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Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity

with Abaqus

Motivation

Rubber materials are found in many components.


Some of these are illustrated on the following slide.
Rubber applications include tires, gaskets, and bushings, among
others.
The vast number of applications that use rubber materials necessitates
a good understanding of the modeling techniques used to analyze
rubber components.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


1
Motivation

Tire

Deck lid Gasket

Mount
Bushing
Boot

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Day 1

Lecture 1 Rubber Physics

Lecture 2 Rubber Elasticity Models

Lecture 3 Physical Testing

Lecture 4 Curve Fitting

Lecture 5 Abaqus Usage

Workshop 1

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


2
Day 2

Lecture 6 Modeling Considerations and Usage Tips in


Abaqus
Workshop 2

Lecture 7 Viscoelastic Material Behavior

Lecture 8 Time Domain Viscoelasticity

Lecture 9 Frequency Domain Viscoelasticity

Lecture 10 Time-Temperature Correspondence

Workshop 3

Lecture 11 Modeling Advanced Behaviors

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Additional Material

Appendix 1 Finite Deformations


Appendix 2 Rubber Elasticity Models: Mathematical Forms
Appendix 3 Linear Viscoelasticity Theory
Appendix 4 Harmonic Viscoelasticity Theory
Appendix 5 Suggested Reading

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


3
Legal Notices

The Abaqus Software described in this documentation is available only under license from
Dassault Systmes and its subsidiary and may be used or reproduced only in accordance with the
terms of such license.
This documentation and the software described in this documentation are subject to change
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No part of this documentation may be reproduced or distributed in any form without prior written
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Dassault Systmes, 2009.
Printed in the United States of America
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respective owners. For additional information concerning trademarks, copyrights, and licenses,
see the Legal Notices in the Abaqus 6.9 Release Notes and the notices at:
http://www.simulia.com/products/products_legal.html.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Revision Status

Lecture 1 3/09 Updated for 6.9 Workshop 1 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 2 3/09 Updated for 6.9 Workshop 2 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 3 3/09 Updated for 6.9 Workshop 3 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 4 3/09 Updated for 6.9 Workshop Answers 2 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 5 3/09 Updated for 6.9 Workshop Answers 3 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 6 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 7 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 8 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 9 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 10 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Lecture 11 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Appendix 1 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Appendix 2 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Appendix 3 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Appendix 4 3/09 Updated for 6.9
Appendix 5 3/09 Updated for 6.9

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


4
Notes

5
Notes

6
Rubber Physics
Lecture 1

L1.2

Overview

Solid Rubber
Network Structure
Vulcanization
Temperature and Time Dependence
Damage
Real Stress - Strain Response
Anisotropy
Rubber Foams
Cellular Structure
Compressive vs. Tensile Behavior

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


7
Solid Rubber

L1.4

Solid Rubber: Network Structure

Network of many entangled polymer chains


E in the picture represents points of
entanglement
Long chains slide across each other; the
network acts as a viscous fluid.
Examples: natural rubber as extracted,
latex
Network has randomness of orientation.
Behavior is isotropic
Vulcanization process (sulphur and heat)
creates chemical bonds between chains at
points of entanglement we call these bonds
cross-links. Changes behavior to that of viscous
solid. Cross-link density changes the modulus.
from Engineering Materials 2, by Ashby & Jones
Fillers such as carbon black create additional
bonds and modify the mechanical behavior.
Fillers may also introduce microstructural
changes that lead anisotropic response.
Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus
8
L1.5

Solid Rubber: Vulcanization

Curing or vulcanization produces additional chemical bonds called


cross-links; these bonds stiffen the elastomer network.

Cross-link density is function of


degree of cure, related to curing
process, cure temperature, and
curing duration.
Be very careful that your real
component and test specimens
share the same cure history, thus
the same stiffness.
Best solution: cut test
specimens from actual parts.

from Engineering Materials 2, by Ashby & Jones

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L1.6

Solid Rubber: Temperature Dependence

Temperature dependence
The mobility of these long-chain molecules is strongly temperature
dependent.
At extremely low temperatures (relative to the glass transition
temperature) the chains are very immobile and the material
behaves as a brittle or glassy solid very stiff.
At higher temperatures the long-chain molecules are more mobile
and the material exhibits what we call a rubbery behavior.
Even in the rubbery regime, the long-chain mobility is still quite
temperature dependent and the force-displacement behavior, stress-
strain behavior, or modulus becomes softer as the temperature rises.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


9
L1.7

Solid Rubber: Time Dependence

Viscoelastic behavior
The sliding of entangled long-chain molecules gives rise to rubbers
time-dependent or viscoelastic behavior

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L1.8

Solid Rubber: Time Dependence

Hysteresis behavior
Long-molecules rub against each other (dissipate energy). In a
load/unload cycle this appears as hysteresis.
Dissipated energy appears as heat.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


10
L1.9

Solid Rubber: Damage

Cross-link damage may result from straining.


The Mullins effect specifically references loss of stiffness damage.

Idealized
behavior

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L1.10

Solid Rubber: Real Stress-Strain Response

Typical uniaxial tension response


Load, unload cycles show damage, hysteresis, and permanent set
Progressive loads show progressive damage

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


11
L1.11

Solid Rubber: Anisotropy

Anisotropy
Certain elastomers such as fiber-reinforced or particle-filled rubbers and
soft biological tissues exhibit anisotropic behavior.

axial

circumferential

Iliac adventitial strips cut along the axial,


circumferential, and 15 directions of an artery

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Rubber Foams

12
L1.13

Rubber Foams

Porous rubbers, or elastomeric foams (which we will regularly refer to


as foams), have the following properties:

Elastomeric foams are made of rubber materials that can deform


elastically to very large strains (500 or more in tension, or 90 or
more in compression).

Elastomeric foams are distinct from crushable foams that undergo


nonrecoverable (inelastic) deformation.

The porosity of foam permits very large volumetric deformations, as


opposed to solid rubbers, which are almost incompressible.

Poissons ratio of solid rubber 0.5

Poissons ratio of (highly voided) foam rubber 0.0

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L1.14

Rubber Foams: Structure

Foams are made up of polyhedral cells that pack in three dimensions.


The foam cells can either be open (e.g., sponge) or closed (e.g., flotation
foam).
Common examples of elastomeric foam materials are cellular polymers
such as cushions, padding, and packaging materials that utilize the
excellent energy absorption properties of foams.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


13
L1.15

Rubber Foams: Compressive Behavior

Foams are commonly loaded in compression.


A typical compressive stress-strain
curve is shown at right.
Three stages can be observed:
At small strains (< 5 ) the foam
deforms in a linear elastic manner
as a result of cell wall bending.

This is followed by a plateau of deformation at almost constant stress.


Caused by the elastic buckling of the columns or plates that make up
the cell edges or walls.
Finally, a region of densification develops.
The cell walls crush together, resulting in a rapid increase of
compressive stress.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L1.16

Rubber Foams: Tensile Behavior

The tensile deformation


mechanisms are similar to the
compression mechanisms for
small strains but differ for
large strains.

A typical tensile stress-strain


curve is shown at right.
Two stages can be observed:
At small strains the foam deforms in a linear, elastic manner.
This is due to cell wall bending (similar to that in compression).
The cell walls rotate and align, resulting in rising stiffness.
The walls are substantially aligned at a tensile strain of about 0.33.
Further stretching results in increased axial strains in the walls.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


14
L1.17

Rubber Foams

At small strains for both compression and tension, the average


experimentally observed Poissons ratio of foams is about 0.33.
At larger strains it is commonly observed that Poissons ratio is
effectively zero during compression.
The buckling of the cell walls does not result in any significant
lateral deformation.
However, during tension is nonzero, which is a result of the alignment
and stretching of the cell walls.
The manufacture of foams often results in cells with different principal
dimensions.
This shape anisotropy results in different loading responses in
different directions.
However, the hyperfoam material model in Abaqus does not take
this kind of initial anisotropy into account.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

15
16
Notes

17
Notes

18
Rubber Elasticity Models
Lecture 2

L2.2

Overview

Introduction
Solid Rubber Models
Automatic Material Evaluation
Choosing a Strain Energy Function
Mullins Effect
Foam Rubber Model

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


19
Introduction

L2.4

Introduction

As discussed in the previous lecture, the behavior of rubber is


characterized by many complex physical phenomena.
However, in this lecture (and throughout the bulk of this course), the
focus is on the most commonly modeled rubber material behavior:
elastic and isotropic.
The following basic assumptions are made:
The material behavior is elastic (permanent set is discussed in Lecture 11).
The material is initially isotropic (anisotropy is discussed in Lecture 11).
For solid rubber, the material is approximately incompressible.
This is true only if the material has room to shear.
For foam rubber, the material is highly compressible.
All deformation occurs instantaneously.
Viscous effects are modeled by including a separate viscoelastic or
hysteresis model.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


20
L2.5

Introduction

The mechanical behavior of rubber (hyperelastic or hyperfoam)


materials is expressed in terms of a strain energy potential
U (F )
U U ( F ), such that S ,
F
where S is a stress measure and F is a measure of deformation.
Why use an energy potential?It guarantees reversibility
(elasticity).
Assuming the material is initially isotropic, we write the strain energy
potential in terms of the strain invariants I1, I 2 , and J el :
U U ( I1 , I 2 , J el ).
I1 and I 2 are measures of deviatoric strain
J el is the volume ratio, a measure of volumetric strain.
A detailed discussion of finite deformation theory and the
mathematical forms of the different rubber models available
in Abaqus is presented in Appendices 1 and 2.
Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Solid Rubber Models

21
L2.7

Solid Rubber Models

Abaqus includes many different models for solid rubber. Each model
defines the strain energy function in a different way.
Physically-motivated models:
Physically-motivated models consider the material response from
the viewpoint of the microstructure.
The rubber is idealized as long chains of cross-linked polymeric
molecules.
Models based on phenomenological theory:
Phenomenological theory treats the problem from the viewpoint of
continuum mechanics.
A mathematical framework is constructed to characterize the
observed stress-strain behavior without reference to the
microscopic structure.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L2.8

Solid Rubber Models

Physically-motivated models Material parameters


(deviatoric behavior)
Arruda-Boyce 2
Van der Waals 4

Phenomenological models
Polynomial (order N) 2N
Mooney-Rivlin (1st order) 2
Reduced polynomial (independent of I 2 ) N
Neo-Hookean (1st order) 1
3
Yeoh (3rd order)
2N
Ogden (order N)
N/A
Marlow (independent of I 2 )

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


22
L2.9

Solid Rubber Models

Why so many models?


Historical
Oldest models (polynomial and Ogden) based on continuum
mechanics theory.
Difficult to fit data.
Physically motivated models more recent.
Easier to calibrate with limited test data.
Literature
Can find data in the literature for these models (i.e., have already
been calibrated).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L2.10

Solid Rubber Models

Comparison of the solid rubber models


Gum stock uniaxial data (Gerke):
Crude data but captures essential characteristics.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


23
L2.11

Solid Rubber Models

Unit-element uniaxial tension tests are performed with Abaqus.


All material parameters are evaluated automatically by Abaqus.

Although we are considering only a specific test case, some fairly


general conclusions may still be drawn.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L2.12

Solid Rubber Models

Neo-Hookean Model
Earliest rubber material model
from the 1930s.
Cannot capture the upturn in
the stress-strain curve.
Good approximation at small
strains.
Simple to use.
Single material shear parameter:
1
U C10 ( I1 3) ( J el 1)2 .
D1
Positive C10 guarantees stability
but produces curves of fixed Note that in this figure, a better
shape; D1 controls fit would result if the last two
compressibility. data points were omitted.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


24
L2.13

Solid Rubber Models

Mooney-Rivlin Model (two term model)


Rubber material model from the
1940s.
Two-parameter shear model:
1 el
U C10 ( I1 3) C01 ( I 2 3) (J 1) 2 .
D1
Allows shape change.
Cannot capture the upturn in the
stress-strain curve.
Reasonable fits to moderate strains.
Positive C10 and C01 guarantee
stability.
1 1 Note that in this figure, a better
Rule of thumb: C01 C10 to C10 fit would result if the last two
10 4
data points were omitted.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L2.14

Solid Rubber Models

Full Polynomial Models


Generalized form of the Mooney-Rivlin model
N N
i j 1
U Cij ( I1 3) ( I 2 3) ( J el 1) 2i .
i j 1 i 1
Di
The Cij control the shear behavior
The Di control the bulk (hydrostatic) compressibility
Abaqus allows up to order N = 6 in the above function
Order N = 1 gives the classic two-term Mooney-Rivlin model
Order N = 2 gives 5 terms, with coefficients C10 C01 C20 C11 C02

2
0 2(C10 C01 ) K0
D1

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


25
L2.15

Solid Rubber Models

Reduced Polynomial Models


The reduced polynomial form does not include any dependence on I2
There are several rationales for eliminating I2 from the strain energy
function (see Yeoh, 1993):
- The sensitivity of the strain energy functions to variations in I2 is
generally much smaller than the sensitivity to variations in I1 .
- It is difficult to measure the influence of I2 on the strain energy
function, so it might be better to avoid introducing coefficients
calibrated from potentially inaccurate data into the function.
- It appears that eliminating the terms containing I2 from the strain
energy potential improves the ability of the models to predict
behavior for complex deformation states when test data are
available for only a single deformation state.
- Recent research supports these rationale.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L2.16

Solid Rubber Models

Reduced Polynomial Models (cont'd)


The Neo-Hookean model is a first-
order reduced polynomial model.
The Yeoh model is a third-order
reduced polynomial model.
Yeoh Model
Good fit over a large strain range.
Will capture upturn
Can be used with limited data.
Will represent other modes well.

3 3
1
U Ci 0 ( I1 3)i ( J el 1)2i .
i 1 i 1
Di

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


26
L2.17

Solid Rubber Models

Ogden Model
The Ogden model is also a phenomenological model.
Ogden (1972) proposed using the principal stretches instead of
invariants.
This model also uses real powers (rather than integer powers); this
allows a great deal of model accuracy.
N N
2 1
U 2
i
( 1 i
2
i
3
i
3) ( J el 1)2i ,
i 1 i i 1
Di

Abaqus allows up to N = 6 terms in the above form; up to N = 3 is


common
Do not use this model with limited test data (e.g. just uniaxial tension)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L2.18

Solid Rubber Models

Ogden Model (cont'd)


The model often models rubber accurately for large ranges of
deformation.
The model is able to capture the stiffening (i.e., upturn) behavior at large
strains.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


27
L2.19

Solid Rubber Models

Arruda-Boyce Model
This model is also called the Arruda-Boyce 8-chain model because it
was developed based on a representative volume (hexahedron) element
where 8 chains emanate from the center to the corners of the volume.
This is a two-parameter shear model, based only on I1:

5
Ci 1 J el2 1
U (I i
2i 2 1
i
3) ( ln( J el )).
i 1 m D 2

Positive and m guarantee material stability.


With only two coefficients, there is only limited ability to change shape.
Works well with limited test data.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L2.20

Solid Rubber Models

Arruda-Boyce Model (cont'd)


Using material parameters, can scale curve along stress and strain
axes.
Typical results shown below: either under-predict initial slope (left) or
under-predict the upturn slope (right).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


28
L2.21

Solid Rubber Models

Van der Waals Model


In contrast to the Arruda-Boyce model, the Van der Waals model allows
you to control the shape of the curve as well as scale it. The Van der
Waals model is a four-parameter model:
3
2 I 3 2 1 J el2 1 I 3
U ( 2
m 3) ln(1 ) a ln( J el ) , I (1 ) I1 I 2 and 2
.
3 2 D 2 m 3

- Changing the initial shear modulus scales the curve in the vertical
(stress) direction.
- Changing the locking stretch m scales the curve in the horizontal
(strain) direction.
- Changing the interaction parameter a changes the shape of the
curve.
- The linear mixture parameter controls the relative shape changes
of the different deformation modes.
forces an I1 model

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L2.22

Solid Rubber Models

Van der Waals Model (cont'd)


The Van der Waals model is able to produce a good curve fit for a wider
range of rubber materials than the Arruda-Boyce model because the
Van der Waals models allows more flexibility in the shape of the curve.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


29
L2.23

Solid Rubber Models

Marlow Model
The Marlow model is a general
first invariant model that can Marlow model response
exactly reproduce the test data
from one of the standard modes
of loading (uniaxial, biaxial, or
planar)
No curve fit required.
The responses for the other Gum stock data

modes are also reasonably


good.
This model should be used when
limited test data are available.
The model works best when
detailed data for one kind of
test are available.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L2.24

Solid Rubber Models

Marlow Model (cont'd)


The model is based on an additive split of the total strain energy density
into deviatoric and volumetric parts:

U U dev ( I1 ) U vol ( J el )

The deviatoric part depends only on the first strain invariant

This is a common assumption when only limited test data are


available
Udev is determined from test data (uniaxial, biaxial, or planar)
The model allows temperature- and field-variable dependent test data
input.
Note this is not the case for the other models (can specify
temperature-dependent coefficients, however).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


30
Automatic Material Evaluation

L2.26

Automatic Material Evaluation

The previous figures underscore the importance of verifying the


correlation between the predicted behavior and experimental data.

Use Abaqus/CAE to perform standard unit-element tests.


Supply experimental test data.
Specify material models and deformation modes.

XY plots appear for each test.


Predicted nominal stress-strain curves plotted against experimental
test data.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


31
L2.27

Automatic Material Evaluation

The hyperelastic
material curve
fitting capability
allows you to
compare different
hyperelastic
models with the
test data.

The curve fitting capability


will be discussed in detail
in Lecture 4.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L2.28

Automatic Material Evaluation

Evaluation procedure
Unit cube datacheck

Run .inp file Compute response


Create basic Gather coefficients
through curves and
.inp file from .dat file
preprocessing only plot in Abaqus/CAE

Key features
Only batch preprocessing required
Evaluation is robust
No licensing issues
Works with either analysis product; uses no solver tokens

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


32
Choosing a Strain Energy Function

L2.30

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

This depends on the availability of sufficient and accurate experimental


data:
Use data from experiments involving simple deformations:
Uniaxial tension and compression
Biaxial tension and compression
Planar tension and compression
If compressibility is important, volumetric test data must also be used.
E.g., highly confined materials (such as an O-ring).

Guidelines on selecting a strain energy function will be provided in Lecture 5.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


33
Mullins Effect

L2.32

Mullins Effect

Mullins effect in elastomers:


damage due to straining
This model provides an extension
to the hyperelastic models
described earlier to simulate the
effects of damage due to straining
on the structural response:
Without damage (elastic),
loading and unloading occur
along the same path
With damage, softened
response during unloading
The Mullins effect model is
discussed further in Lecture 5.
The theory is discussed in
Appendix 2.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


34
Foam Rubber Model

L2.34

Foam Rubber Model

The foam rubber model uses an energy function similar to that used in
the Ogden model, but it is designed for highly compressible elastic
foams.
The implementation in Abaqus follows the same procedure as the
implementation of the Ogden material model.
The model should be calibrated using test data corresponding to the
dominant deformation mode (tension or compression).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


35
L2.35

Foam Rubber Model

Hyperfoam energy potential


The energy potential for the hyperfoam material model implemented in
Abaqus is given by

N
2 i 1
U 2 1
i
2
i
3
i
3 ( J el i i
1) ,
i 1 i i

where and control the deviatoric behavior and


and control the volumetric behavior.

i
The user inputs rather than : i .
1 2 i

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

36
Notes

37
Notes

38
Physical Testing
Lecture 3

L3.2

Overview

Modes of Deformation
Uniaxial Tension
Planar Tension
Uniaxial Compression
Equibiaxial Tension
Volumetric Compression

Loading History

Test the Right Material

Summary

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


39
Modes of Deformation

L3.4

Modes of Deformation

What do we mean by modes of deformation?


