhat off for all of the Prony series fits. We can
specify the long-term modulus exactly at the top of the shear test data editor,
although this will not necessarily produce a better overall fit.
Question W34: Is the curve for N = 3 really better than the curve for N = 2? Is
the fit for N = 3 good enough after t = 100? (View it with a
linear Y-axis scale.)
We had a crude set of data points for the original curve. The curve-fitting
procedure for the Prony parameters only fits to the given data points; i.e., those
marked by a square in the graph.
363
W3.8
1. Copy the model relax to relax1 (in the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the
model named relax and select Copy Model in the menu that appears), and make
the following modifications:
a. Modify the viscoelastic properties of Material-1. Set the maximum
number of terms in the Prony series to 1 and adjust the average root-mean-
square error tolerance in such a way that this single Prony series parameter
will be accepted (e.g., set to 0.03).
b. In the Model Tree, double-click the Steps container to create a Visco step
after Step-1 with a total time of 1000 and an initial time increment of 1E-
2. Specify a viscoelastic strain error tolerance (CETOL) of 0.05E-2 to
allow automatic time incrementation. (This value was arrived at as
follows: the total creep strain when the material relaxes fully will be 0.01,
which is equal to the instantaneously applied shear strain. We can force at
least 20 increments by taking CETOL to be 0.01/20.)
c. In the Model Tree, double-click the History Output Requests container
to create a history output request in Step-2. Request shear stress S12 and
shear strain E12 for the set plate.
d. In the Model Tree, double-click the BCs container to create a
Displacement/Rotation boundary condition in Step-1 named moveTop.
Apply the boundary condition to the set top and specify a U1
displacement of 0.01. This will put the model into a state of simple shear
with a positive shear strain of 0.01 during the first step.
364
W3.9
The shear modulus of 100 was chosen so that the shear stress in this test will
coincide with the normalized shear relaxation modulus:
R
G (t ) 0
G0 g (t ) 0
.
Question W35: Are the results from the viscoelasticity analysis true to the
Prony series defined for it?
365
W3.10
Question W36: What do you notice? What is the value of the time shift? Does
it correspond to the calculated value in the notes?
366
W3.11
Question W37: Why did the integration procedure produce good results with
such large time increments?
367
W3.12
368
W3.13
369
370
Notes
371
Notes
372
Workshop Answers 3
Interactive Version
Question W31: What is wrong with the curve?
Question W32: How much should the total stress change as a fraction of the initial
stress after t=100 in a relaxation test?
Question W33: What effect does restricting the allowable error have on the number
of terms used?
Answer: More terms are required. With a 2.5% allowable error, two Prony
series terms are used.
Question W34: Is the curve for N=3 really better than the curve for N=2? Is the fit
for N=3 good enough after t=100? (View it with a linear Y-axis
scale.)
Answer: The distinction between the N=3 curve and the N=2 curve can be
misleading on the logarithmic scale. When viewed on a linear scale,
the differences appear to be very minor.
Question W35: Are the results from the viscoelasticity analysis true to the Prony
series defined for it?
Answer: Yes.
373
WA3.2
Question W36: What do you notice? What is the value of the time shift? Does it
correspond to the calculated value in the notes?
Question W37: Why did the integration procedure produce good results with such
large time increments?
Answer: The viscoelastic equations are integrated exactly when the total
strain varies linearly over an increment. In this case the strain is
constant. Thus a large viscoelastic strain error tolerance (CETOL)
will not affect the accuracy of a simple stress-relaxation problem.
374
Notes
375
Notes
376
Workshop 2
Keywords Version
Note: This workshop provides instructions in terms of the Abaqus
Keywords interface. If you wish to use the Abaqus GUI interface instead,
please see the Interactive version of these instructions.
Goals
In this workshop you will:
Use experimental data from a uniaxial tension test to calibrate various
hyperelastic models in Abaqus/Standard.
Use the Visualization module of Abaqus/CAE to create X-Y plots.