And why will we talk so much about them?
Initially (1930s 1950s) all focus was on uniaxial tests and fitting
coefficients to uniaxial data.
Researchers observed that these uniaxial fits (for phenomenological
models) did not correlate with data taken from other types of tests.
Need to perform other tests and use this data for fitting too.
These other tests are from different strain states than uniaxial thus the
phrase modes of deformation.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


40
L3.5

Modes of Deformation

Strain states, testing and curve fitting


Needs:
Simple test to perform, simple specimen to prepare.
Single state of strain/stress in the specimen, homogeneous, no
gradient of strain/stress (away from grips). This is related to both
analytical solution and measurement issues. Pure state of strain.
Simple deformation modeneed analytical solution for curve fitting.
In general, one wants to perform several types of tests (modes of
deformations) and curve fit a material model using multiple test data
sets.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L3.6

Modes of Deformation

The common tests for rubber


Uniaxial tension (simple tension)
Uniaxial Compression
Planar Tension
Equibiaxial Tension
Volumetric Compression

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


41
L3.7

Modes of Deformation: Uniaxial Tension, Simple Tension

What is simple tension?


Uniaxial loading
Free of lateral constraint

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L3.8

Modes of Deformation: Uniaxial Tension, Simple Tension

Measure strain only in the region where a uniform state of strain exists

Do not use crosshead travel to measure strain!

Use non-contact
measurements:
Laser Extensometer
Video Extensometer

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


42
L3.9
Modes of Deformation: Planar Tension,
aka Plane Strain Tension
What is planar tension?
Uniaxial loading
Perfect lateral constraint
All thinning occurs in one direction

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L3.10
Modes of Deformation: Planar Tension,
aka Plane Strain Tension
Strain measurement is
particularly critical
Some material flows
from the grips
The effective height is
smaller than starting
height so >10:1
width:height is needed

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


43
L3.11

Modes of Deformation: Simple Compression

Requirements:
Uniaxial loading
No lateral constraint

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L3.12

Modes of Deformation: Simple Compression

It is experimentally difficult to minimize lateral constraint due to friction


at the specimen-platen interface
Friction effects alter the stress-strain curves
The friction is not known and cannot be accurately corrected
Even very small friction levels have an effect at very small strains
Easy to prepare specimen, but difficult to achieve friction-free test, thus
difficult to achieve state of pure compression

Preferable to perform equibiaxial tension test instead!

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


44
L3.13

Modes of Deformation: Equibiaxial Tension

Why?
Same strain state as
compression
Cannot do pure
compression
Can do pure biaxial

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L3.14

Modes of Deformation: Equibiaxial Tension

Analysis of the specimen justifies


geometry

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


45
L3.15

Modes of Deformation: Equibiaxial Tension

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L3.16

Modes of Deformation: Equibiaxial Tension

Alternate equibiaxial jigs


Here is another testing jig used to achieve an equibiaxial stress state.

Balloon inflation can also be used to achieve equibiaxial tension.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


46
L3.17

Modes of Deformation: Typical Test Data

Get acquainted with typical test data from 3 shear modes

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L3.18

Modes of Deformation: Volumetric Compression

Direct measure of the stress


required to change the volume
of an elastomer
Requires resolute
displacement measurement
at the fixture

Valid for (nearly) incompressible


material only

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


47
L3.19

Modes of Deformation: Volumetric Compression

Confined compression
Technically, this test is called a confined compression test. We make
use of the fact that for solid rubber the bulk modulus is much higher than
the shear modulus. At very low stress the material shears to fill the rigid
container, and the response is dominated by the bulk (volumetric)
properties of the material.

This test should not be used for voided (foam) materials.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L3.20

Modes of Deformation: Volumetric Compression

True volumetric compression, valid for foams (and solids).


True volume compression can be achieved using a fluid filled rigid
pressure chamber. The specimen is sealed against fluid penetration.
This test fixture is expensive and relatively rare.

Another alternative to gather


volumetric information is to perform
a uniaxial tension experiment and
measure the lateral strains.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


48
L3.21

Modes of Deformation: Volumetric Compression

Initial slope = bulk modulus


Typically, only highly constrained applications require an accurate
measure of the entire pressurevolume relationship.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Loading History

49
L3.23

Loading History

Initial loading, typical of data from existing standards

1.2

1.0

0.8
Stress (MPa)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Strain

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L3.24

Loading History

1.2

1.0

0.8
Stress (MPa)

Initial Loading

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Strain

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


50
L3.25

Loading History

Consistency
Be careful that the real component and the test specimen share the
same load history and pre-conditioning.
Is the analysis for a 1st load condition (installation for instance)?
Then test the virgin material.
Is the analysis for a repeated use condition?
Then test the specimen after pre-conditioning.
Be careful to test at consistent strain rates for each deformation mode.
Test at strain rates consistent with the real component use situation.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L3.26

Loading History

Some common elastomers exhibit dramatic strain amplitude and


cycling effects at moderate strain levels
Conclusions:
Test to realistic
strain levels
Use application-specific
loadings to generate
material data

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


51
Test the Right Material

L3.28

Test the Right Material

Verify that the tested material is the same as the part


Processing
All are same compound!
Color
Cure
History

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


52
L3.29

Test the Right Material

Consistent within the experimental data set


Cut all specimens from the same slab

Biaxial

Tensile Volumetric
Planar tension

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Summary

53
L3.31

Summary

Test in multiple pure states of strain


Understand the loading conditions
Be consistent
Test the right material

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

54
Notes

55
Notes

56
Curve Fitting
Lecture 4

L4.2

Overview

Its Just Curve Fitting!

Material Stability

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Deviatoric (shear) curve fitting

Volumetric Curve Fitting

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


57
Its Just Curve Fitting!

L4.4

Its Just Curve Fitting!

Curve fitting the tension test data


We use linear or nonlinear least squares curve fit procedure.
Minimize relative error norm
n
E (1 Tith Titest )2
i 1

Linear least squares for polynomial and reduced polynomial forms.


Nonlinear curve fit for all others (Ogden, Arruda-Boyce, Van der Waals).
Nonlinear curve fit uses a Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm similar to that
used in Twizell and Ogden (1986).

Exception: the Marlow model requires no curve fitting!

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


58
L4.5

Its Just Curve Fitting!

Remember all the things learned about polynomial least squares curve
fitting.
Material models, especially the phenomenological ones, have no basis
in rubber physics, not material law.
Data points are nothing but weight points in the procedure.
To enhance fit in certain strain range, increase the number of data points
in that range (or reduce the number of data points elsewhere).
Abaqus does the curve fitting as part of the datacheck phase of a job.
The material evaluation capability of Abaqus/CAE automates this.
To manually perform the curve fits and generate stress-strain data
for plotting, see Abaqus Benchmark Problem 3.1.4, Fitting of rubber
test data.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.6

Its Just Curve Fitting!

Visually check the curve fit response. Abaqus/CAE automates this


process by automatically generating plots of force-displacement
(Engineering Stress vs. Engineering Strain). If you dont have
Abaqus/CAE, you still need to do this!
You should check tensile and compressive response.

Check Stability. The curve fitting process does not guarantee a stable
material model. It is up to you to check. Besides a visual check, you can
check the stability limits in the Material Parameters and Stability Limit
Information dialog box of Abaqus/CAE or in the data (.dat) file.
We have made some comments about model coefficients as an indicator
of material stability; in general, a set of all positive coefficients
guarantees stability. However, some negative coefficients do not
necessarily mean the model is unstable (it just means it might be
unstable). Typically lower-order models have fewer stability problems.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


59
Material Stability

L4.8

Material Stability

Stability
What do we mean by material stability?
Drucker postulate: 0.
Graphically, in a stress vs. strain plot:

Instability Point
Stress

Strain

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


60
L4.9

Material Stability

Stability Checks in Abaqus


Abaqus checks the stability in the stretch range 0.1 10.0 (nominal
strain range of 0.9 9) for the following deformation modes:
Uniaxial tension and compression
Equibiaxial tension and compression
Planar tension and compression

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.10

Material Stability

Stability Checks in Abaqus


In addition, Abaqus checks the following deformation modes for foams:
Volumetric tension and compression
Simple Shear
If an instability is found, Abaqus issues a warning message in the .dat
file and prints the smallest nominal strains at which the instability occurs
in a particular deformation mode.
This same information is printed in the Material Parameters and
Stability Limit Information dialog box in Abaqus/CAE when the
automatic material evaluation capability is used.
If no instability is found, no messages will be printed.
If an instability is likely to occur at the strain levels expected in the
analysis, the material model should be revised.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


61
L4.11

Material Stability

Stability warnings in Abaqus/CAE

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.12

Material Stability

Guaranteeing stability for various material models


The Neo-Hookean material model is always stable if C10 is positive.
In general, the full or reduced polynomial material models will be
materially stable if all the Cij are positive.
However, some negative coefficients do not necessarily mean the
model is unstable (it just means it might be unstable).
Typically lower-order models have fewer stability problems.
For the Yeoh model the C20 term is typically negative to help capture the
S-shape feature of the stress-strain curve.
If there are stability problems, reducing the absolute value of C20 or
magnifying the value of C10 will help make the Yeoh model more
stable.
If all of the i terms are positive the Ogden material model is guaranteed
to be stable.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


62
L4.13

Material Stability

Guaranteeing stability for various material models


For positive values of the initial shear modulus, , and the locking
stretch, m, the Arruda-Boyce model is always materially stable.
For positive values of the initial shear modulus, , and the locking
stretch, m, the stability of the Van der Waals model depends on the
global interaction parameter, a.

All of the above comments are about material stability.


Realize that geometric instabilities such as buckling, collapse, or snap-
through may still occur in your analyses.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Curve Fitting Demonstration in


Abaqus/CAE

63
L4.15

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

To define a hyperelastic material:

In the Model Tree double-click the


Materials container.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.16

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

The Material Editor


In the Edit Material dialog
box a default material name
Material-1 appears.

Replace this default


name by typing the
name rubber.
The material editor appears
with a blank options list and
option definition area.

From the menu bar in the


upper portion of the editor
window, select Mechanical
Elasticity Hyperelastic.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


64
L4.17

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

The parameters and data


corresponding to
hyperelasticity appear in the
option definition area below
the option menus, and the
word Hyperelastic appears
in the Material Options list at
the top of the dialog box.

In the option definition area


accept Test data as the Input
source selection.

Note that the Strain energy


potential defaults to the
value Unknown. Click Test
Data, and select Uniaxial Test
Data from the list that
appears.
Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.18

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

The Test Data Editor appears

Note that data required are


Engineering (Nominal) Stress
in column 1 and Engineering
Strain in column 2.

To display context-sensitive
help for specific buttons, text
fields, and other options in the
Test Data Editor, you must
select the option of interest
and then press F1.

Click mouse button 3 in the


first cell of the table, and
select Read from File from the
list that appears.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


65
L4.19

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

In the Read Data from ASCII File dialog box


you may type the name of the file or click
Select to browse for the file.
Click Select.
From the ASCII File Selection dialog box,
chose the file named
st_treloar_abq.txt.

St = simple tension
_treloar = test data from Treloar
_abq = stress strain format
Click OK in the ASCII File Selection dialog
box.
Click OK in the Read Data from ASCII File
dialog box.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.20

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Finished reading in the experimental data


We are back in the Test Data Editor, but
the dialog box may be rather small.
Grab an edge or corner of the box and
expand it until you can see all the
Uniaxial Test Data values.
There should be 14 data pairs, with
maximum stress of 1.95 MPa and
maximum strain value of 4.37 (437%
strain).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


66
L4.21

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Saving the test data set for use in


Visualization
Although the test data have been
read in, they have not been saved
as XY data.
Click mouse button 3 in the first cell
of the table, and select Create XY
Data from the list that appears.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.22

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Naming the XY data set

Type in the name st_treloar in


the Create XY Data dialog box.

We will use this named data


set later in the Visualization
module.
Click OK in the Create XY Data
dialog box.
Click OK in the Test Data Editor.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


67
L4.23

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Done with Test Data input

We are now back at


the Edit Material
dialog box.

If we wanted to read in more test data, we would repeat this process,


selecting Biaxial Test Data, Planar Test Data, or Volumetric Test Data from
the Test Data pull-down menu.

We are finished with test data input, so click OK in the Edit Material
dialog box.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.24

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Back to the Model Tree


This puts us back to the Model Tree.
Having read in the uniaxial data,
we are ready to Evaluate the material.
The Evaluate option is useful in
the following scenarios:
Comparing test data with the behavior
predicted by a particular strain energy
potential.

Evaluating multiple strain energy potentials.


Viewing behavior predicted by coefficients for a particular strain energy
potential.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


68
L4.25

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

The default settings for Test Setup are shown below:


The upper area shows the available test data with which to work.

The lower area allows you to choose


which standard stress-strain
responses to generate and the strain
limits in tension and compression.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.26

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

The defaults for Strain Energy


Potentials are shown here.
There are six major
categories.
For Polynomial, Ogden, and
Reduced Polynomial you must
select the number of terms N
in the energy function.
You may choose one or more
models to evaluate.
In general selecting more than
three models makes viewing
the results difficult.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


69
L4.27

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Evaluate Material Function

Rather than take the defaults, lets choose 3


models:

Mooney-Rivlin (Polynomial Form, N = 1).

Ogden Form, N = 2.

Neo-Hookean (Reduced Polynomial Form, N = 1).


Your screen should now look like this (you may
need to expand the dialog box to see all models).
With these models selected, click OK in the
Evaluate Material dialog box.

This will launch the curve fitting process.


Curve fit results will automatically be displayed
when ready.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.28

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Material stability
Material coefficients and stability information for each of the selected
models is automatically displayed in the Material Parameters and Stability
Limit Information dialog box.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


70
L4.29

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Default results plotting of


evaluate material
The default results plotting
uses three new viewports
to display XY plots of
stress-strain for Uniaxial
response, Equibiaxial
response, and Planar
Tension response. You
may want to maximize
each window in turn to
better view the viewports.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.30

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Nondefault results plotting: Visualization


The plots are created in the
Visualization module and all the
response data calculated during the
curve fit are available to us in this
module.

Before creating additional plots, delete


the three viewports labeled Uniaxial,
Planar, and Biaxial.

Maximize the remaining (original)


viewport.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


71
L4.31

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

The XY Data Manager


The XY Data Manager dialog box may be rather small. Grab an edge or
corner and make it bigger. Grab the vertical bar that separates Name
from Description and enlarge the Name area. Notice the default names
given to all the response curves from the curve fit calculations. These
default names are very long to ensure uniqueness. You may shorten
them with the Rename option.

Notice that our named data


set st_treloar (the test data)
is also listed. All other data
sets are simply stress-strain
response curves to particular
curve fits. Note that all of
these data sets persist only in
this Abaqus/CAE session.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.32

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

The XY Data Manager: plotting


Click the st_treloar data set,
then [Control]+Click all the
Uniaxial data sets
Click Plot. This will plot the actual
simple tension test data along with
the curve fit response for all the
material models (energy
potentials) chosen.
You may need to move the XY
Data Manager window out of the
way to see the plot.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


72
L4.33

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Curve options
The XY Curve Options can be used to modify the line and symbol
attributes for each data set. Line color, line style, and line thickness can
be modified. You can choose to show or not show the line. Several
symbol types are available. You can choose to show symbols or not;
and you can modify the symbol types, symbol size, symbol color, and
symbol frequency.
Select the st_treloar data set, and click Show symbol. Set the symbol
color to Orange, the symbol type to +, and the symbol size to Large.
Suppress the visibility of the line.
Select the other three uniaxial data sets ([Shift]+Click), and do the
following:
Choose a solid line style, increase the line thickness one level and toggle off
Show symbol.
Set the line color of R_POLY_N1 to red; POLY_N1 to blue; and OGDEN_N2 to
green.
Edit the legend text to remove rubber_1 at the end of the description.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.34

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Axis options
Double-click the X-axis; change the scale to range from a min value of
0.0 to a max value of 4.5; change the axis font to 12 bold Arial and the
title to Engineering Strain and the title font to 18 bold Arial.
Double-click the Y-axis; change the scale to range from a min value of
0.0 to a max value of 2.0; change the axis font to 12 bold Arial and the
title to Engineering Stress (MPa) and the title font to 18 bold Arial.

Legend options
Double-click the legend.
In the Contents tabbed page of the Chart Legend Options dialog box,
change the legend font size to 12.
In the Area tabbed page of the dialog box, toggle on Inset.
Dismiss the dialog box.
Drag the legend over the chart.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


73
L4.35

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Uniaxial XY data plots,


manipulated
Shown at right is the modified
X-Y plot we have generated. All
further X-Y plots of stress-strain
curve fit responses will be shown
in this style.
What material model gives the
best fit to uniaxial data?

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.36

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Equibiaxial curve fit response


We can repeat the plotting
process using the XY Data
Manager. If you have lost your
Manager window, select
ToolsXY Data Manager from
the main menu bar. Choose
the st_treloar data set and
all the curve fit response
Biaxial data sets.
What can we conclude from
this plot?

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


74
L4.37

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Planar curve fit response plots


Here we have selected the
st_treloar data set and all the
curve fit response Planar data
sets
What can we conclude from this
plot?

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.38

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

What if I have model coefficients?


In cases where you may have some
model (Mooney, Ogden, etc.)
coefficients, you can use the
evaluate function to see the stress-
strain response from those
coefficients. First, double-click
rubber in the Model Tree to open
the Edit Material dialog box. Change
Input Source to Coefficients, select
the Polynomial strain energy
function, and enter the values 0.8,
0.2, and 0.0 in the boxes for C10,
C01, and D1, respectively. Click OK.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


75
L4.39

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

What if I have model coefficients?


Now Evaluate material again. Under
Available Input Data, change the
Source to Coefficients.
Change the minimum nominal
strain to 0.0 and the maximum
nominal strain to 1.0 for uniaxial
and deselect Planar (Pure shear)
and Biaxial. Take a look under the
Strain Energy Potential tab; we will
evaluate the Polynomial, N = 1
material model because it was the
one chosen earlier in the material
editor.
Click OK to perform the evaluation.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.40

Curve Fitting Demonstration in Abaqus/CAE

Default XY plot from coefficient fit


This is the default XY plot that
appears. Notice that only one
viewport is created because we
deselected Planar and Biaxial. The
material test data are included in the
plot since they were still available for
comparison purposes. If we want, we
could delete the material test data
prior to the evaluate and then the test
data will not appear.
Conclusion: Mooney coefficients of
0.8 and 0.2 represent a material much
stiffer in uniaxial tension than the
material for which we have test data.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


76
Volumetric Curve Fitting

L4.42

Volumetric Curve Fitting

A few notes
Recall, if you input no D values, the material is incompressible (bulk
modulus is infinite).
This is okay for the vast majority of analyses where there is plenty of
room for the material to shear.
Compressibility information is needed when the part is highly confined;
seals, especially O-rings, can be highly confined.
Data for volumetric is in the form of Pressure, Volume Ratio
Volume ratio is J = 1 2 3.
Cannot perform volumetric curve fit alone. This is because you are
always curve fitting an energy potential you always need to calculate
the deviatoric part. Must include simple tension, equibiaxial, or planar
data.
Typical K = 2000 MPa = 290,000 psi 2 2
K and D1
Typical D1 = 0.001 1/MPa = 7E 6 1/psi D1 K

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


77
L4.43

Volumetric Curve Fitting

A few more notes


Remember that for each energy potential the parameter N controls the
number of D terms.
For Neo-Hookean (N = 1) there is by definition only a single
compressibility term, D1.
For Mooney-Rivlin (N = 1) there is by definition only a single
compressibility term, D1.
For the Arruda-Boyce model there is only D1.
For the Van der Waals model there is only D1.
The term D1 should be positive.
For all other models with N = 2 or greater the curve fit process will
automatically calculate 2 or more Di terms. Some of these terms may be
negative, leading to unstable compressibility. Look in the data file for the
curve fit Di values. You may want to revert to coefficients and enter zero
values in place of the calculated negative values.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.44

Volumetric Curve Fitting

What will we do different?