Introduction
Ogden (1972) computed the inflation pressure vs. radial displacement of a spherical
balloon assuming a material stress-strain relationship based on a 3-term fit to Treloars
rubber data (1944):
Initial radius = 10 cm
Thickness = 0.4 mm
377
W2.2
References:
1) Ogden, R.W., Large Deformation Isotropic Elasticity: on the Correlation of
Theory and Experiment for Incompressible Rubberlike Solids, Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, Series A, Vol. 326, pp. 565-584, 1972
2) Treloar, L.R.G., Stress-Strain Data for Vulcanized Rubber under Various Types
of Deformations, Trans. Faraday Soc., Vol. 40, pp. 59-70, 1944
The purpose of this workshop is to simulate the inflation of a spherical balloon and to
compare the FEA results with Ogdens solution, which can be found in the file
balloon_cur.inp.
378
W2.3
Fitting Case 1
First, perform the simulation with the best possible fit to the experimental data:
1. Add the parameters TEST DATA INPUT, OGDEN, N=3 to the *HYPERELASTIC
option, so that the entire line reads:
*HYPERELASTIC, TEST DATA INPUT, OGDEN, N=3
Question W21: How do you pressurize the shell model, given that as the
balloon is inflated the applied pressure increases to a
maximum and then further inflation is achieved with a
reduced pressure?
2. Define a distributed pressure load across all elements of the shell. Choose an
arbitrary magnitude for this load (e.g., 1.0). The magnitude is arbitrary because
we are using the modified Riks method, and the analysis terminates only when the
displacement in the radial direction passes a specified value: 70 cm in this case.
3. Monitor the radial displacement of node 512 with the *MONITOR history option.
4. Run the analysis.
5. While the job is running, open Abaqus/Viewer and create a data object containing
the Ogden data.
a. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
b. Select ASCII file as the source and select the file balloon_cur.inp.
c. Set the X-axis quantity type to Displacement. This will facilitate
comparison with the curves that will be created later.
d. Save the data as Ogden.
379
W2.4
6. When the job completes, open the output database file (balloon.odb) in
Abaqus/Viewer and use the X-Y plotting capability to compare the simulation
results with the Ogden results. A reasonable comparison can be made by plotting
the pressure versus the radial displacement. The pressure at any time in the
analysis is equal to the product of the load proportionality factor and the
magnitude of the distributed load. Detailed instructions to create the pressure
versus the radial displacement curve from the Riks analysis results are provided
below. Your plot should look similar to Figure W24. (Note the axis labels in this
figure have been customized.)
a. In the Results Tree, expand the History Output container underneath the
output database named balloon.odb. Select the radial displacement (U1)
variable for the set N_OUT. Click mouse button 3, and from the menu that
appears, select Save As. Name the X-Y data OgdenN3-U.
b. Click mouse button 3 on the load proportionality factor (LPF) variable;
from the menu that appears, select Save As. Name the X-Y data
OgdenN3-LPF.
c. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
d. Choose Operate on XY data as the source and click Continue.
e. In the Operate on XY Data dialog box, select combine(X, X) from the list
of operators. Select OgdenN3-U and click Add to Expression. Repeat
this for OgdenN3-LPF. If necessary, edit the expression to use the load
magnitude specified earlier for the model (this is not necessary if you used
a load magnitude of 1.0). The final expression is:
combine( "OgdenN3-U", "OgdenN3-LPF"* load_magnitude )
where load_magnitude is the magnitude of the pressure load you applied.
f. Click Save As and name the X-Y data OgdenN3-PvU.
g. Plot both curves (Ogden and OgdenN3-PvU) simultaneously.
380
W2.5
Fitting Case 2
Ogdens analysis reveals that for a single-term Ogden strain energy function with
23 3, a maximum inflation pressure exists but no minimum pressure exists.
For such values the pressure reaches a maximum and then decreases eventually to
zero.
Question W22: Can you confirm this numerically?
1. Set N=1 on the *HYPERELASTIC option and check the value of (look for
ALPHA_I in the .dat file).
2. Rerun the analysis.
3. Compare the results using the Visualization module.
Fitting Case 3
Suppose that not all three types of test data are available and all we have is the
uniaxial test data:
1. Make a copy of the input file.
2. In the new file, delete the biaxial and shear test data.
3. Fit the hyperelastic constants with OGDEN, N=3.
4. Rerun the analysis.
Question W23: Are the results of the simulation realistic? Are the results
different if we fit the hyperelastic constants to the biaxial test
data only? Why?
Note: With the biaxial test data only, Abaqus fails to
converge on the material coefficients when Ogden N = 3;
use Ogden N = 2.