By now we assume you know the mechanics
of the curve fit process: reading in the test
data, saving the data for use in the
Visualization module, etc. We will read in the
st_treloar_abq.txt simple tension data for
the deviatoric part. For demonstration of the
volumetric portion, we will read in data from a
file called VC_linear.txt. These are not real
test data; they are constructed using
K = 2000 MPa (D1 = 0.001). The volume ratio
ranges in value from 1.0 (unstrained) to a
minimum of 0.9 in increments of 0.01.
Read in the Uniaxial data.
Dont save these data.
Read in the Volumetric data set.
Save the Volumetric data.
Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus
78
L4.45

Volumetric Curve Fitting

Volumetric response
The single element model created for
plotting the curve fit response is a unit
cube undergoing volumetric deformation.
Data is input as Pressure and Volume
Strain. The default XY plot is generated
using Pressure and Volume Strain.
For the Test Setup the input data source
defaults to Test data and both Uniaxial and
Volumetric will be chosen (highlighted) by
default. Under the Standard Tests area
select only Volumetric; the Volume Ratio
range is chosen by default.
For the Strain Energy Potential de-select
the defaults and select only the Neo-
Hookean model for curve fitting. Our
concern will be the calculation of the value
of D1.
Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.46

Volumetric Curve Fitting

The default XY plot generated by


the volumetric curve fitting process
is shown here.
The curve fit value for the D1
coefficient is calculated to be exactly
0.001.
Here is the result from the stability
information dialog box:

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


79
L4.47

Volumetric Curve Fitting

Using real volumetric test data


Using the Model Tree, create a new Hyperelastic material. Using the Test
Data Editor, read in the volumetric test data from the file VC_S6.txt.
Save these data using the Create XY Data option, and give it the name
vc_test. You must also read in the simple tension data ST_S58.txt.
You are now ready to perform a variety of curve fits using this volumetric
data.
Try curve fitting several of the N = 1 models. We certainly expect that
the D1 coefficient calculated will be the same regardless of the N = 1
deviatoric model chosen.
For this Volumetric data set, the D1 value (for all the N = 1 material
models) should be 7.574E 4, or K = 2640 MPa.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L4.48

Volumetric Curve Fitting

Yeoh model volumetric response


Then try curve fitting a model such as
the Yeoh model (N = 3). Set the
minimum volume ratio to 0.8. Look at
the coefficients. Are they all positive?
The Yeoh model allows for three D
values, associated with higher powers
of the volume ratio. This is important
only if you really need to capture a
nonlinearity in the volumetric behavior.
Here we see the volumetric response
and note the instability after about 0.86
Volume Ratio.
You would probably want to use only
the first D value or maybe just the
positive terms. To do so, you must
enter as coefficients (not as test data).
Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus
80
Notes

81
Notes

82
Abaqus Usage
Lecture 5

L5.2

Lecture Overview

Introduction
Test Data Guidelines
Abaqus Test Data Usage
Choosing a Strain Energy Function
Defining a UHYPER user subroutine
Mullins Effect
Hyperfoam Material Model

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


83
Introduction

L5.4

Introduction

Defining rubber elasticity in Abaqus/CAE: hyperelasticity

Material
description

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


84
L5.5

Introduction

Entering test data

Temperature and field


variable dependence of
test data available for
the Marlow model

Click mouse
button 3

Nominal stress
and strain

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.6

Introduction

Entering coefficients

Temperature-dependent
coefficients

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


85
L5.7

Introduction

Abaqus keyword syntax


The rubber elasticity models are invoked in Abaqus with the
*HYPERELASTIC and *HYPERFOAM keyword options.
The *HYPERELASTIC and *HYPERFOAM options must be used in
conjunction with the *MATERIAL option.
With the *HYPERELASTIC option, enter the parameter for the desired
type of energy function:
NEO HOOKE MOONEY-RIVLIN
POLYNOMIAL (default) REDUCED POLYNOMIAL
YEOH OGDEN
ARRUDA-BOYCE VAN DER WAALS
MARLOW

With both polynomial models and Ogden model enter the order, N, of the
series expansion.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.8

Introduction

Abaqus keyword syntax (cont'd)


For either hyperelastic or hyperfoam models, you may input the material
coefficients directly on the data lines. See the Abaqus Keywords
Reference Manual for the data line syntax for each of the various
material models. Material coefficients can be given as function of
temperature.
For instance:
*MATERIAL, NAME=rubber
*HYPERELASTIC, N=3, OGDEN
1.061,0.428,5.782E-2,5.712,1.591E-2,-4.597,7.25e-04,0.0
0.0, 23.0
The data line is
m1, a1, m2, a2, m3, a3, D1, D2,
D3, temperature

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


86
L5.9

Introduction

Abaqus keyword syntax (cont'd)


For either hyperelastic or hyperfoam models, you may use the TEST
DATA INPUT parameter to indicate that Abaqus should calculate the
coefficients from test data. With the exception of the Marlow model, test
data cannot be given as a function of temperature.
For example:
*MATERIAL, NAME=POLY_N1
*HYPERELASTIC, POLYNOMIAL, N=1, TEST DATA INPUT
*UNIAXIAL TEST DATA
0.0,0.0
0.03,0.02
0.15,0.1 data lines here are
0.23,0.2 nominal stress, nominal strain
0.33,0.34
0.41,0.57
0.51,0.85
...

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.10

Introduction

Abaqus keyword syntax (cont'd)


The hyperelastic and hyperfoam models are intended to be used in
finite-strain applications.
Set NLGEOM=YES on the *STEP option.
Alternative energy functions (and their derivative with respect to strain
invariants) can be defined with the user subroutine UHYPER.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


87
L5.11

Introduction

Combining with other material models


The hyperelastic and hyperfoam material models can be used alone or
can be combined in the same material definition with the following
material models:
- Thermal expansion properties to introduce isotropic thermal volume
changes.
- Viscoelastic material properties to define time- or frequency-
dependent hyperelastic behavior.
- Hysteretic material model to define nonlinear rate-dependent
inelastic behavior (for cyclic loading).
- Mullins effect model to account for damage due to straining
(hyperelastic only)
- The hyperelastic material model can also combined with the metal
plasticity material model to capture finite elastic and plastic strains.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.12

Introduction

Suitable elements
The hyperelastic and hyperfoam material models can be used with solid,
truss, beam, rebar, and finite-strain shell elements.
- They cannot be used with S4 shell elements.
- They have not been implemented for use with small-strain shell
elements (S4R5, S8R, S8R5, S9R5, etc.)
- The hyperelastic material model, when incompressible, must be used
with hybrid elements.
- The hyperfoam material model is quite compressible and therefore
should not be used with hybrid elements.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


88
Test Data Guidelines

L5.14

Test Data Guidelines

Test availability
The availability of sufficient and accurate test data is the most significant
factor in choosing a rubber material model.
Use data from as many modes of deformation as possible
Uniaxial tension and compression
Planar tension and compression
Equibiaxial tension and compression
If compressibility is important, volumetric compressibility (Ds) must also
be specified.
For example, highly confined applications such as O-rings under
significant compression.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


89
L5.15

Test Data Guidelines

Limited Test Availability


In some cases you may have only limited test data, for instance, only
uniaxial tension test data.
In this case be sure to use a material model that involves only I1
- Marlow model
- Neo-Hookean, Yeoh, or other reduced polynomial models
- Arruda-Boyce
- Van der Waals with set to zero
- While Ogden and full polynomial models might fit the limited test data
nicely, the representation of the other modes of deformation may be very
poorstiffness errors may be several orders of magnitude.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.16

Test Data Guidelines

Damage
It is not uncommon for elastomers to exhibit elasticity damage and
hysteresis during the cyclic loading. As shown in the figure, a few cycles
of loading result in a decrease in stiffnessthis is termed Mullins effect.
Abaqus provides a material model to capture Mullins effect.
To calibrate the model, supply data
from several loading cycles for
analyses of components that are
in repeated use conditions.
If you do not wish to model
Mullins effect, pre-condition the
test specimen prior to testing.
Test virgin specimens for a 1st-use
component analysis (installation).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


90
L5.17

Test Data Guidelines

Test Data Variations


The properties of elastomers are known to change from batch to batch.
All tests done to characterize a given material should be performed
on the same batch.
Taking all the test specimens from the same physical slab of
material is highly recommended.
It may be necessary to validate the test specimen slab against the real
component to assure they have similar cure history.
Cutting small uniaxial specimens from real components can be used
for this validation.
Test at the operating temperatures expected in the application.
It is best to obtain data from more that one type of test.
Experience shows that data from more than one mode of
deformation (strain state) should be used to achieve the most
accurate material model.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.18

Test Data Guidelines

Test redundancies: solid rubber


For fully incompressible materials the superposition of a hydrostatic
pressure does not alter the deformation mode.
As a result, some apparently different types of tests are equivalent and
provide redundant information, such as:
Uniaxial tension Equibiaxial compression
Uniaxial compression Equibiaxial tension
Planar Tension Planar Compression
Uniaxial tension and uniaxial compression provide independent data.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


91
L5.19

Test Data Guidelines

Test redundancies: solid rubber

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.20

Test Data Guidelines

Other Test Data Guidelines


Nominal (engineering) stress and strain data are required for the
deviatoric (shear) test data input.
Both tension and compression data are allowed.
Compressive stresses and strains are given as negative values.
Always use more experimental data points than unknown coefficients
Volumetric curve fit requires pressure, volume ratio test data.
Always compare your material model stress-strain response to the
simple modes of deformation!
Use Abaqus/CAE or simple unit-cube analyses to compare the model
response to the original test data.
Skipping this step results in garbage in, garbage out analyses.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


92
Abaqus Test Data Usage

L5.22

Abaqus Test Data Usage

Typical Usage
*MATERIAL, NAME=VITON
*HYPERELASTIC, POLYNOMIAL, N=1, TEST DATA INPUT
*UNIAXIAL TEST DATA
0.00,0.00
0.03,0.02 data lines are
0.15,0.10 nominal stress, nominal strain
0.23,0.20
...
*PLANAR TEST DATA Suboptions of
... *HYPERELASTIC
*BIAXIAL TEST DATA
...
*VOLUMETRIC TEST DATA (to define optional
compressibility)
...
*EXPANSION (to define optional CTE)
...
*VISCOELASTICITY (to define optional time-
dependency)
...

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


93
L5.23

Abaqus Test Data Usage

Volumetric
*VOLUMETRIC TEST DATA (to define optional compressibility)
pressure_1, volume_ratio_1
pressure_2, volume_ratio_2

Volumetric information should be specified for cases where the material


does not have room to shear that is, cases where the material is highly
confined.
For many elastomers a bulk modulus of approximately 2000 MPa is
reasonable.
For highly confined applications, it is better to input a D1 of 0.001
than to leave it unspecified (and therefore incompressible)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.24

Abaqus Test Data Usage

Thermal Expansion
*EXPANSION
**(to define optional CTE)
Alpha1, temp1
Alpha2, temp2
...
Defines the volumetric CTE
(coefficient of Thermal Expansion)
for the material.
Abaqus uses a total, or secant,
measure from a reference
temperature.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


94
L5.25

Abaqus Test Data Usage

Test data smoothing


The test data input option
provides a data-smoothing
capability that is recommended
Useful in situations where
the test data do not vary
smoothly
Avoids potential
convergence problems
during the analysis
User can control the
smoothing process
This capability is particularly
useful with the Marlow model
when the data is scattered.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.26

Abaqus Test Data Usage

Test data usage with the Marlow


model
For uniaxial, biaxial, and
planar modes, either tension
or compression data can be
specified.
Tension data determines the
strain energy potential, which
in turn determines the
compression behavior, and
vice versa.
When used with 1-D elements
(beams, rebars, and trusses),
data from both tension and
compression tests can be
specified together.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


95
L5.27

Abaqus Test Data Usage

The volumetric behavior for the


Marlow model can be defined in one
of the following ways:
Volumetric test data
Lateral test data in the uniaxial,
biaxial, or planar mode
These data options allow
users to specify the lateral
behavior along with the
primary behavior. Lateral
strains define the volumetric
response
Effective Poissons ratio
Incompressibility is assumed if none
of the above specified.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.28

Abaqus Test Data Usage

In addition, for the volumetric


mode, both hydrostatic tension
and hydrostatic compression data
can be specified.
More commonly, only hydrostatic
compression data are available.
Abaqus assumes that the
hydrostatic pressure is an
antisymmetric function of the
nominal volumetric strain, evol,
about evol = 0.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


96
Choosing a Strain Energy Function

L5.30

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

The importance of using multiple types of test data when calibrating the
models is discussed next.
The recommended selection procedure is then summarized.
In each case, the models are listed in order of preference
The suggested approach considers physically motivated models
first.
Tips:
Use simple models first.
Keep the order, N, as low as possible to describe the data.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


97
L5.31

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Importance of Multiple Types of Tests


Generally, when data from multiple experimental tests are available, the
Van der Waals and Ogden strain energy functions are more accurate in
fitting the stress-strain curves.
When limited amounts of test data exist for calibration, for instance, just
uniaxial test data, the use of the Van der Waals, Ogden, full polynomial
models can be quite dangerous.
When using limited test data stay with the I1 only models Marlow,
Arruda-Boyce, Van der Waals with = 0 , reduced polynomial (Neo-
Hookean, Yeoh).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.32

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Using only Uniaxial Test data


The following group of slides show a comparison of the various strain
energy functions when calibrated with only uniaxial test data. The other
modes of test data (planar, equibiaxial) will be shown for reference.
The test data were taken from Treloar (Stress-strain data for vulcanized
rubber under various types of deformations, Trans. Faraday Society,
40, 1944) for uniaxial tension, biaxial tension, and planar tension.
For each slide we show the fit to only uniaxial tension data. By doing so
we can show that I1 based models in general do ok, while I1 and I2
models can give very poor results when fit to only uniaxial tension test
data.
Abbreviations: ST = Simple Tension
PT = Planar Tension
EB = Equibiaxial Tension

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


98
L5.33

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Treloar test data


Stress in MPa
Focus on the relationship
between 3 modes.
This is a common semi-
quantitative relationship
PT slightly higher than ST
EB 50% to 100% higher
than ST

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.34

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Marlow Model (I1 based model)


Uniaxial data represented exactly; other modes are represented
reasonably well.
Curve Fits to only Uniaxial Test Data

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


99
L5.35

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Neo-Hookean and Yeoh Models (I1 based models)


Other modes are represented reasonably well.
Curve Fits to only Uniaxial Test Data

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.36

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Arruda-Boyce Model (I1 based model)


Prediction similar to Neo-Hookean model
Curve Fits to only Uniaxial Test Data

A-B coefficients
Curve Fit in Abaqus
from paper

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


100
L5.37

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Full Polynomial and Ogden models (I1 and I2 based models)


Other modes are extremely overly stiff (very poor with limited test data).
Curve Fits to only Uniaxial Test Data

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.38

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Van der Waals models ( controls the I1 and I2 bases)


For limited test data the Van der Waals model changes dramatically.

Curve Fits to only Uniaxial Test Data

set to 0.0
set by curve fitting (edit input file)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


101
L5.39

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Using Full Datasets


Typically the simplest models (I1 based) will not improve very much as
additional test data is used in the curve fitting process.
The fewer the model parameters, the less likely the additional modes of
deformation test data will improve the fit.
The higher order (N) I1 and I2 based models will improve dramatically as
additional test data is used for curve fitting.
In the following slides we will repeat the fits shown earlier, but this time
all 3 sets of Treloar data will be used as a basis for the curve fits.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.40

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Neo-Hookean and Yeoh Models (I1 based models)


Not much change over earlier limited data fit
Curve Fits using all Data Sets

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


102
L5.41

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Arruda-Boyce Model (I1 based model)

Curve Fits using all Data Sets

A-B coefficients
Curve Fit in Abaqus
from paper

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.42

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Full Polynomial and Ogden models (I1 and I2 based models)


These fits improve dramatically over limited data case

Curve Fits using all Data Sets

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


103
L5.43

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Van der Waals models ( controls I1 and I2 bases)


Using all data, Van der Waals gives good fit. No need to set = 0.

Curve Fits using all Data Sets

set by curve fitting set to 0.0


(edit input file)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.44

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Summary: Selection procedure for strain energy functions


Limited test data: small strain data
Neo-Hookean model
Limited test data: good detailed data for one kind of test (e.g., good
uniaxial data)
Marlow model
Limited test data: initial modulus and stretch limit (and possibly a few
extra data points)
Arruda-Boyce
Van der Waals with = 0
Reduced polynomial (e.g., Yeoh) model
Predicted behavior in other modes of straining will be plausible, but
not necessarily accurate.
Avoid using the Ogden and Full Polynomial models with limited test
data.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


104
L5.45

Choosing a Strain Energy Function

Summary (cont'd)
Full test suite of data (i.e., multi-axial data)
Van der Waals model ( 0)
Ogden model
The Full Polynomial model may be OK, but generally it doesnt fit
data as well as the Ogden model.
It is better to use this model with data that have already been
calibrated.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

UHYPER

105
L5.47

UHYPER

UHYPER syntax
You may define your own elastomer behavior through the use of a user
subroutine called UHYPER. You provide Fortran code to define the
energy function, U, and first and second derivatives of U with respect to
1 and 2.

To invoke its use, the Abaqus input file looks like this:
*MATERIAL, NAME=...
*HYPERELASTIC, USER, TYPE=..., PROPERTIES=...
*EXPANSION (to define optional CTE)
...
*VISCOELASTICITY (to define optional time-dependency)
...

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.48

UHYPER

Defining UHYPER in Abaqus/CAE:

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


106
Mullins Effect

L5.50

Mullins Effect

Stress softening in certain filled Dashed line is the primary


curve (given by hyperelastic Progressive damage indicated
by reduced stress with fixed
rubbers occurs due to damage material model)
strain loading cycles
associated with straining
The results depicted in the Damage: Unloading and
further reloading follows
figure show evidence of different path characterized by
stress softening
progressive damage (with
cycles), with the response
stabilizing after a few cycles
The results also show Courtesy: Axel
evidence of permanent set Physical Testing
and viscoelasticity Services

e 0 permanent set Hysteresis: loading


and unloading for a
given cycle follow
different paths
energy is dissipated
with each cycle

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


107
L5.51

Mullins Effect

Idealized responseAbaqus
model
Does not model progressive
damage during the first few
cycles Energy dissipated once (damage);
no subsequent hysteresis or
Does not take into account progressive damage
permanent set and
viscoelasticity

No permanent set or
viscoelasticity

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.52

Mullins Effect

The material definition consists of two parts:


Define the primary behavior using a hyperelastic material model.
Test data, strain energy density function coefficients, or user
subroutine UHYPER can be used to define the primary behavior.
Define the damage behavior using the *MULLINS EFFECT option.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


108
L5.53

Mullins Effect

The material parameters related to damage can be specified directly


Alternatively, these parameters can be determined by Abaqus based on
calibration of unloading-reloading test data
Test data from one or more of the primary modes of deformation
(uniaxial, biaxial, and planar) can be specified
For a specific deformation mode, unloading-reloading test data from
multiple maximum strain levels can be specified by repeated use of
the appropriate test data option
User subroutine UMULLINS is available in Abaqus/Standard
This allows you to define the damage variable directly

The Mullins effect model cannot be used with viscoelasticity or


hysteresis.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.54

Mullins Effect

Output variables:
DMENER: Damage dissipation density at an integration point
ELDMD: Damage dissipation in an element
EDMDDEN: Damage dissipation per unit volume in an element
ALLDMD: Total damage dissipation in the whole model (or over a user-
specified element set)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


109
L5.55

Mullins Effect

Example: Calibration of test


data
Uniaxial test data to define
the primary behavior

Uniaxial unloading-reloading
data from three different
strain levels (stabilized
cycles)

The Abaqus model replaces


stabilized cycle at each strain
level with a single curve that
represents both loading and
unloading

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.56

Mullins Effect

Example: Load-deflection of a
stationary solid rubber disk
Rigid surface displaced up
against fixed disk
Unloaded
Reloaded to deformation
levels that are higher than the
first loading
Above deformation pattern
constitutes two loading cycles

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


110
L5.57

Mullins Effect

Unload at constant damage

Dissipate
more energy

Unload/reload at
constant damage

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Hyperfoam Material Model

111
L5.59

Hyperfoam Material Model

Defining rubber elasticity in Abaqus/CAE: hyperfoam

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.60

Hyperfoam Material Model

Entering test data in Abaqus/CAE: hyperfoam

Nominal stress
and strain

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


112
L5.61

Hyperfoam Material Model

Input Syntax for Hyperfoam


Specifying the model with model parameters (not test data):
*MATERIAL, NAME=my_foam
*HYPERFOAM, N=2
m1 , a1 , 1 , m2 , a2 , 2 , temperature1
m1 , a1 , 1 , m2 , a2 , 2 , temperature2
*EXPANSION (to define optional CTE)
...
*VISCOELASTICITY (to define optional time-
dependency)
...

Abaqus allows up to N = 6 terms in the above form

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.62

Hyperfoam Material Model

Input Syntax for Hyperfoam using test data


*MATERIAL, NAME=my_foam
*HYPERFOAM, N=1, TEST DATA INPUT, [POISSON=...]
*UNIAXIAL TEST DATA
nom stress1, nom strain1, [nom lateral strain1]
...
*SIMPLE SHEAR TEST DATA
Suboptions of nom shear stress1, nom shear strain1, [nom transverse
*HYPERFOAM stress1]
...
*PLANAR TEST DATA
nom stress1, nom strain1, [nom transverse strain1]
...
*BIAXIAL TEST DATA
nom stress1, nom strain1, [nom transverse strain1]
...
*VOLUMETRIC TEST DATA (to define optional
compressibility)
...
*EXPANSION (to define optional CTE)
...
*VISCOELASTICITY (to define optional time-
dependency)
Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus
113
L5.63

Hyperfoam Material Model

Volumetric Information
There are several ways to indicate the volumetric behavior of the foam
material.
Using model parameters:
i i
Give the model parameters i i = , i = .
1 - 2 i 1 + 2 i
Using test data:
- Use the POISSON parameter to define a single Poissons ratio; this is
commonly used to set Poissons ratio to zero.
- Give lateral strain/stress information for one or more of the shearing
mode test data.
- Give the pressure, volume ratio data for the *VOLUMETRIC TEST
DATA input

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.64

Hyperfoam Material Model

Curve fitting the hyperfoam material model


For the hyperfoam model the high compressibility ( 0) approximately
reduces the different deformation modes into a superposition of several
uniaxial states at different orientations.
This is largely true for compressive states where the buckling of cell
walls in one direction is quite independent from that in
perpendicular directions.
Thus, it is not uncommon that a single uniaxial test (with an assumption
of Poisson's ratio=0) may be sufficient to characterize the material,
particularly if compression dominates.
In the following example the results of curve fitting using only uniaxial
data and using uniaxial plus simple shear data are compared (solid line:
test data, dashed line: Abaqus result).
We see that the shear behavior predicted by using only uniaxial
data to determine the parameters for the material model is not
grossly inaccurate.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


114
L5.65

Hyperfoam Material Model

Curve fit based on


compressive data and
N=2 N=2
simple shear data
Compressive
response is
accurate
Simple shear
response is
accurate

N=3 N=3

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.66

Hyperfoam Material Model

Curve fit based on


only compressive
N=2 N=2
data
Compressive
response is
accurate
Simple shear
response is
inaccurate, but not
grossly so
N=3 N=3

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


115
L5.67

Hyperfoam Material Model

Difference in tension and compression


For small strains (< 5%) foams behave similarly (cell wall bending) for
both compression and tension
However, at large strains the deformation mechanisms differ for
compression (buckling and crushing) and tension (alignment and
stretching).
The experimental data used to calibrate the model should correspond to
the dominant deformation of the actual problem being analyzed.
Double-check the material model response to other modes.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L5.68

Hyperfoam Material Model

Difference in tension and


compression (cont'd)
Model based on compression
data
Check both tension and
compression response
Here the tension response is
qualitatively okay (no real
data available for comparison).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


116
Notes

117
Notes

118
Modeling Considerations and
Usage Tips in Abaqus
Lecture 6

L6.2

Overview

Modeling Issues
Contact
Element Selection
Meshing Considerations
Constraints and Reinforcements
Stability

Special Features

Example: Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

Using Abaqus/Explicit for Rubber Analysis

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


119
Modeling Issues

L6.4

Modeling Issues

Contact
Contact occurs routinely in elastomer analyses.
It is imperative to understand contact master-slave relationships.
E.g., only slave nodes are checked for contact in a pure-master
slave formulation (default formulation)!

Incorrect Correct
Master surface placed on fine mesh Master surface placed on coarse mesh
Gross penetration into slave surface Minimal penetration into slave surface

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


120
L6.5

Modeling Issues

Contact is complex and heuristic.


Two-dimensional contact very robust.
Three-dimensional contact has many more opportunities to go
astray.
Lots of contact rules, these will help you build robust models.
Consult:
Abaqus Analysis User's Manual
Contact with Abaqus/Standard lecture notes
Abaqus/Explicit: Advanced Topics lecture notes
Obtaining a Converged Solution with Abaqus lecture notes
Complex contact is handled more readily with explicit dynamics.
No convergence issues because iteration not required.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.6

Modeling Issues

Other helpful contact pair hints (for


Abaqus/Standard):
Rigid body motion must be restrained
in a static analysis.
Master surface smoothing has large
effect on convergence.
Use *CONTACT PAIR, ADJUST
for initial overclosures.
For automatic shrink fit capability use:
*CONTACT INTERFERENCE, SHRINK
Pay attention to the status (.sta) file
and the severe discontinuity iterations
(SDIs).
Try *CONTACT CONTROLS, AUTOMATIC
TOLERANCES to reduce SDIs.
Use tie constraints (*TIE) for
debugging contact problems.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


121
L6.7

Modeling Issues

Element Selection

Abaqus offers a variety of elements for use with the hyperelastic and
hyperfoam material models. For a given state of stress (plane stress,
plane strain, generalized plane strain, axisymmetric, or fully three-
dimensional) the user faces a number of choices:

First- or second-order elements

Full or reduced integration

Incompatible mode elements

In addition, for solid rubbers we sometimes need to use hybrid elements.

The following remarks serve as guidelines for the element type


selection.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.8

Modeling Issues

First- or Second-Order Elements

Abaqus offers first-order elements with linear displacement


interpolation and second-order elements with quadratic
displacement interpolation.

The second-order elements give better results if the elements have


a regular shape; the first-order elements work better if the elements
have irregular, distorted shapes.

If strain gradients and element distortions remain small, second-


order elements are preferred. If strain gradients are large and
element distortions become severe, first-order elements are
recommended.

For analyses involving variable contact and/or friction, first-order


elements are recommended.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


122
L6.9

Modeling Issues

Full- or Reduced-Integration Elements


Abaqus offers full or reduced integration for first- and second-order
elements.
Reduced-integration elements use less computer time and yield
more accurate stresses than full-integration elements.
This is particularly advantageous for problems with small strain
gradients that use second-order elements.
Reduced-integration elements, in particular first-order elements, can
exhibit spurious deformation modes.
These spurious modes often cause instability problems if
elements become distorted.
This is likely to occur in large-strain rubber analyses; hence,
Abaqus automatically invokes enhanced hourglass control
when first-order, reduced-integration elements use finite-strain
elasticity (hyperelasticity or hyperfoam).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.10

Modeling Issues

Engine mount example

rubber

steel

Nonconvergence at 27% of load

Outer rim moves up under load control

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


123
L6.11

Modeling Issues

Severe hourglassing
occurs with stiffness-
based hourglass control

No hourglassing
with enhanced
hourglass control.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.12

Modeling Issues

Regular or Hybrid Elements

Hybrid elements, where the pressure stress or volume change is


interpolated separately and an extended variational principle is used,
are needed for incompressible and almost incompressible behavior in
plane strain, axisymmetric, and three-dimensional cases.

A constant pressure is used with the first-order elements. The


pressure varies linearly with the second-order elements.

Hybrid elements must be used for incompressible hyperelasticity.

For compressible hyperelasticity hybrid elements are recommended.


They are strongly recommended if second-order elements are used.

Regular elements are used for plane stress and hyperfoam analysis.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


124
L6.13

Modeling Issues

Incompatible Mode Elements

Incompatible modes enhance the bending response of fully


integrated first-order elements.

Incompatible mode elements work well with hyperelastic materials


up to moderate strains.

They should not be used in this case for large strains


(> 100%), especially if the material is loaded in compression.

Erroneous stresses may sometimes appear in incompatible mode


elements with hyperelastic material models that are unloaded after
having been subjected to a complex deformation history.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.14

Modeling Issues

Complex geometry
In general, quad and hex elements are preferred.
These elements perform well, both for stress and contact.
Their CPU performance is also good.
However, complicated three-dimensional geometry necessitates the
use of automatic mesh generation algorithms.
The resulting mesh is composed of tetrahedral elements.
In two-dimensions, automatic quad mesh algorithms are
generally available (e.g., Abaqus/CAE offers such a capability)
Abaqus offers CPE6(H)M, CAX6(H)M, and C3D10(H)M just for this
case.
Use CPE3(H), CAX3(H), C3D4(H), C3D6(H) only for fill-in.
Otherwise, the model will be overly stiff.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


125
L6.15

Modeling Issues

Meshing Considerations
The usual meshing considerations for linear analysis apply to the
analysis of elastomers as well.
Often, elastomeric components are subjected to large strains and strain
gradients.
High strain gradients lead to distorted elements, particularly in
incompressible materials.
Compared to similar problems using hyperelastic materials, there will be
less distortion in elements using the hyperfoam model because of the
large compressibility of foams, as shown in the following example.
The hyperfoam model experiences less lateral deformation.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.16

Modeling Issues

Example: Hyperelastic vs. Hyperfoam element distortions


The difference in bulk compressibility will cause significantly
different element distortions between a solid elastomer
(hyperelastic) and an elastic foam material (hyperfoam).

Solid Elastomer Elastic Foam

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


126
L6.17

Modeling Issues

Element Distortions

In mesh generation try to anticipate the distortion in the layout of the


mesh.

Manual mesh rezoning is available for hyperelasticity problems in


Abaqus/Standard; experience suggest only limited benefits.

Abaqus/Explicit automatically invokes distortion control for solid


elements modeled with hyperelastic or hyperfoam materials.

Element distortion control prevents excessive distortion from


occurring under high compressive loads.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.18

Modeling Issues

Constraints and Reinforcements

If an incompressible rubber component is fully constrained, the


hydrostatic pressure becomes undetermined. Hence, some part of the
surface almost always remains unconstrained.

The difficulty of rubber analysis is often related to the amount of


surface constraint: in highly confined components the rubber has
very little freedom to move, which makes it more difficult for the
analysis to converge (small changes in displacement create very
large changes in forces). Thus, structures such as balloons are
easy to analyze, whereas reinforced elastomeric bearings are not.

Rebars, or elements such as trusses or membranes, can be used to


model reinforced rubber components. The combination of
incompressible hyperelasticity with inextensible reinforcement can easily
lead to locking of the finite element mesh.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


127
L6.19

Modeling Issues

Rebars

The element on the left will shear without any stress in the
reinforcement.

Shearing the element on the right with slightly skewed reinforcement


will result in high stresses and much too stiff element behavior.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.20

Modeling Issues

Stability
Elastomeric components can exhibit structural instability similar to elastic
structures.
Solid rubbers can exhibit surface instabilities when high compressive
stresses develop tangential to a free surface.
These instabilities cause surface wrinkles and can be very
detrimental to the convergence of iterations.
Stability problems arise more often than you might expect!
Four classes of instability:
Material
Dynamic
Global (geometric)
Local (material, geometric)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


128
L6.21

Modeling Issues

Material stability
Check coefficients, check the .dat file, visual check in Abaqus/CAE
Check stability in all modes of deformations
Check stability outside range of data

High energy release rate (dynamic instability)


As response turns dynamic, a quasi-static analysis will encounter
convergence trouble.

Global (geometric) instability

Snap-through of elastomeric components can be analyzed


successfully in a static analysis with the Riks procedure.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.22

Modeling Issues

Local instabilities
These can be caused by local buckling, wrinkling, folds, etc.
Such local instabilities can be controlled by the automated
stabilization algorithm (*STATIC, STABILIZE).
With this algorithm Abaqus/Standard chooses the damping
coefficients so that energy dissipated by viscous damping is a
small fraction of the strain energy in the model.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


129
L6.23

Modeling Issues

Local instabilities (cont'd)


Snap-through of elastomeric components involving sudden loss of
contact cannot be analyzed statically and require static stabilization
or a dynamic analysis:
*DYNAMIC
*DYNAMIC, EXPLICIT

3-D arch

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Special Features

130
L6.25

Special Features: Gasket Elements

Gasket elements
Engine sealing, gasket elements
Four cylinder engine assembly (block/gasket/head)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.26

Special Features: Gasket Elements

Gasket elements allow you to solve problems routinely that used to be


beyond the reach of finite element analysis.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


131
L6.27

Special Features: Gasket Elements

Engine sealing, gasket elements, pressure closure specification

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.28

Special Features: CAXA elements

Modeling 3-D as 2-DCAXA, CGAX elements

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


132
L6.29

Special Features: CAXA elements

Steel/rubber multi-layered spring

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.30

Special Features: CAXA elements

plunger

The analysis time for the CAXA


model is 32 times faster than
that for the complete 3D model.

rubber seal

Asymmetric motion

Installed extremely
geometry leaking large strain

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


133
L6.31

Special Features: Tire Modeling

Tire modeling: complex models, experienced users

Tire footprint and steady-state rolling Tire hitting curb


(Abaqus/Standard) (Abaqus/Explicit)

*IMPORT

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.32

Special Features: Tire Modeling

Axisymmetric to 3-D transfer sidewall


capability
tread
bead
Axisymmetric model

carcass belts

Model generation and


results transfer

Model generation and


results transfer

Half 3-D model Full 3-D model

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


134
L6.33

Special Features: Tire Modeling

Coupled structural-acoustics
Used to analyze the acoustic signature of a tire design.

Coupled Inner air tire


model

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.34

Special Features: Miscellaneous

Abaqus offers many other special features to make your work easier
Automated pressure penetration (Abaqus Example Problems Manual)
Ex 1.1.16, Pressure penetration analysis of an air duct kiss seal
Hydrostatic fluid elements (Abaqus Example Problems Manual)
Ex 1.1.9, Hydrostatic fluid elements: modeling an airspring
Recent applications of Abaqus to the analysis of automotive rubber
components, by Dr. Ken Morman
See also http://www.simulia.com/events/search-ucp.html to
search proceedings online

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


135
Example: Automotive Glass Run
Channel Weatherseal

L6.36

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

The GRC Weatherseal model


Plane strain, half-symmetric model:
glass surface
CPE4RH elements
Rubber material
Frictional contact rubber
weatherseal
Two-part analysis:
1. Seal to surrounding sheet metal
assembly
vehicle
2. Window closing effortglass
window frame
insertion
We will focus on the first part
only
Exhibits (strong) energy release Model courtesy of Advanced Elastomer
Systems and Manta Corporation;
during assembly. example courtesy of
SIMULIA Great Lakes Region

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


136
L6.37

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

Material model
The Polynomial, N = 2 model parameters came from the customer. We
can use Abaqus/CAE evaluate feature to show us the material response
for these coefficients. What can we tell about stability just from looking at
the coefficients?
The material definition is:

*MATERIAL,NAME=S121-67
*HYPERELASTIC,N=2
1.325, -0.1895, 2.527e-4, -1.416e-3, 5.178e-4

This is C10, C01, C20, C11, C02 .


Ds are not defined.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.38

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

This is the standard


Abaqus/CAE response plot
after using the material
evaluation function.
Hard to compare scales.
We notice unstable
BIAXIAL response of the
material model.
Look at the data file for
more material stability
checks.
Will use this material model
for now. Suspect problem
difficulties are geometric in
nature.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


137
L6.39

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

This is the same response


data plotted in the
Visualization module using
the XY Data Manager.

Easier to compare scales.

Best way to compare


relationship of the
responses to different
modes of deformation.

Lots of control over plot


style, color, scales, text,
etc.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.40

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

Static analysis dies at this point. Why?


Note all force-deflection response plots show RF2 vs. U2 for the window
frame rigid surface.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


138
L6.41

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

Will a Riks analysis work for this case?