5. Calibrate the following material models with just the uniaxial test data:
a. Yeoh
b. Reduced Polynomial, N = 2
c. Arruda-Boyce
d. Van der Waals with = 0
e. Marlow
Note: The Marlow model requires that the test data include a data point
corresponding to zero stress at zero strain. You must add this point to the
uniaxial test data to use this material model.
Rerun each to simulate the balloon inflation.
Question W24: What can we conclude from all this?
381
W2.6
Note: Complete input files are available for your convenience. You may
consult these files if you encounter difficulties following the instructions
outlined here or if you wish to check your work. The input files are named
ball_ogden1.inp
ball_ogden3.inp
ball_uni.inp
382
Notes
383
Notes
384
Workshop Answers 2
Keywords Version
Question W21: How do you pressurize the shell model, given that as the balloon is
inflated the applied pressure increases to a maximum and then
further inflation is achieved with a reduced pressure?
Answer: The Riks method must be used when a structure has a negative
slope in the global force-deflection curve (a global instability). With
the Riks method both the displacement and load applied to a
structure are considered unknowns.
385
WA2.2
Answer: No. The Ogden N = 3 model calibrated with only uniaxial test data
produces results that are much too stiff.
386
WA2.3
Question W23b: Are the results different if we fit the hyperelastic constants to the
biaxial test data only? Why?
Answer: Yes. When we use just the biaxial test data to curve fit our Ogden
hyperelastic material model the pressure vs. radial displacement
curve looks good out to about 40 cm of radial displacement. The
reason for this is coincidentalthe deformation mode in spherical
balloon inflation just happens to be almost exactly that of
equibiaxial tension. In fact, some researchers use a disk inflation
experiment to measure equibiaxial tension stress-strain
relationships.
387
WA2.4
388
Notes
389
Notes
390
Workshop 3
Keywords Version
Note: This workshop provides instructions in terms of the Abaqus
Keywords interface. If you wish to use the Abaqus GUI interface instead,
please see the Interactive version of these instructions.
Goals
When you complete this workshop, you will be able to:
Obtain an N-term Prony series fit to given relaxation data.
Examine this fit numerically and graphically for N = 1, N = 2, and N = 3.
Modify an input file to conduct a shear-relaxation analysis in Abaqus/Standard.
View the shear relaxation modulus versus time in Abaqus/Viewer for N = 1
and N = 3.
Define the temperature-dependent viscoelastic properties, and demonstrate the
effect that raising the temperature has on the relaxation curve.
Attempt gross time integration of viscoelastic equations by using a large CETOL.
Simulate a simple shear creep test and the effects of using a large CETOL.
391
W3.2
Introduction
The following is a normalized shear relaxation modulus for polycarbonate of bisphenol
taken approximately from Mercier (1965)1:
1
Mercier, J. P., Journal of Applied Polymer Science, vol. 9, pp 447-459, 1965.
392
W3.3
Problems
393
W3.4
Now enter the Prony series parameters for the N=1 fit we obtained (these
parameters will come from the data file relax_data1.dat where they are
labeled GP(TI) and TI). Then, specify some values of time in the table and
see how good the fit was. Observe, in particular, the fit for t=12.589.
The program does nothing more than evaluate the Prony series form for the
normalized shear relaxation modulus in terms of time:
394
W3.5
N t i .
g R (t ) 1 gi (1 e )
i 1
5. Enter a negative value of t to continue with the program, and write out the
normalized shear relaxation modulus for 30 intervals of time in the range
1E-2 seconds to 1E4 seconds. Write the data to the file n1.cur.
6. You can now compare the results of the Abaqus model with N=1 and the
experimental data using Abaqus/Viewer.
a. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
b. Select ASCII file as the source, and click Continue.
c. Next to the File field, click Select to browse for the file n1.cur. The X-
values (time) should be read from field 1, and the Y-values (shear
relaxation modulus) should be read from field 2.
Note: The order of the data pairs in n1.cur (time then shear relaxation
modulus) is the opposite of the data pair order in bis_cur.inp.
d. Set the X-axis quantity type to Time and the Y-axis quantity type to
Stress.
e. In the lower left corner of the dialog box, click Save As. Name the X-Y
data N1, and click OK.
f. In the XY Data From ASCII File dialog box, click Cancel.
g. Expand the XYData container of the Results Tree, select both BIS and N1,
and click mouse button 3. From the menu that appears, select Plot.