Single Step analysis with Riks fails! Split Step into two Steps.
Window frame rigid surface moves This runs to completion.
down.
*STEP,INC=100,NLGEOM
*STATIC
** Single Step w/ Riks 0.02,1.0
*STEP,INC=100,NLGEOM *BOUNDARY
*STATIC, RIKS 9999,2,2,10.5
0.02,1.0,,,1.0 *END STEP
*BOUNDARY ** Continue with Riks
9999,2,2,12.5 *STEP, INC=200, NLGEOM
*END STEP *STATIC, RIKS
.020, 1.0,,,1.0
*BOUNDARY, OP=MOD
9999,2,2,12.5
*END STEP

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.42

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

Successful Riks analysis


The Riks analysis reverses the window frame motion at the critical
energy release point and seal remains in contact with the frame.
Riks would generally not work in cases where contact separation occurs.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


139
L6.43

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

This analysis can also be done successfully using automatic


stabilization (with one small issue)
Single Step analysis fails! Split Step into two Steps.
This runs to completion.
** Single Step w/ stabilization
*STEP,INC=100,NLGEOM *STEP,INC=100,NLGEOM

*STATIC, STABILIZE *STATIC


Stable response
0.02,1.0,,,1.0 0.02,1.0
in the first step
*BOUNDARY *BOUNDARY

9999,2,2,12.5 9999,2,2,10.5

*END STEP *END STEP


** Continue with auto stabilization
*STEP, INC=400, NLGEOM
*STATIC, STABILIZE
The two step approach allows
.020, 1.0
Abaqus to compute the
damping factor based on a *BOUNDARY, OP=MOD
stable response. 9999,2,2,12.5
*END STEP

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.44

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

Force-deflection responses from the Riks and Stabilize analyses


Agreement is excellent.
The curves lie on top of one another
until the instability (or energy release)
point.
Remember that the Riks gives a
pseudo-equilibrium response.
The stabilized result is closer to the
actual physical response.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


140
L6.45

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

Dynamic analysis
Motivation: The physical event becomes dynamic.
This can be more troublesome than you might think

*STEP,INC=100,NLGEOM
Define two steps (more efficient):
*STATIC
1st step is static. 0.02,1.0
2nd step is dynamic. *BOUNDARY
9999,2,2,10.5
*END STEP
First phase is truly static. Trying to run
** Dynamic Portion
as a single DYNAMIC step would run
*STEP, INC=400, NLGEOM
much longer. Need to answer the
*DYNAMIC,HAFTOL=10,INITIAL=NO
following:
.00100, 0.20
How do I set HAFTOL?
*BOUNDARY, OP=MOD
What about the total time period? 9999,2,2,12.5
Is some damping needed? *END STEP

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.46

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

This dynamic analysis gets past the energy


release event but has difficulties running to
completion.
Dynamic step starts with the window frame at
U2=10.5 (upper image at right).
1st movie shows that energy release happens in
frames 7678. Notice all the dynamic motions in
frames 100240 and the impact with the centerline
in frame 240 (best viewed by double-clicking on
movie header and controlling playback manually with
the slider bar).
Analysis stops at U2=11.03 (wanted 12.5), due to
difficulties with impact events at the centerline.
The 2nd movie shows a close-up of the energy
release area. The mass of the seal helps regulate
the motion (rate of motion).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


141
L6.47

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

Compare the force-deflection curves from the Riks, stabilize, and


dynamic analyses
Zoom in to look at the characteristic behavior. Notice the hash in the
later stage of the dynamic responsethis is due to impact events. We
may be able to reduce or eliminate this by adding damping, but this
takes considerably more effort than simply obtaining the stabilized
solution.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.48

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

Can we achieve a dynamic solution? Yes, but with more effort.

One might try adding numerical damping through the DYNAMIC,


ALPHA parameter, but that did not help this analysis. Next, one might try
DAMPING with mass and/or stiffness proportional damping. Finding an
appropriate value for the DAMPING parameters can be a trial and
error process.

Final results are shown here for a successful run (to completion),
using 0.1.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


142
L6.49

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

Can we get a solution with Abaqus/Explicit?

Just for completeness we might ask ourselves if we can get an answer


to this problem using Abaqus/Explicit.

Explicit dynamics can be used to get answers to problems such as


these, but

it is best used for very large problems, or

with very large contact patches.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.50

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

Using explicit dynamics will pose all the


additional problems discussed earlier for
implicit dynamics (Abaqus/Standard),
plus some new ones.
The response will be inherently noisy,
especially if impact occurs (must filter
the results).
Requires learning about time- and
mass-scaling techniques to use
Abaqus/Explicit effectively.
This is what happens if run too fast.
Performing a static analysis with
Abaqus/Standard, then importing to
Abaqus/Explicit, is time consuming.
Could be used for very large problems.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


143
L6.51

Automotive Glass Run Channel Weatherseal

Comparison of solution approaches:


Abaqus/Standard: STATIC has problems because analysis becomes inherently
dynamic as energy release occurs; Newton-Raphson cannot converge in light of
these very large configurational changes.
Abaqus/Standard: STATIC, STABILIZE is generally the best solution for local
instability, local energy release problems. Easy to use, robust. Use in step close
to event.
Abaqus/Standard: STATIC, RIKS can help in many global buckling and
collapse problems. It may help in energy release situations, but cannot track the
problem if the body separates from the driving rigid surface. Not useful for local
instability.
Abaqus/Standard: DYNAMIC is appealing since the physical event truly
becomes dynamic, but the analysis poses additional choices/challenges.
Expensive.
Abaqus/Explicit: DYNAMIC, EXPLICIT is useful for very large meshes with lots
of contact. Fine meshes will increase solution time considerably. Postprocessing
results that inherently include wave propagation can be challenging. May need to
filter results.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Using Abaqus/Explicit for


Rubber Analysis

144
L6.53

Using Abaqus/Explicit for Rubber Analysis

What is Abaqus/Explicit?
Abaqus/Explicit solves a dynamics problem resolving wave propagation.
It is a separate piece of software, not part of Abaqus/Standard.
Originally used just for highly dynamic eventsexplosions, crash.
Used extensively in sheet forming to solve quasi-static problems.
Also used to solve quasi-static rubber problems.
Input syntax similar to Abaqus/Standard, but not exactly the same.
Learn about time scaling and mass scaling techniques.
For tough three-dimensional elastomer and contact problems, try
Abaqus/Explicit.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.54

Using Abaqus/Explicit for Rubber Analysis

What advantages does Abaqus/Explicit have?


CPU cost lower for large models
No convergence issues
Handles large contact conditions more easily

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


145
L6.55

Using Abaqus/Explicit for Rubber Analysis

What disadvantages does Abaqus/Explicit have?


No hybrid elements; rubber must be hyperelastic, but compressible.
High bulk modulus decreases stable time increment and increases
CPU cost.
Abaqus/Explicit solves the dynamic equilibrium equation; thus, always
getting some wave propagation.
Can be difficult to postprocess for quasi-static analyses.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.56

Using Abaqus/Explicit for Rubber Analysis

Abaqus/Explicit usage tips for quasi-static rubber problems


Use AMPLITUDE, DEFINITION=SMOOTH STEP to smooth the
loading.
Use as long a time frame as you can afford (CPU), typically still a
fraction of a second, 10 or 20 milliseconds is common.
Must provide material density (solving dynamic equilibrium equations).
Always check the kinetic energy (should be small compared to internal).
Make bulk modulus, K, only 10 times the shear modulus, G, when the
part has room to shear. You can set K higher, but it drives up the CPU
cost.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


146
L6.57

Using Abaqus/Explicit for Rubber Analysis

Example: simple compression


We compare the force-deflection response of ABABQUS/Standard to
ABABQUS/Explicit in a quasi-static 50% compression analysis.

Undeformed mesh 50% compression deformation

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.58

Using Abaqus/Explicit for Rubber Analysis

Units are N,mm.


Puck dimension is standard ASTM: .5 inch high, 1 inch2 area
(radius = 0.5642 in = 14.3 mm).
Material is Ogden
Treloar data.
Fit by Ogden (see his paper with Twizell).
Bulk modulus is 2000 MPa (from literature).
Testing of vulcanized natural rubber.
Thus D1 = 2/K = 0.001.
Density is that of rubber = 1.0E 9 Ns2/mm4.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


147
L6.59

Using Abaqus/Explicit for Rubber Analysis

Compression is 50%, compressed with rigid surface platens.


Friction coefficient to platens is set to 1.0.
Element type is cax4h in Abaqus/Standard and cax4r in
Abaqus/Explicit.
Total time in Abaqus/Explicit is 10 milliseconds and ran in approximately
133,000 increments.
The smooth step feature is used in Abaqus/Explicit.
Kinetic energy in Abaqus/Explicit is several orders of magnitude less
than strain energy.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.60

Using Abaqus/Explicit for Rubber Analysis

50% simple compression Abaqus/Standard vs. Abaqus/Explicit


Force vs. deflection is compared in the figurevery good match. Peak
force to compress is 2.6% lower in Abaqus/Explicit than in
Abaqus/Standard.
Plots of Mises stress, S22, and hydrostatic pressure all look similar,
peak values are about 1115% lower in Abaqus/Explicit than in
Abaqus/Standard.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


148
L6.61

Using Abaqus/Explicit for Rubber Analysis

Another Abaqus/Standard vs. Abaqus/Explicit comparison


Several more seal analyses that show good agreement between
Abaqus/Standard and Abaqus/Explicit results are shown in the paper by
DeHerrera and Heim.
M. A. DeHerrera, D. R. Heim, Using Abaqus/Explicit to Model Behavior
of Elastomeric Sealing Components, 2000 ABAQUS Users
Conference.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal


Compression

149
L6.63

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression


oil pan surface
Oil pan seal insertion model
rubber seal
Full three-dimensional; originally
set up in Abaqus/Standard
Groove is aluminum, C3D8
elements
Seal modeled using C3D8RH
elements
Uses the Ogden, N = 3 model for
the rubber constitutive behavior
Oil pan surface is modeled as
rigid, analytical.

groove (aluminum)

Model courtesy of GM Powertrain;


example courtesy of Abaqus Great Lakes

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.64

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

Locations of weak springs


used to control rigid body
motion.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


150
L6.65

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

Material modelinput data


The Ogden, N = 3 model parameters came from the customer. We can
use Abaqus/CAE evaluate feature to show us the material response for
these coefficients. What can we tell about stability just from looking at
the coefficients?
The material definition is:
*MATERIAL,NAME=RUB
*HYPERELASTIC, N=3,OGDEN
3.753,-0.3327,0.003215,10.09,-2.615,-0.7817,8.762e-3,0.0017525
0.0,23.0

This is 1, 1, 2, 2, 3 , 3 , D1, D2
D3, Temperature
G0 is 1.141; K0 is 2/D1 = 228 (units are MPa, mm).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.66

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

Material model
stress-strain behavior
This is the standard
Abaqus/CAE response
plot after using the
evaluate function.
Hard to compare scales.

We notice unstable BIAXIAL response of the material model.


Look at the data (.dat) file for more material stability checks.
Will use this material model for now.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


151
L6.67

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

This is the same response


data plotted in the
Visualization module using
the XY Data Manager.

Easier to compare scales.

Best way to compare


relationship of the
responses to different
modes of deformation.

Lots of control over plot


style, color, scales, text.
etc.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.68

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

Abaqus/Explicit vs. Abaqus/Standard


Notice mesh directly under flat rigid surface

Abaqus/Explicit Abaqus/Standard

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


152
L6.69

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

Force vs displacement
Why so different? Abaqus/Explicit

Abaqus/Standard

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.70

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

Differences between Abaqus/Explicit and Abaqus/Standard:


Usually use hybrid elements in Abaqus/Standard for elastomers; no
hybrid elements available in Abaqus/Explicit
Abaqus/ Standard typically incompressible in bulk behavior;
Abaqus/Explicit must be compressible (somewhat)
Can use full integration or reduced elements in Abaqus/Standard; only
reduced integration available in Abaqus/Explicit
Dont use springs in Abaqus/Explicit (no rigid body modes)
Setting appropriate timescale very important in Abaqus/Explicit
Smoothing the load application very important in Abaqus/Explicit

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


153
L6.71

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

Make the Abaqus/Explicit and


Abaqus/Standard analyses more similar:
Use reduced-integration nonhybrid elements
in both.
Use compressible material model in both.
Adjust (lengthen) the timescale in
Abaqus/Explicit.
Smooth load with AMPLITUDE,
DEFINITION=SMOOTH STEP.
Set up new models in two dimensions.
Use of defaults traced error to user-
defined hourglass control!

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.72

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

The source of the problem in the three-dimensional Abaqus/Standard


model is the nondefault hourglass control:

*SOLID SECTION, ELSET=SEAL, MATERIAL=RUB


*HOURGLASS STIFFNESS
13872.0,

This hourglass stiffness was


overconstraining the
model in Abaqus/Standard.
The Abaqus/Standard result
was wrong!

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


154
L6.73

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

Switch to either default hourglass control or full-integration elements in


Abaqus/Standard; now results match very well.

Abaqus/Explicit Abaqus/Standard

Mesh distortion
due to presence of
springs (not as
weak as intended).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.74

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

Very good match of vertical strain component

Abaqus/Explicit Abaqus/Standard

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


155
L6.75

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

Force-displacement now results match

User-defined hourglass control Default hourglass control

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L6.76

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

What about checking ALLAE vs ALLIE to catch the problem?

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


156
L6.77

Example: Automotive Oil Pan Seal Compression

Cam cover seal compressionsummary


Comparison of Abaqus/Explicit and Abaqus/Standard solutions:
Originally thought that Abaqus/Standard was correct and initial
Abaqus/Explicit analysis did not match it.
Kept changing Abaqus/Explicit analysis to mirror Abaqus/Standard
analysis.
Modified Abaqus/Standard analysis at times too.
Moved to new models in two dimensions based on seal cross-
section.
Use of default settings in two dimensions led to discovery of
offending overconstraint with user-defined hourglass control values.
Reran Abaqus/Standard three-dimensional models using default
hourglass control and using full-integration elements.
Now Abaqus/Explicit and Abaqus/Standard results agree well.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

157
158
Notes

159
Notes

160
Viscoelastic Material Behavior
Lecture 7

L7.2

Overview

Time Domain Response


Linear Viscoelasticity
Temperature Dependence
Frequency Domain Response
Hysteresis and Damping

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


161
Time Domain Response

L7.4

Time Domain Response

Definition
Certain materials are rate-dependent and behave elastically.
When unloaded, they return to their undeformed state.
These materials are called viscoelastic.
Examples
Polymers such as plastics
Glass
Rubber
Foams
Solid rocket propellants

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


162
L7.5

Time Domain Response

For prescribed stress (force), these materials creep


Creep test measures strain (displacement) response as function of time
while stress (force) is held constant on the specimen.

prescribed stress

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L7.6

Time Domain Response

Creep
Also occurs in metals,
Typically not recoverable (inelastic)
Creep material model is viscoplastic, not viscoelastic
Significant at high temperature (with respect to the melting point)
Creep of polymers is significant starting at low temperatures ( 200 oC)
For viscoelastic materials full elastic recovery occurs upon unloading

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


163
L7.7

Time Domain Response

For prescribed strains these materials exhibit stress relaxation


Stress relaxation test measures the stress (force) response as function
of time while strain (displacement) is held constant on the specimen

prescribed strain

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L7.8

Time Domain Response

Stress Relaxation and Recovery


Viscous fluids, such as glass, polymers at high temperature and
unvulcanized elastomers will relax to zero stress and will not recover
when the applied strain is released.
Viscoelastic solids, such as polymers at lower temperatures, and
vulcanized elastomers will relax asymptotically to a nonzero stress level.
Upon release of the applied strain, they will partially recover elastically
(immediately) and fully recover viscously over time.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


164
Linear Viscoelasticity

L7.10

Linear Viscoelasticity

One-Dimensional Idealization
Linear and finite-strain viscoelasticity are idealized as series pairs of
springs and dashpots in parallel with a spring

Generalized Maxwell Model

The number of dashpots is equal to the number of terms in the Prony


series representing the stress response (the number of terms needed to
fit the test data for the time domain of interest).
Every network (spring-dashpot pair) experiences the same total strain.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


165
L7.11

Linear Viscoelasticity

Linear Viscoelasticity in Abaqus


The dashpots strain rate is proportional to stress

1
cr A , where A
Viscosity
The spring response may be linear or nonlinear:
For classical linear viscoelasticity the springs are linear.
This implies a linear elastic material model in Abaqus
For finite-strain viscoelasticity the springs are nonlinear.
This implies a hyperelastic or hyperfoam material model in
Abaqus

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L7.12

Linear Viscoelasticity

How do I know if my material exhibits linear viscoelasticity?


From a practical perspective, one tests the validity of linear
viscoelasticity by testing at multiple load levels and comparing
(overlaying) the normalized response plots. Data for a silicone rubber:

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


166
L7.13

Linear Viscoelasticity

Response of not-as-linear viscoelastic elastomer


The material shown below is tested over a bit larger range of strain and
the viscoelastic response of the material is less linear as indicated by the
variations in the normalized stress relaxation curves. One must make a
judgment call as to which relaxation curve to use.

Stress Relaxation Stress Relaxation


20% Strain
0.7 1
40% Strain
60% Strain
0.6
80% Strain 0.9
0.5 100% Strain

Stress Normalized
Stress (MPa)

0.8
0.4

0.3
0.7 20% Strain
0.2 40% Strain
0.6 60% Strain
0.1 80% Strain
100% Strain
0 0.5
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (secs) Time (secs)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L7.14

Linear Viscoelasticity

Creep response for "linear"


viscoelasticity
Here is the creep response
for a perfectly linear
viscoelastic material loaded
to 1, 2, and 4 MPa.
If these curves were
normalized by the
instantaneous strain they
would perfectly overlay one
another.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


167
L7.15

Linear Viscoelasticity

Creep response for nonlinear


viscoelasticity
The dashed lines depict the creep
response for a material that does
not obey linear viscoelasticity.
This kind of general nonlinear
viscoelastic cannot be modeled in
Abaqus with the *VISCOELASTIC
material option.
Your material may behave nearly
linear over a more narrow range of
loading.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L7.16

Linear Viscoelasticity

Classical linear viscoelasticity:


Small-strain theory with linear elastic response.
Implies use of a linear elastic material model in Abaqus.
Experiments demonstrate that this model is accurate for many materials
at small strains (say 0.05).
Finite-strain linear viscoelasticity:
Finite-strain theory with nonlinear elastic response.
Implies use of a hyperelastic or hyperfoam material to model the
elasticity in Abaqus.
Simplest model for viscoelasticity at large strain.
Test assumption of linearity using tests for at least two load magnitudes.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


168
Temperature Dependence

L7.18

Temperature Dependence

Elastomer and polymer material properties are strongly temperature


dependent
Two types of effects:
Instantaneous response can be temperature dependent, that is
temperature dependence of elastic moduli, or temperature dependence
of hyperelastic model coefficients.
Time dependent behavior (rate of relaxation) can be temperature
dependent.
This is modeled with the concept of a time-temperature shift
function and reduced time.
Materials that can be described this way are called thermo-
rheologically simple, or TRS (details in Lecture 10).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


169
Frequency Domain Response

L7.20

Frequency Domain Response

Harmonic, or sinusoidal, excitation


Consider the application of a sinusoidal strain excitation, :

i t
(t ) 0e

where is the frequency in radians/second.

i( t )
The material responds with a stress, (t ) 0e
where is called the loss angle.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


170
L7.21

Frequency Domain Response

Loss Angle,
The strain lags behind the stress by an angle
Purely elastic response (no damping) 0.
Polymers and Elastomers 0.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L7.22

Frequency Domain Response

Complex Modulus
It is convenient to separate the viscoelastic response into in-phase and
out-of-phase components.

strain 0 sin t

stress 0 sin( t )

0 (sin t cos cos t sin

0 (sin t cos sin ( t 90) sin

in-phase stress out-of-phase stress

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


171
L7.23

Frequency Domain Response

Complex Modulus (cont'd)


The complex shear modulus is denoted G* or G *( ).

shear stress
G* ( ) Complex Shear Modulus
shear strain
i( t )
0e
G* ( ) i t
0e

0 0
cos i sin
0 0

Gs i Gl

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L7.24

Frequency Domain Response

Complex Modulus (cont'd)


Storage Modulus, Gs :

0
Gs cos
0
Characterizes the in-phase shear modulus
Loss Modulus, Gl :

0
Gl sin
0
Characterizes the out-of-phase shear modulus

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


172
L7.25

Frequency Domain Response

Complex Modulus (cont'd)


For a harmonic loading of elastomers the storage and loss moduli
typically look something like this:

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L7.26

Frequency Domain Response

Complex Modulus (cont'd)


For unfilled rubbers the storage and loss moduli are dependent on
frequency only.

Gl
The ratio: tan is commonly referred to as tan delta
Gs

For unfilled rubbers this ratio is often nearly a constant (over some
frequency range of interest).
Typical value for natural rubber is 0.2.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


173
L7.27

Frequency Domain Response

Complex Modulus (cont'd)


For filled rubbers the storage and
loss moduli are usually dependent Storage modulus
on the strain amplitude
The X-axis in these figures is the
shear amplitude.

Loss modulus

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Hysteresis and Damping

174
L7.29

Hysteresis and Damping

Viscoelastic materials dissipate energy. In the case of cyclic loadings, this


is termed hysteresis; it arises from the frictional sliding of the long
molecules across one another.
In other cases we refer to the energy
dissipation characteristic as damping.

Energy lost due to viscoelastic behavior is output in Abaqus using:


CENER: dissipation energy; element integration point
variable
ELCD: dissipation energy; whole element variable
ECDDEN: dissipation energy per unit volume; whole element
variable
ALLCD: dissipation energy; whole model variable

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L7.30

Hysteresis and Damping

Energy dissipation through hysteresis is represented by the area


between the loading and unloading curves in a load-deformation cycle,
and occurs with all rubbers.

The complementary property is resilience, which is a measure of the


energy returned. Fillers in the rubber will increase hysteresis. At high
elongations, the hysteresis is much greater; this is associated with
crystallization.

Rapidly repeated cyclic loading ---------------------------> heat

heat -----------------------------------> rise in temperature

rise in temperature -------------------------------> fatigue failure

Thus, natural rubber, with its low hysteresis, is the preferred material for
vibration applications.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


175
L7.31

Hysteresis and Damping

Damping
In many practical applications the damping characteristics of rubber are
important, and are often the reason that an elastomer is chosen for the
application.
Any vibration isolation application, mounts, gaskets, etc., depends upon
the damping characteristic of the elastomer.
Damping characteristics can be strongly dependent upon the chemical
composition.
Damping characteristics can be strongly influenced by fillers in the
rubber:
Carbon black
Silica

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

176
Notes

177
Notes

178
Time Domain Viscoelasticity
Lecture 8

L8.2

Overview

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity


Prony Series Representation
Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity
Relaxation and Creep Test Data
Prony Series Data
Automatic Material Evaluation
Usage Hints

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


179
Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

L8.4

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

Recall that classical means small-strain theory.


In Abaqus this means:
relaxation/creep behavior defined by *VISCOELASTIC
elasticity is defined by *ELASTIC
Isotropic linear viscoelasticity is implemented in Abaqus

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


180
L8.5

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

To generalize the viscoelastic equations to multiaxial stress states it is


best to work with shear (deviatoric) and volumetric (dilatational)
behavior:
dG ( )

1
S (t ) S0 (t ) S0 (t ) d
G0 0 d
dK ( )

1
p(t ) p0 (t ) p0 (t ) d
K0 0 d

where S is the deviatoric stress tensor and p is the hydrostatic pressure.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.6

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

Definitions
We decompose the total stress into shear and volumetric parts by:
1 1
S pI where p tr ( ) (11 22 33 ).
3 3
We decompose the total strain into shear and volumetric parts by:
1
e vol I where vol tr ( ) (11 22 33 ).
3
The elastic stress-strain relations decompose into:

S0 (t ) G0 e(t ) and p0 (t ) K0 vol ,

where S0 (t ) and p0 (t ) are the deviatoric and pressure stress states that
would exist for the current strain state if the material were behaving
purely elastically.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


181
Prony Series Representation

L8.8

Prony Series Representation

In Abaqus the time-dependent behavior G( ) and K( ) are


represented in terms of a Prony series:

N material coefficients are


gip (1 e / i )
G
G ( ) G0 1 up to N pairs of gip and iG

i 1
N material coefficients are
K ( ) K 0 1



i 1
ki (1 e
p / iK
)
up to N pairs of ki p and iK

G0 and K0 are determined from the elasticity definition.
These are simply a sum of a series of exponential decays.
For many materials, including solid elastomers, the relaxation behavior
is dominated by shear relaxation. In these cases it is not necessary to
specify K( ).
An exception is void filled elastomers (elastic foams) in which there
is generally significant volumetric relaxation.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


182
L8.9

Prony Series Representation

In Abaqus G( ) and K( ) are specified in one


of four different ways:
Prony series curve fit from experimental
stress relaxation test data:
*VISCOELASTIC, TIME=RELAXATION TEST
DATA

Prony series curve fit from experimental


creep test data:
*VISCOELASTIC, TIME=CREEP TEST DATA

Prony series coefficients specified directly


by the user:
*VISCOELASTIC, TIME=PRONY

Defined from frequency-dependent cyclic


test data: Frequency-dependent input
discussed in Lecture 9.
*VISCOELASTIC, TIME=FREQUENCY DATA

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.10

Prony Series Representation

The rate-independent elastic moduli are specified using *ELASTIC


*ELASTIC, MODULI=INSTANTANEOUS
E0, 0
or
*ELASTIC, MODULI=LONG TERM
E1, 1

Abaqus will determine the appropriate G and K values from the user
specified E and values.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


183
L8.11

Prony Series Representation

If the user specifies long-term elastic moduli, Abaqus will compute the
instantaneous elastic moduli using the relaxation information

N N
G G0 1

k 1
g kp


K K 0 1
kkp

k 1

where the g kp and kkp are the Prony series coefficients.


The choice of defining the elasticity in terms of instantaneous or long-
term is a matter of convenience only.
However, the MODULI parameter defaults to LONG TERM.
Thus, if you enter instantaneous data but omit the
INSTANTANEOUS parameter, it will adversely affect your solution.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity

184
L8.13

Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity

Polynomial Strain Energy Function


Energy function has the form:
N N

C (I D (J
1
U ij 1 3) ( I 2 3)
i j
el 1) 2i .
i j 1 i 1 i

The Prony series acts as a non-dimensionalized multiplier:


N
G
Cij ( ) Cij0 1



i 1
gip (1 e / i )


1 K
N


1
0 1 ki p (1 e / i )
Di ( ) Di i 1


1
where Cij0 and 0 define the instantaneous shear and volume
response. Di

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.14

Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity

Ogdens Strain Energy Function


Energy Function has the form:

2i
N N

D (J
i i i 1
U 2
(1 2 3 3) el 1)2i ,
i 1 i i 1 i

The Prony series acts as a non-dimensionalized multiplier:


N
G
i ( ) i0 1



i 1
gip (1 e / i )

1 K
N


1
0 1 ki p (1 e / i )
Di ( ) Di i 1


1
where i and 0 define the instantaneous shear and volume
0

response. Di

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


185
L8.15

Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity

Marlow Strain Energy Function


The Prony series acts as a non-dimensionalized multiplier:
N
G
R
U dev ( ) U dev
0
1


i 1
gip (1 e / i )


N
K
R
U vol ( ) U vol
0
1

i 1
ki p (1 e / i )


0 0
where U dev and U vol define the instantaneous shear and volume strain
energy functions.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.16

Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity

Arruda-Boyce and Van der Waals Strain Energy Function


The strain energy functions are shown in Appendix 2.
The Prony series acts as a non-dimensionalized multiplier:

N
G
( ) 1


0

i 1
gip (1 e / i )

1 K
N

k
1
0 1 p
(1 e / i )
D( ) D
i
i 1

1
where and 0 define the instantaneous shear and volume
0

response. D

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


186
L8.17

Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity

Hyperfoam Energy Function


The energy function is:

2i i i i
N


1 i i
U 3 ( J 1) ,
i 1 i2
1 2 3
i el

Note the deviatoric and volumetric behavior is fully coupled.
*VISCOELASTIC should obey g kp kkp ; that is, the shear and volume
relaxation rates should be equal.
The relaxation behavior is governed by Prony series:

N
i ( ) i 1
0



i 1
gip (1 e / i )

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.18

Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity

Hyperfoam Energy Function (cont'd)


When using viscoelasticity in conjunction with the hyperfoam material
model:
You may use *SHEAR TEST DATA to specify the viscoelastic
behavior.
Abaqus will set the volume behavior equal to the shear.
You may use *VOLUMETRIC TEST DATA to specify the viscoelastic
behavior.
Abaqus will set the shear behavior equal to the volumetric.
You may use *COMBINED TEST DATA to specify the viscoelastic
behavior.
You should make the shear and volume data the same.
You may use TIME=PRONY and specify the Prony coefficients
directly.
p p
If you give just the g k terms, then the kk terms will be set to
the same value (and vice-versa).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


187
Relaxation and Creep Test Data

L8.20

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Relaxation Test Data


Consider a simple shear relaxation test

Here g0 is the instantaneous (short-time) applied shear strain, and


(t) is the measured shear stress response.
Note: Be careful that the short-time duration of the prescribed strain is
consistent with the time scale of your linear elastic or hyperelastic
material definition.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


188
L8.21

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Relaxation Test Data (cont'd)


The measured shear stress response is data pairs of (shear stress, time)

0 , time0
1 , time1
2 , time2
3 , time3

Because this is linear viscoelasticity only one curve may be used. If your
material is not exactly linear in its viscoelastic response, then test at an
applied strain that is close to your component analysis strain level of
interest.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.22

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Relaxation Test Data (cont'd)


Test data processing for use in Abaqus:
Simply normalize all the measured stress values by 0:
0 / 0 , time0
1 / 0 , time1
2 / 0 , time2
3 / 0 , time3
:
:
and input this data using the *SHEAR TEST DATA suboption of
*VISCOELASTIC, TIME=RELAXATION TEST DATA.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


189
L8.23

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Example 1: Relaxation Test Data Usage


*MATERIAL,NAME=
*ELASTIC, MODULI= or *HYPERLEASTIC, MODULI=
... (data lines)
*VISCOELASTIC, TIME=RELAXATION TEST DATA,
{ERRTOL = 0.01, NMAX = 13}
*SHEAR TEST DATA, SHRINF = 0.5
1.0000, 0.0001
0.9695, 0.001
0.9417, 0.002
...
*VOLUMETRIC TEST DATA, VOLINF = 0.5
1.0000, 0.0001
0.9695, 0.001
0.9417, 0.002
...

nonlinear least
squares fits

pairs of gi and i
p G

pairs of ki and i
p K

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.24

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Example 1: Relaxation Test Data Usage (cont'd)


Volumetric relaxation test data is optional; many solid materials exhibit
insignificant volumetric relaxation behavior.
Separate fits are performed on the shear and volumetric parts and
combined into one set of Prony series parameters.
SHRINF is the normalized shear stress (modulus) as time 1; if a
value for this parameter is specified it will act as a further constraint to
enforce N
1 g
i 1
i
p
g R ().

VOLINF is the normalized pressure (modulus) as time 1; if a value


for this parameter is specified it will act as a further constraint to enforce
N
1 k
i 1
i
p
k R ().

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


190
L8.25

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Example 2: Relaxation Test Data Usage (combined test data)


If both the shear and volumetric relaxation tests are performed and the
same time intervals are used in each, then the normalized experimental
data can be specified using a single keyword: *COMBINED TEST DATA

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.26

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Example 2: Relaxation Test Data Usage (combined test data, cont'd)


*MATERIAL,NAME=
*ELASTIC, MODULI= or
*HYPERLEASTIC, MODULI= or
*HYPERFOAM
... (data lines)
*VISCOELASTIC, TIME=RELAXATION TEST DATA,
{ERRTOL = 0.01, NMAX = 13}
*COMBINED TEST DATA,
SHRINF = 0.5, VOLINF = 0.5
0.99256, 0.99256, 0.1
0.98525, 0.98525, 0.2
0.97805, 0.97805, 0.3
...

single curve fit

groups of gi , ki , and i
p p

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


191
L8.27

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Creep Test Data


Consider a simple shear creep test

Here 0 is the instantaneous (short-time) applied shear stress, and


g (t) is the measured shear strain response.
Note: Be careful that the short-time duration of the prescribed stress is
consistent with the time scale of your linear elastic or hyperelastic
material definition.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.28

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Creep Test Data (cont'd)


The measured shear strain response is data pairs of (shear strain, time)

g0 , time0
g1 , time1
g2 , time2
g3 , time3

Because this is linear viscoelasticity only one curve may be used. If your
material is not exactly linear in its viscoelastic response then test at an
applied stress that is close to your component analysis stress level of
interest.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


192
L8.29

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Creep Test Data (cont'd)


Test data processing for use in Abaqus:
Simply normalize all the measured strain values by g0 :
g0 / g0 , time0
g1 / g0 , time1
g2 / g0 , time2
g3 / g0 , time3

and input this data using the *SHEAR TEST DATA suboption of
*VISCOELASTIC, TIME=CREEP TEST DATA.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.30

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Example 3: Creep Test Data Usage


*MATERIAL, NAME=
*ELASTIC, MODULI= OR
*HYPERLEASTIC, MODULI=
... (data lines)
*VISCOELASTIC, TIME=CREEP TEST DATA,
{ERRTOL=0.01, NMAX=13}
*SHEAR TEST DATA, SHRINF=2
1.00747, 0.1
1.01487, 0.2
...
1.99619, 100.0
*VOLUMETRIC TEST DATA, VOLINF=2
1.00747, 0.1
1.01487, 0.2
...
1.99619, 100.0

nonlinear least
squares fits

pairs of gi and i
p G

pairs of ki and i
p K

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


193
L8.31

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Example 3: Creep Test Data Usage (cont'd)


Volumetric creep test data is optional; many solid materials exhibit
insignificant volumetric creep/relaxation behavior.
Separate fits are performed on the shear and volumetric parts and
combined into one set of Prony series parameters.
SHRINF is the normalized shear strain (compliance) as time 1; if a
value for this parameter is specified it will act as a further constraint to
enforce
N
1 g
i 1
i
p
g R ().

VOLINF is the normalized volume strain (compliance) as time 1; if a


value for this parameter is specified it will act as a further constraint to
enforce N
1 k
i 1
i
p
k R ().

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.32

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Example 4: Creep Test Data Usage (combined test data)


If both the shear and volumetric creep tests are performed and the same
time intervals are used in each, then the normalized experimental data
can be specified using a single keyword: *COMBINED TEST DATA

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


194
L8.33

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Example 4: Creep Test Data Usage (combined test data, cont'd)


*MATERIAL, NAME=
*ELASTIC,MODULI= or
*HYPERLEASTIC,MODULI= or
*HYPERFOAM
... (data lines)
*VISCOELASTIC, TIME = CREEP TEST DATA,
{ERRTOL = 0.01, NMAX = 13}
*COMBINED TEST DATA,
SHRINF = 2, VOLINF = 2
1.00747, 1.00747, 0.1
1.01487, 1.01487, 0.2
...
1.99619, 1.99619, 100.0

single curve fit

groups of gi , ki , and i
p p

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.34

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

Prony Series Curve Fit Notes


The proper number of terms in the Prony series should be used
Too few terms will yield a poor fit.
Too many terms may cause ill-conditioning
Typically you need about the same number of Prony terms as you have
decades of time data.
The ERRTOL parameter on the *VISCOELASTIC option controls the
accuracy of the fit, and thus the number of terms generated.
It is the allowable average RMS error in the least squares fit.
The default value is 0.01.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


195
L8.35

Relaxation and Creep Test Data

The NMAX parameter on the *VISCOELASTIC option controls specifies the


maximum number of terms in the Prony series.
Fit is performed from N1 to NNMAX until convergence is achieved
for the lowest N with respect to ERRTOL .
Visually check your fit using unit-cube type analyses.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Prony Series Data

196
L8.37

Prony Series Data

Prony Series Data


An alternative to specifying test
data is to enter the Prony
coefficients directly.

*MATERIAL, NAME=...
*ELASTIC,MODULI=... Or
*HYPERLEASTIC,MODULI=... Or
*HYPERFOAM
... (data lines)
*VISCOELASTIC, TIME=PRONY,

g1p , k1p , 1
g 2p , k2p , 2 1 2 3
g3p , k3p , 3

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.38

Prony Series Data

Prony Series Data


Rule of thumb is one-two logarithmic decades of time per i .
For example, suppose we want to model the relaxation over the time
span from 0.1 seconds to 7200 seconds.
0.1 1.0 seconds is one decade of time
1 10 is 2 decades
10 100 is 3 decades
100 1000 is 4 decades
1000 10,000 is 5 decades
We can estimate that it will take 3-5 Prony series terms for a good fit to 5
decades of relaxation.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


197
L8.39

Prony Series Data

Changing number of Prony Terms: N= 2, N= 3, N= 5

N=3 Better

N=2 Very Poor N=5 Best

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Automatic Material Evaluation

198
L8.41

Automatic Material Evaluation

Abaqus offers a material evaluation capability for viscoelastic material


models.
Similar to the capability for hyperelastic materials.

Use Abaqus/CAE to perform standard tests.


Supply experimental test data.
Specify relaxation or creep response (or both).

XY plots appear for each test.


Predicted normalized moduli curves plotted against experimental
test data.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.42

Automatic Material Evaluation

The material curve


fitting capability
allows you to view
the behavior
predicted by a
viscoelastic material
and compare it with
the test data.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


199
Usage Hints

L8.44

Usage Hints

Interpolation / Extrapolation
Experimental data must cover the time domain of interest in the analysis.

Prony series can only represent behavior over the fitted time domain.
Extrapolation does not work.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


200
L8.45

Usage Hints

Viscoelastic assumption for solid rubber


For many solid rubber (incompressible or nearly incompressible)
materials it is reasonable to assume that the viscoelastic behavior is
entirely a shearing action; that is, there is no appreciable viscoelastic
action in the volumetric deformation.
With the above assumption one can perform UNIAXIAL creep/relaxation
tests and after normalizing provide this data as *SHEAR TEST DATA.
*VOLUMETRIC TEST DATA is not given in this case.

To test this assumption one might perform a volumetric relaxation test,


or perform and compare a simple shear vs. uniaxial relaxation test.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.46

Usage Hints

Procedures
Time-domain viscoelasticity can be used with:
*STATIC (viscoelastic behavior ignored)
*VISCO
*DYNAMIC
*COUPLED TEMPERATURE-DISPLACEMENT
*STEADY STATE TRANSPORT

In the *VISCO procedure the CETOL parameter


controls the automatic time incrementation.
It limits Dt such that Dcreep CETOL

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


201
L8.47

Usage Hints

Procedures (cont'd)
Instantaneous elastic response
The *STATIC procedure can be used to apply loads instantaneously:
*STATIC
The instantaneous modulus characterizes the response
*STATIC, LONG TERM
The long term (long-time) modulus characterizes the response

In the *COUPLED TEMPERATURE-DISPLACEMENT procedure the


CREEP=NONE parameter setting can be used to force Abaqus to use
only the instantaneous modulus.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L8.48

Usage Hints

Procedures (cont'd)

In the *COUPLED TEMPERATURE-DISPLACEMENT procedure the CETOL


and/or DELTMX parameters control the automatic time incrementation.

In a *DYNAMIC procedure the HAFTOL parameter controls the automatic


time incrementation and CETOL cannot be used.

In general, the *STEADY STATE TRANSPORT procedure allows for time-


dependent viscoelastic behavior.