The output should look like the graph below:
395
W3.6
The plot seems to indicate that the fit is good for the first four data points, but after that
the fit is poor. However, the logarithmic scale for the Y-axis (which represents the stress
in a relaxation test) tends to exaggerate the misfit for very small values of gR at large
times and understate the misfit at large values of gR.
Question W32: How much should the total stress change as a fraction of the
initial stress after t=100 in a relaxation test?
7. Try making the Y-axis linearly spaced, and assess the fit again.
a. Double-click the Y-axis.
b. In the Scale tabbed page of the Axis Options dialog box, choose the
Linear scale type. Click OK.
The fit is not very good even for the second data point.
8. Modify relax_data1.inp to remove the NMAX restriction (a default
restriction of 13 points will be applied). Run another datacheck analysis.
9. Run the program prony_prog again, enter the data for N = 2, and write the data
to a file named n2.cur. Then run prony_prog with the data for N = 3; write the
data to a file named n3.cur.
396
W3.7
10. Now read curves N2 and N3 into Abaqus/Viewer, and display all the curves again.
Question W34: Is the curve for N = 3 really better than the curve for N = 2? Is
the fit for N = 3 good enough after t = 100? (View it with a
linear Y-axis scale.)
We had a crude set of data points for the original curve. The curve-fitting
procedure for the Prony parameters only fits to the given data points; i.e., those
marked by a circle in the graph.
11. Try to obtain a better fit by tightening the tolerance with the ERRTOL parameter
(try ERRTOL = 0.001). The parameters for N = 7 to N = 13 are not listed because
they contain negative moduli.
Here is a graph of the various fits with a linear Y-axis scale:
397
W3.8
1. Copy the file relax_data1.inp to relax1.inp, and modify the file so that the
first step puts the element into simple shear with a positive shear strain of .01
(move only nodes 3 and 4). Now add a VISCO step with an initial time
increment of 1E-2 and a total time of 1000. Use a CETOL parameter of 0.05E-2
to allow automatic time incrementation. (This value for CETOL was arrived at as
follows: the total creep strain when the material relaxes fully will be .01, which is
398
W3.9
R
G (t ) 0
G0 g (t ) 0
.
Question W35: Are the results from the viscoelasticity analysis true to the
Prony series defined for it?
7. Similarly, compare curve S3 with curve N3. The data points for curve S3 can be
viewed by using the XY Curve Options in Abaqus/Viewer.
The integration of the viscoelastic equations is very accurate.
399
W3.10
Question W36: What do you notice? What is the value of the time shift? Does
it correspond to the calculated value in the notes?
Figure W35 shows the normalized relaxation moduli versus time.
400
W3.11
Question W37: Why did the integration procedure produce good results with
such large time increments?
401
W3.12
Note: Complete input files are available for your convenience. You may
consult these files if you encounter difficulties following the instructions
outlined here or if you wish to check your work. The input files are named
relax_data1.inp relax_hot.inp
relax_data3.inp relax_coarse.inp
relax_data_err.inp creep.inp
relax1.inp creep_coarse.inp
relax3.inp
and are available using the Abaqus fetch utility.
402
Notes
403
Notes
404
Workshop Answers 3
Keywords Version
Question W31: What is wrong with the curve?
Question W32: How much should the total stress change as a fraction of the initial
stress after t=100 in a relaxation test?
Question W33: Does this procedure find a satisfactory set of Prony parameters?
Abaqus tries N=1 and N=2 before going to N=3.
Question W34: Is the curve for N=3 really better than the curve for N=2? Is the fit
for N=3 good enough after t=100? (View it with a linear Y-axis
scale.)
Answer: The distinction between the N=3 curve and the N=2 curve can be
misleading on the logarithmic scale. When viewed on a linear scale,
the differences appear to be very minor.
Question W35: Are the results from the viscoelasticity analysis true to the Prony
series defined for it?
Answer: Yes.
405
WA3.2
Question W36: What do you notice? What is the value of the time shift? Does it
correspond to the calculated value in the notes?
Question W37: Why did the integration procedure produce good results with such
large time increments?
Answer: The viscoelastic equations are integrated exactly when the total
strain varies linearly over an increment. In this case the strain is
constant. Thus a large CETOL will not affect the accuracy of a
simple stress-relaxation problem.
406
Notes
407
Notes
408