Use *STEADY STATE TRANSPORT, LONG TERM to indicate that there


is no viscoelastic material response during this step and that the
solution must be based on the long-term elastic moduli.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


202
Notes

203
Notes

204
Frequency Domain Viscoelasticity
Lecture 9

L9.2

Overview

Classical Isotropic Linear Viscoelasticity


Tabular Data
Formula Data
Isotropic Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity
Procedures

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


205
Classical Isotropic Linear
Viscoelasticity

L9.4

Classical Isotropic Linear Viscoelasticity

Isotropic linear viscoelasticity is implemented in Abaqus.


Independent storage and loss moduli for deviatoric and volumetric
behavior.
The user must supply G , K , G* ( ), and K * ( ).

G Gs iGl
*
K K s iK l
*

G0
K0

G K

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


206
L9.5

Classical Isotropic Linear Viscoelasticity

The complex shear and bulk moduli are defined as

G* ( ) Gs ( ) iGl ( )
and

K * ( ) K s ( ) iKl ( ),
respectively.

The storage moduli Gs and Ks and the loss moduli Gl and Kl are
measured as a function of frequency f = /2p.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L9.6

Classical Isotropic Linear Viscoelasticity

The following dimensionless moduli can be obtained by using the long


term moduli G and K:

m1 ( f ) Gl G
m2 ( f ) 1 Gs G
m3 ( f ) K l K
m4 ( f ) 1 K s K

The advantage of dimensionless viscoelastic moduli is that they can be


defined independently of the elastic material data.
If data are unavailable for a given material, one can try using
dimensionless data from similar materials.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


207
L9.7

Classical Isotropic Linear Viscoelasticity

Long-term moduli G and K are determined from


E and .
Defined with the *ELASTIC option.
Storage and loss moduli can be supplied (indirectly)
in three different ways:
Tabular input of nondimensional moduli:
*VISCOELASTIC, FREQUENCY=TABULAR

Formula parameters for nondimensional


moduli:
*VISCOELASTIC, FREQUENCY=FORMULA

Prony series expression for the relaxation


moduli (discussed in Lecture 8)
*VISCOELASTIC, FREQUENCY=CREEP TEST DATA
*VISCOELASTIC, FREQUENCY=RELAXATION TEST DATA
*VISCOELASTIC, FREQUENCY=PRONY

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L9.8

Classical Isotropic Linear Viscoelasticity

Tabular data
Abaqus usage:
*MATERIAL, NAME=...
*ELASTIC

E,
*VISCOELASTIC, FREQUENCY=TABULAR

m1( f1 ), m2( f1 ), m3( f1 ), m4( f1 ), f1


m1( f2 ), m2( f2 ), m3( f2 ), m4( f2 ), f2
:

m1( fn ), m2 ( fn ), m3 ( fn ), m4 ( fn ), fn

where fi = i/2p frequency in cycles per time.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


208
L9.9

Classical Isotropic Linear Viscoelasticity

G Gs iGl
*
Abaqus Usage Examples
G0
*MATERIAL, NAME= ELASTMAT storage
*ELASTIC, ...
: G
:
loss
*VISCOELASTIC, FREQUENCY=TABULAR

Gl /G1, 1 Gs /G1, Kl /K , 1 Ks /K, freq1


Gl /G1, 1 Gs /G1, Kl /K , 1 Ks /K, freq2 K K s iK l
*

: K0
:
VOLUMETRIC K
SHEAR

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L9.10

Classical Isotropic Linear Viscoelasticity

*material, name=rubber
*elastic Test data
: Long term modulus G1= 486.6 psi
: from (long-term) elastic constants
*viscoelastic, frequency=tabular
0.0020552, 0.0011858, 0, 0, 1.0
0.0184966, 0.0340686, 0, 0, 10.0 storage modulus
0.0369931, 0.0751721, 0, 0, 100.0
0.0822069, 0.1368273, 0, 0, 200.0 loss modulus
0.1233104, 0.0957238, 0, 0, 400.0
0.1644139, 0.0237927, 0, 0, 500.0

frequency frequency (Hz) Gs (psi) Gl (psi)


Gl /G1 1 Gs /G1 1 486 1.0
10 470 9.0
100 450 18.0
200 420 40.0
Volumetric 400 440 60.0
Long term modulus 500 475 80.0

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


209
L9.11

Classical Isotropic Linear Viscoelasticity

Defining tabular frequency data in Abaqus/CAE

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L9.12

Classical Isotropic Linear Viscoelasticity

Formula data
Dimensionless relaxation moduli are
approximated by a power law formula:
m1 ( f ) 2p f s1 f a
m2 ( f ) 2p f s2 f a
m3 ( f ) 2p f s3 f b
m4 ( f ) 2p f s4 f b
where a and b are real constants.
Abaqus usage:
*MATERIAL, NAME=...
*ELASTIC
E, s1 s2 a
*VISCOELASTIC, FREQUENCY=FORMULA
s1, s2, a, s3, s4, b

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


210
L9.13

Classical Isotropic Linear Viscoelasticity

Special case: structural damping


The case with s2 = 0 and a = 1 and s4 = 0 and b = 1 is attractive
since the damping becomes frequency independent (GS = G and
KS = K):

GL G 2p s1 s
K L K 2p s3 b .

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L9.14

Classical Isotropic Linear Viscoelasticity

Prony series data


The relaxation moduli can be defined in terms of Prony series data.
The input is identical to that for time domain response.
See Lecture 8 for usage details.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


211
Isotropic Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity

L9.16

Isotropic Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity

As with isotropic linear viscoelasticity, independent moduli for deviatoric


and volumetric behavior are required.
Moduli are effective tangent moduli:

Force-displacement curve Storage modulus


with preload
P Ds

D D

D D without preloads

G1 should be determined from and self-consistent with the


hyperelastic constants.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


212
L9.17

Isotropic Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity

Two methods for specifying data


with preload
Long-term elastic moduli Ds

Data are based on measurements D


at a single state. For example:
The undeformed state, the
D without preloads
prestrain level about which the
response is required, etc.

If use data at prestrain levels other than the one at which they were
measured, are assuming properties are independent of prestrain
level.
Direct specification of storage and loss moduli as functions of frequency
and prestrain.
More general; allows for data at multiple prestrain levels; does not
assume independence of data and prestrain level.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L9.18

Isotropic Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity

Specifying long-term elastic properties


Appropriate for cases where properties are independent of prestrain or
data are measured at desired prestrain level.
Frequency-dependent behavior is specified in the same way as
described earlier; long-term moduli specification depends on material
type:
Hyperelasticity:

Polynomial energy functions Cij , Di .

Ogden energy function i , i , Di .

Marlow energy function U dev , U vol .

Arruda-Boyce and Van der Waals energy function , D .
Hyperfoam:

Hyperfoam energy function i , i , i .

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


213
L9.19

Isotropic Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity

Direct specification of storage and loss moduli


Direct specification from uniaxial and volumetric tests:
*VISCOELASTIC, PRELOAD=UNIAXIAL
*VISCOELASTIC, PRELOAD=VOLUMETRIC

Abaqus converts the data to ratios


of shear (or bulk) storage and loss
moduli to long-term elastic moduli.
E.g., for uniaxial data:
Enter Elnom and Esnom
Abaqus converts to Gl and Gs
and then computes Gl /G1and
Gs/G1

Elnom Esnom Properties are a


function of frequency
and prestrain
Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L9.20

Isotropic Finite-Strain Viscoelasticity

How are the data measured?


Consider uniaxial text
1. Preload to Fp

2. Cycle load relative to Fp


l0
3. Measure Du (relative to
preloaded u) and lag d
Nominal area A0
4. Compute moduli
Force according to
DF
DF A0
Fp E nom

Du
l0
nom
time Es E nom cos(d )
nom
El E nom sin(d )

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


214
Procedures

L9.22

Procedures

Frequency-domain viscoelasticity can be used


only with
*STEADY STATE DYNAMICS, DIRECT

*STEADY STATE DYNAMICS,


SUBSPACE PROJECTION

*FREQUENCY

*COMPLEX FREQUENCY

For steady state dynamic procedures:


Loads and nonzero boundary conditions
specified prior to the procedure are kept
constant.
Loads and nonzero boundary conditions
specified within the procedure are applied
as harmonic loads.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


215
L9.23

Procedures

For frequency extraction procedures:


Applied loads are ignored but
the load stiffness determined at
the end of the previous general
analysis step is included.
The PROPERTY EVALUATION
parameter is required when
using frequency-domain
viscoelasticity with these
procedures.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

216
Notes

217
Notes

218
Time-Temperature Correspondence
Lecture 10

L10.2

Overview

Reduced Time
Measuring Temperature Dependence
Input Data for Temperature Effects
WLF Examples

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


219
Reduced Time

L10.4

Reduced Time

At right is the relaxation


modulus, E(t), of a rubber E t
specimen subjected to a
relaxation test at room E0
temperature (20 C).

Let this temperature be the


reference temperature 0. t1 t2 t3 t

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


220
L10.5

Reduced Time

At right is the relaxation


modulus, E70C(t), of the E t
same rubber specimen
E0
subjected to a relaxation
test at an elevated
temperature of 70C.

.03 t1 .03 t 2 .03 t3 t

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L10.6

Reduced Time

Observe that these curves are the


same except for the time scales: E t
E0
Modulus at 10 minutes at
20C = modulus at 20C

10 0.03 minutes at 70C.


t1 t2 t3 t

E0

70C

.03 t1 .03 t 2 .03 t3 t

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


221
L10.7

Reduced Time

In general for this material

E 70 C (t ) E 20 C (t 0.03).
This is called the reduced-time concept:

ET (t ) ET0 (t A( )).
A( ) is the time reduction factor at temperature relative to the
reference temperature 0.

A( ) decreases with increasing .


A( ) is material dependent.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L10.8

Reduced Time

A material obeying the above law is called thermo-rheologically


simple.
Viscous flow mechanisms are sped up by a constant factor for a
given temperature rise.
The general response of a thermo-rheologically simple material at
temperature is

t
t d ( )
(t , ) E 0
d .
A( ) d

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


222
L10.9

Reduced Time

Shift function
E (t )
This time-temperature
correspondence is often
0
represented by the
logarithmic time shift: h( 0 )
0

h( ) log( A( ))
0
extrapolated measured extrapolated
log t

As shown in this figure, when E is plotted for various


temperatures against the log of t, then h( is the horizontal
shift of the curve at temperature from the curve at the
reference temperature 0.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L10.10

Reduced Time

Note that:
When > 0 A( ) < 1 and h( ) > 0 (viscous flow speed up).
When = 0 A( ) = 1 and h( ) = 0.
When < 0 A( ) >1 and h( ) < 0 (viscous flow slow down).
For thermo-rheologically simple materials, the viscoelastic properties at
0 and logarithmic time shift h( ) characterize viscoelastic properties for
all temperatures .

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


223
Measuring Temperature Dependence

L10.12

Measuring Temperature Dependence

The time shift property can be used to extrapolate the relaxation data to
very long or very short times:
Instead of testing for very long times, test at high temperature.
Instead of testing for very short times, test at low temperature.
The extrapolation procedure works as follows:
1. Relaxation tests are carried out for a given time range and for a
given temperature range.
For example, t between 1 sec and 1000 sec.
For example, between 0 and 0 +
(where 0 is the reference temperature).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


224
L10.13

Measuring Temperature Dependence

2. The results are plotted on a logarithmic scale:

E (t )

h( 0 )
0

0
extrapolated measured extrapolated
log t

3. With h( 0) = 0, the measured curves make it possible to


determine the shifts h( 0 ) and h( 0 + ).
4. Then, the logarithmic time shift, h( ), can be calibrated and
used to extrapolate the relaxation curves well beyond the
measured domain.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L10.14

Measuring Temperature Dependence

5. By carrying out relaxation experiments over a wide enough


range of temperatures, a complete relaxation curve spanning
many decades in time can be obtained.

See Mercier et al. (listed in Appendix 5) for a detailed example of


determining the shift function.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


225
Input Data for Temperature Effects

L10.16

Input Data for Temperature Effects

Abaqus supports the following forms of the shift function h(


Williams-Landell-Ferry (WLF)
Arrhenius form
User-defined forms

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


226
L10.17

Input Data for Temperature Effects

Williams-Landell-Ferry (WLF)
The shift functions for materials about a reference temperature
commonly fit the Williams-Landell-Ferry (WLF) form

C1 ( 0)
h( ) log10 ( A) .
C2 ( 0)

C1 and C2 are material constants at the reference temperature 0.

Any convenient 0 can be chosen.


Curve-fit of measured values of h( ) is used to calibrate C1 and C2.
Since relative temperatures are used, any appropriate temperature
scale can be chosen.

The WLF function is the default shift function in Abaqus

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L10.18

Input Data for Temperature Effects

If the reference temperature is the materials glassy transition


temperature, g, then C1 and C2 are close to the universal values that
are available for many materials:

WLF parameters (after Ferry, 1980)

Polymer C1g C2g (K) g (K)

Polyisobutylene 16.6 104 202


Natural rubber (Hevea) 16.7 53.6 200
Polystyrene 14.5 50.4 373
Polyethyl mathacrylate 17.6 65.5 335
Universal" constants 17.4 51.6

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


227
L10.19

Input Data for Temperature Effects


g g
The universal constants C1 and C2 are related to C1 and C2 (for
some convenient reference temperature 0) as follows:

g
C1
C1
g
1 ( 0 g ) C2
g
C2 C2 0 g

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L10.20

Input Data for Temperature Effects

Abaqus usage for WLF shift function:


*MATERIAL, NAME=...
*ELASTIC, MODULI=...
E,
*VISCOELASTIC,...
...
...(Data at temperature 0)
...
*TRS, DEFINITION=WLF
0, C1, C2

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


228
L10.21

Input Data for Temperature Effects

Arrhenius shift function


The Arrhenius appropximation is commonly used for semi-crystalline
polymers.

E0 1 1
h( ) ln( A)
R Z 0 Z

E0 is the activation energy, R is the universal gas constant, is


Z
the absolute zero in the temperature scale being used, and 0 is
the reference temperature at which the relaxation data are given.
Usage:
*PHYSICAL CONSTANTS, ABSOLUTE ZERO=...,
UNIVERSAL GAS CONSTANT=...
:
*TRS, DEFINITION=ARRHENIUS
0, E0

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L10.22

Input Data for Temperature Effects

User-defined shift function


User subroutine (V)UTRS can be used to define other forms of the shift
function.

Usage:

*TRS, DEFINITION=USER

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


229
WLF Examples

L10.24

WLF Examples

Example 1:
Calculate the time reduction factor of rubber at 293 K (20 C) relative to
its glassy transition temperature of 200 K. Use the data in the table.

Resolution:
From the table: C1g 16.7 and C2g 53.6 K.

So, h(293 K) 16.7(293 200) (53.6 293 200) 10.594.

Thus, A(293 K) 10 10.594 11


2.546 10 .

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


230
L10.25

WLF Examples

Example 2:
Calculate the time reduction factor of rubber at 343 K (70 C) relative to
room temperature (293 K, 20 C).

Resolution A:
Recall that h( ) = log (A( )).
Then, relative time shift from rubber at 293 K to rubber at 343 K is
given by

h h(343 K) h(293 K)
log( A(343 K)) log( A(293 K))
A(343 K)
log
A(293 K)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L10.26

WLF Examples

Therefore, using the procedure outlined in Example 1, the relative time


reduction factor is
13
293 K A(343 K) 7.128 10
A (343 K) 11
0.028 0.03.
A(293 K) 2.546 10
Resolution B (using conversion formulae on page L10.18):

16.7
C1293 K 6.106
1 (293 200) 53.6
C2293 K 53.6 293 200 146.6 K

h293 K (343 K) 6.106(343 293) (146.6 343 293) 1.553.


A293 K (343 K) 10 1.553
0.028.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


231
232
Notes

233
Notes

234
Modeling Advanced Behaviors
Lecture 11

L11.2

Overview

Hysteresis in Elastomers
Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


235
Hysteresis in Elastomers

L11.4

Hysteresis in Elastomers

Classical linear viscoelasticity: small-strain theory in which the


instantaneous stress is proportional to the strain.
Experiments demonstrate that this model is accurate for many
materials at small strains ( 0.01).
Finite-strain linear viscoelasticity: hyperelastic or hyperfoam theory in
which the relaxation rate is proportional to the stress.
Simplest model for viscoelasticity at large strains.
Small amount of experimental data required to calibrate model.
For many materials the relaxation rate is proportional to the stress and
the viscoelastic models are appropriate; however, there are many
materials that do not exhibit this proportional behavior.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


236
L11.5

Hysteresis in Elastomers

In filled and some unfilled rubbers the creep or relaxation rate is not
proportional to the stress.
Typically, creep and stress relaxation are more pronounced at
higher stress levels.
In addition, at higher stress levels creep and stress relaxation occur
faster initially and reach a plateau more slowly than with
viscoelasticity.
This leads to hysteresis-type behavior in cyclic loading, where the
amount of hysteresis increases with loading amplitude but is
relatively independent of the cycling frequency.
This kind of general nonlinear, finite-strain, time-dependent
behavior is what the hysteresis model attempts to capture.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.6

Hysteresis in Elastomers

The figure at right shows a


typical hysteresis response
(uniaxial compression at
constant strain rate) for a filled
rubber subjected to different final
strains (from Bergstrom and
Boyce1).
Response is rate-dependent
and exhibits hysteresis
upon cyclic loading.

1. Bergstrom, J.S., and M.C. Boyce, Constitutive Modeling of the Large Strain Time-
Dependent Behavior of Elastomers, Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids, vol.
46, pp. 931-954, 1998.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


237
L11.7

Hysteresis in Elastomers

The data show:


2.00
Repeatability of the strain rates: 0.001/s, 0.01/s,
0.05/s, 0.2/s
results 1.60

True stress ( MPa)


No permanent set after increasing strain rate
1.20
one completed load
cycle
0.80
The figure at right shows a
typical strain rate 0.40 Chloroprene rubber
(15 pph)
dependence during uniaxial
0.0
compression to a fixed strain 0.0 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80
level. True strain (compressive)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.8

Hysteresis in Elastomers

Bergstrom and Boyce developed a large strain (400 is not uncommon),


time-dependent constitutive model for elastomeric materials.
They observed the following in experiments with carbon-black-filled
Chloroprene rubber subjected to different time-dependent strain histories:
Both filled and unfilled elastomers show significant amounts of
hysteresis during cyclic loading.
The amount of carbon black particles does not strongly influence the
normalized amount of hysteresis.
Both filled and unfilled elastomers are strain-rate dependent, and the
rate dependence is higher during loading than unloading.
At fixed strain the stress approaches the same equilibrium level with
relaxation time whether loading or unloading.
They then derived a phenomenological constitutive model, which is
implemented in Abaqus ( HYSTERESIS).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


238
L11.9

Hysteresis in Elastomers

Components in the model network B


Elastic and creep strains are large
and of comparable magnitude.
Creep response only for shear
distortional behavior; the
volumetric response is purely
network A
elastic.
Nonlinear dependence on strain
rate.
The hysteresis model decomposes the
mechanical behavior into two parts: an
equilibrium or purely elastic response
(network A) and a time-dependent
deviation from equilibrium (network B).
The figure shows a one-dimensional
idealization.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.10

Hysteresis in Elastomers

Creep test: The following plot 2.00


nominal stress - 4
shows the normalized strain nominal stress - 3
nominal stress - 2
versus time for four different nominal stress - 1
1.50
Normalized strain

stresses using the hysteresis


model.
1.00
The strain for each case is
normalized with respect to the
0.50
instantaneous strain.
The material reaches a
0.0
strain plateau much more 0.0 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
slowly than with Time
viscoelasticity.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


239
L11.11

Hysteresis in Elastomers

Stress relaxation test: The nominal strain - 4


1.00

following plot shows the nominal strain - 3


nominal strain - 2
normalized stress versus time nominal strain - 1 0.80

Normalized stress
for four different strains using
0.60
the hysteresis model.
The stress for each case is 0.40
normalized with respect to
the instantaneous stress. 0.20

The stress reaches a


0.0
plateau much more 0.0 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
slowly than with Time
viscoelasticity.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.12

Hysteresis in Elastomers

The HYPERELASTIC option defines the response of network A; the


spring response is nonlinear.
The HYSTERESIS option defines the response of network B; the
effective creep strain rate in network B is given by the expression

cr A( cr
1)C m
.
The positive exponent m, generally greater than 1, characterizes the
(scalar) effective stress dependence of the effective creep strain
rate.
The exponent C, restricted to the interval [ 1, 0], characterizes the
creep strain dependence (through the creep stretch cr) on the
creep strain rate.
The nonnegative constant A maintains dimensional consistency in
the equation.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


240
L11.13

Hysteresis in Elastomers

In addition to these material constants the hysteresis model is


characterized by a stress scaling factor, S, that defines the ratio of the
stress carried by network B to the stress carried by network A under
instantaneous loading; i.e., identical elastic stretching in both networks.
Typical values of the constants above (Bergstrom and Boyce,
1998):

5
S 1.6, A m
(sec) 1 (MPa) m
, m 4, C 1.0.
( 3)

Usage: the above four values in the given order are entered on the
data line for the HYSTERESIS option.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.14

Hysteresis in Elastomers

Restrictions
Hysteresis is active in the following procedures only:
STATIC
VISCO
DYNAMIC
The model requires the HYPERELASTIC option to define the elastic
behavior.
Hysteresis can be used only with elements that permit hyperelastic
materials; thus, is can be used only in large-strain problems.
Hybrid elements can be used only when the accompanying
hyperelasticity definition is incompressible.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


241
L11.15

Hysteresis in Elastomers

Restrictions (cont'd)
The hysteresis material properties cannot be temperature dependent;
however, the elastic material properties can be temperature dependent.
The model does not model Mullins effect or the softening of an
elastomer when it is first subjected to loading.
Before material properties are measured, the rubber should be
stretched repeatedly to operating strain levels.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.16

Hysteresis in Elastomers

Abaqus usage
The elasticity of the model is defined by using the HYPERELASTIC
option.
The MODULI parameter may be set to either LONG TERM (to
define the long-term behavior of the material; default setting) or
INSTANTANEOUS (to define the instantaneous behavior).
The stress scaling factor and the creep parameters for network B are
input directly on the data line of the HYSTERESIS option.
Both the HYPERELASTIC option and HYSTERESIS option must be
used together in the material definition.
The hysteresis material model creates unsymmetric stiffness matrices,
so Abaqus/Standard uses unsymmetric matrix storage and solution by
default.
Typical values of the material parameters are given in the Abaqus
Analysis Users Manual.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


242
L11.17

Hysteresis in Elastomers

Defining hysteresis in Abaqus/CAE

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.18

Hysteresis in Elastomers

Example
This example is taken from the Abaqus Verification Manual.
The material being modeled is Chloroprene rubber (15 pph carbon
black filler).
Material model
The rubber is modeled with the Arruda-Boyce hyperelasticity model
with the following values for the models parameters:

0.6 MPa, m 8, D 0.01

The hysteresis behavior is modeled with the following values for the
parameters:

S 1.6, A 0.5556(MPa) 4 s 1, m 4.0, C 1.0

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


243
L11.19

Hysteresis in Elastomers

Loading
The test specimen is subjected to this compressive loading history.
The constant strain rate loading is interrupted by relaxation segments
during the loading and unloading phases of the test.
0.0

0.20
A
Applied strain

0.40

B
0.60

0.0 50.00 100.00

Time

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.20

Hysteresis in Elastomers

Results
End
0.0
unloading
Start
0.40
A
At strain level A, the
B
Stress

0.80
stress decreases
(becomes less
compressive) during
loading "loading" relaxation
1.20
At strain level B, the segments.
stress increases
(becomes more 1.60

compressive) during 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.0

"unloading" Strain
relaxation segments.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


244
Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers

L11.22

Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers

Motivation: Test data

Loading

Unloading / reloading
(Mullins' effect)

Permanent set

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


245
L11.23

Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers

Approach
plastic part of the
deformation gradient

F Fe F p Lee (1969)
elastic part of the
deformation gradient

Multiplicative split of the deformation gradient (motivated by crystal


plasticity)
Plasticity is modeled with isotropic hardening Mises plasticity
Hyperelasticity can be modeled with any isotropic hyperelastic models
available in Abaqus
Can be combined with Mullins effect to capture damaged response
during unloading after initial loading

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.24

Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers

There two applications of this capability:


The material (usually a rubber compound) clearly exhibits permanent
set.
All strains are not recovered after the load has been removed even
after sufficient time lapses.
The component being modeled is in service under cyclic loading and the
material exhibits viscoelastic behavior.
Given sufficient time after removal of load, one recovers almost all
the strains.
In this case the user may want to model viscoelastic strains (when
the component is in service under cyclic loading) using permanent
set.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


246
L11.25

Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers

Defining permanent set


The primary hyperelastic behavior can be defined by using any of the
hyperelastic material models.
Permanent set can be defined through an isotropic hardening function in
terms of the yield stress and the equivalent plastic strain.
You can specify permanent set and the Mullins effect using the
hyperelastic and Mullins effect coefficients and the hardening data.
However, if you have uniaxial and biaxial test data, you can include
these data in a material model by using the FeFp Data Processor
plug-in for Abaqus/CAE to calibrate hyperelastic, plastic, and
Mullins effect data (SIMULIA Answer 3522).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.26

Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers

Abaqus/CAE plug-in to calibrate test data (SIMULIA Answer 3522)


The plug-in automatically extracts loading, unloading and permanent set
data from uniaxial and biaxial test data
Edit the data (remove any kinks, sudden jumps)
Experimental data

Abaqus/CAE
plug-in

Loading, unloading
and permanent set

Calibration script

Material (*Hyperelastic,
*Plastic, *Mullins)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


247
L11.27

Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers

Abaqus/CAE plug-in (contd)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.28

Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers

How the plug-in works


Processes two modes of test data, namely, uniaxial and biaxial.
For each mode, the GUI will help users identify loading, permanent set
and optionally, unloading / reloading data in their test data.
Creates data for the following keyword options:
*Hyperelastic, Test Data
*Plastic
*Mullins Test Data

For detailed instructions on using the plug-in, consult SIMULIA Answer


3522 in the SIMULIA Online Support System (SOSS)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


248
L11.29

Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers

Validation

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.30

Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers

Example: Axial / Torsion loading of a specimen

All parameters based on pure axial and torsional response of the specimen
Reduced polynomial strain energy function used for hyperelasticity
y y p
Linear hardening function used for plasticity o H
All units are MPa except r and , which are dimensionless
c10 146.74, c20 6.5252, c30 0, c 40 0.028648
r 3, m 56.282, 0.1
y
0 29.6679, H 8168.04

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


249
L11.31

Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.32

Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers

Loading paths

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


250
L11.33

Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers

Results Path H

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.34

Modeling Permanent Set in Elastomers

Summary
Multiplicative split of deformation gradient
Following keywords can be combined
*HYPERELASTIC
*MULLINS EFFECT (optional)
*PLASTIC, TYPE=ISOTROPIC
Can be used to model filled elastomers and thermoplastics that show
Permanent strain upon removal of load and/or
Damaged unloading behavior
Process test data through an Abaqus/CAE plug-in
Current limitations
Cannot include rate effects such as hysteresis or viscoelasticity
Available only for rate-independent isotropic hardening plasticity

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


251
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

L11.36

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Overview
Provides a capability for modeling materials that exhibit highly
anisotropic and nonlinear elastic behavior, such as biomedical soft
tissues and fiber-reinforced elastomers
Two forms of strain energy potentials are available:
Generalized Fung form
Holzapfel-Gasser-Ogden form
User-defined forms of the strain energy potential supported via two sets
of user subroutines:
(V)UANISOHYPER_STRAIN for strain-based formulations
(V)UANISOHYPER_INV for invariant-based formulations
These models can be combined with
Mullins effect to include stress softening (damage) behavior
Viscoelasticity to include rate effects (Abaqus/Explicit only)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


252
L11.37

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Applications
Biomedical
E.g., modeling arterial walls in simulations of balloon angioplasty
and implantation of Nitinol stents

Schematic of a healthy elastic artery Typical uniaxial stress-strain curves for


circumferential arterial strips in passive condition

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.38

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Applications (contd)
Consumer products
Fiber reinforced molded plastics
Fibrous polymers, paper, cloth, etc.

Others
Reinforced rubber and polymers, composites, etc.
General capability to model fiber-induced anisotropy

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


253
L11.39

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Two formulations are commonly used for anisotropic hyperelasticity


Strain-based formulation (e.g., Generalized Fung)
Strain energy given as an anisotropic function of the Green strain:

G
U U( , J)

Invariant-based (fiber-based) formulation (e.g., Holzapfel-Gasser-


Ogden)
Strain energy given as a function of preferred material directions:

U U (C , A ) 1,..., N

Invariant representation:

U U ( I1 , I 2 , J , I 4 , I5 ; ) , 1,..., N

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.40

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Some details regarding the invariant-based models


Invariant representation:

U U ( I1 , I 2 , J , I 4 , I5 ; ) , 1,..., N

Invariants:

I1 tr ( C); I2 1
2 ( I1 tr ( C 2 )); J det F

Pseudo-invariants:

I 4( ) A C A
I 5( ) A C2 A

Geometrical constants (independent of deformation):

A A

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


254
L11.41

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Generalized Fung form


Phenomenological model for modeling soft biological tissue expressed in
terms of the Green strain:

c 1
U (exp(Q) 1) ( J 2 1 2ln J )
2 2D
G G G G
Q :b: ij bijkl kl

User interface for orthotropic and anisotropic cases

*ANISOTROPIC HYPERELASTIC, FUNG-ORTHOTROPIC, DEPENDENCIES = <NDEP>


b1111 , b1122 , b2222 , b1133 , b2233 , b3333 , b1212 , b1313
b2323 , c , D ,Temp, FVs

*ANISOTROPIC HYPERELASTIC, FUNG-ANISOTROPIC, DEPENDENCIES = <NDEP>


b1111 , b1122 , b2222 , b1133 , b2233 , b3333 , b1112 , b2212
b3312 , b1212 , b1113 , b2213 , b3313 , b1213 , b1313 , b1123
b2223 , b3323 , b1223 , b1323 , b2323 , c , D ,Temp
FVs

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.42

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Holzapfel-Gasser-Ogden form
Constitutive model for arterial walls
Includes the effects of dispersion in the fiber directions

N
1 k1 2
U C10 ( I1 3) ( J 2 1 2ln J ) exp k2 E 1
2D 2k 2 1

E ( I1 3) (1 3 )( I 4( ) 1)

=0 perfectly aligned fibers


= 1/3 randomly distributed fibers

User interface:
*ANISOTROPIC HYPERELASTIC, HOLZAPFEL, LOCAL DIRECTIONS=N

C10 , D , k1 , k 2 , , Temp, FVs


Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus
255
L11.43

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Definition of local directions:


x2
*ORIENTATION, NAME=Ori_name, LOCAL DIRECTIONS=N A12
Usual data for *ORIENTATION A1

A11 , A12 , A13 Beginning on third data line, A11


define local material directions
x1
with respect to the orthonormal
A13
AN1 , AN2 , AN3 system at the material point
x3

*SOLID SECTION,MATERIAL=Mat_name, ORIENTATION=Ori_name


*MATERIAL, NAME=Mat_name
*ANISOTROPIC HYPERELASTIC, HOLZAPFEL,
LOCAL DIRECTIONS=N

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.44

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Local directions are written to the output database (.odb) file and can
be visualized in Abaqus/Viewer using symbols plots

Local directions before deformation

Local directions after deformation

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


256
L11.45

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

User-defined models formulated in terms of Green strain

*ANISOTROPIC HYPERELASTIC, USER, FORMULATION=GREEN STRAIN,


PROPERTIES=Num_props
User defined properties

The components of the Green strain are referred to the material basis in
the reference configuration (specified with *ORIENTATION).
Inside (V)UANISOHYPER_STRAIN, user defines

G
U U( , J)

See section 1.2.9 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference


Manual for an example

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.46

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

User-defined models formulated in terms of pseudo-invariants

*ANISOTROPIC HYPERELASTIC, USER, FORMULATION=INVARIANT,


PROPERTIES=Num_props, LOCAL DIRECTIONS=N
User defined properties

The fiber directions are defined by the local directions specified with the
orientation definition for the section
Inside (V)UANISOHYPER_INV, user defines

U U ( I1 , I 2 , J , I 4 , I5 ; ) , 1,..., N

See section 1.2.8 of the Abaqus User Subroutines Reference


Manual for an example

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


257
L11.47

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Example: Anisotropic hyperelastic modeling of arterial layers


Simulation of the mechanical response of the adventitial layer of human
iliac arteries
Numerical analysis of simple tension tests of iliac adventitial strips
Based on a paper by Gasser, Ogden and Holzapfel (2006)

= 49.98

Iliac adventitial strips cut along the axial,


circumferential, and 15 directions of the artery

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.48

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Results for specimen with dispersed fibers


Results correspond to an applied load of 2.0 N and the dispersion of
collagen fibers is included ( )

Model uses
C3D8H elements

Stress in the
direction of
applied load.
Strip cut in Strip cut in
axial direction circumferential
direction

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


258
L11.49

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Results for specimen with perfectly aligned fibers


Results correspond to an applied load of 2.0 N and the collagen
fibers are perfectly aligned ( )

Model uses
C3D8H elements

Stress in the
direction of
applied load.
Strip cut in Strip cut in
axial direction circumferential
direction

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.50

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Load-displacement results

Load-displacement response of circumferential and axial specimens

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


259
L11.51

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Example: Stent deployment


Stent: 12432 C3D8I elements, linear elasticity
Vessel: 21120 C3D8H elements, anisotropic hyperelasticity
Rigid balloon: 1280 surface elements
Surface-to-surface contact
with penalty enforcement
Two steps: Pressurize vessel
then expand balloon
Keyword edits required to
define anisotropic
hyperelasticity;
Python script required to
map stent mesh
Approximately 400,000 DOF

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

L11.52

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Results

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


260
L11.53

Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

Limitations
Cannot model compressible material behavior with
Hybrid elements
Plane-stress elements
Initial stress conditions cannot be defined
Results can only be transferred into Abaqus/Explicit (not
Abaqus/Standard)
Cannot be used with viscoelasticity in Abaqus/Standard

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

261
262
Notes

263
Notes

264
Finite Deformations
Appendix 1

A1.2

Overview

Motions and Displacements


Extension of a Material Line Element
The Deformation Gradient Tensor
Finite Deformations and Strain Tensors
Decomposition of a Deformation
Principal Stretches and Principal Axes of Deformation
Strain Invariants
Summary

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


265
Motions and Displacements

A1.4

Motions and Displacements

A body occupies the


material within R0 at t = 0.
This is the reference
configuration.
The configuration at time t
is the current configuration.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


266
A1.5

Motions and Displacements

The motion of the body takes the reference configuration R0 into the
current configuration R.
An essential assumption of continuum mechanics is that the motion can
be described as

for every X in R0
x x( X , t )
for every x in R
In above expression, X act as independent variables; this is a
Lagrangian (material) description of the problem.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A1.6

Motions and Displacements

The motion can be described in terms of the displacement vector u:

x X u
or

u x X.
Lagrangian description:

u( X , t ) x( X , t ) X .

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


267
Extension of a Material Line Element

A1.8

Extension of a Material Line Element

A deformation is a motion in which a change of shape can occur.


For the purposes of stress analysis we need to separate that
part of the motion that corresponds to a rigid-body motion from
that part that involves deformation.

A and a are unit vectors.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


268
A1.9

Extension of a Material Line Element

Given the motion x = x(X, t):


We are interested in determining the length and orientation of the
material line element after the motion.
Straightforward analysis gives

xi
ai AR ,
XR

xi
where is the stretch ratio and FiR is the deformation gradient.
XR

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

The Deformation Gradient Tensor

269
A1.11

The Deformation Gradient Tensor

xi
The nine quantities, , are the components of the deformation
XR
gradient tensor, F :

xi
FiR .
XR

They describe how a particle moves in relation to neighboring particles.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A1.12

The Deformation Gradient Tensor

Our previous results for a material line element oriented in direction a in


the current configuration and in direction A in the reference configuration
can be summarized as follows:

1
a F A
2
A FT F A
1
A F a
2
a ( F 1 )T F 1
a

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


270
A1.13

The Deformation Gradient Tensor

Remarks:
If there is no motion, x = X, and so F = I (identity).
F is important in the analysis of deformation, but it is not a measure of
deformation only (the motion includes rotation).
We need measures that do not change when no deformation takes
place; i.e., we want them to remain unchanged under rigid body motions:

QT Q Q QT I rotation
x Q X c
c translation (does not vary with position)

For a rigid body motion F = Q.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Finite Deformations and


Strain Tensors

271
A1.15

Finite Deformations and Strain Tensors

Consider the tensor:

C F T F.

Recall the result from the line extension:


2
A FT F A A C A;
stretch of material line element
with direction A in reference configuration.

Knowledge of C at a point determines the local deformation in the


vicinity of that point.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A1.16

Finite Deformations and Strain Tensors

Moreover, for rigid body motions F = Q, so C = QT Q = I.


C is constant throughout a rigid body motion.
C is connected with deformation and not with rigid body motion;
therefore, it is a suitable measure of deformation.
C is called the right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor.
Note that C is not a unique measure of deformation; there are many
other candidates.
But C is convenient because it is easy to calculate from F.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


272
A1.17

Finite Deformations and Strain Tensors

Recall the result from the line extension:

2 T 1
a F F a,
stretch of material line element
with direction a in current configuration.

Let B = F FT ; then B 1 = F T F 1 , and so


2 1
a B a.
B is called the left Cauchy-Green deformation tensor.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A1.18

Finite Deformations and Strain Tensors

The Lagrangian strain tensor E (Green-Lagrange) is defined by

1
E (C I ).
2
A nice feature is that E = 0 for rigid body motions.
C, B, and E are symmetric second-order tensors, so they have real
principal values and orthogonal principal directions.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


273
Decomposition of a Deformation

A1.20

Decomposition of a Deformation

The deformation gradient tensor F can be expressed as

same

F RU V R
describes rotation of body right left stretch
stretch tensor
tensor

U and V are symmetric and unique for a given F.

J = det(F) is the ratio of volume in the current configuration to


dV
volume in the reference configuration: J .
dV0
J > 0 for physically realistic deformations.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


274
A1.21

Decomposition of a Deformation

The tensors U and V are related to the deformation tensors C and B


through:

C FT F U2
B F FT V2

Therefore, U and C are equivalent measures of deformation.


For a given F, however, calculation of U is inconvenient, whereas
the computation of C is straightforward.
Similar remarks apply to V and B.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Principal Stretches and Principal Axes


of Deformation

275
A1.23

Principal Stretches and Principal Axes of Deformation

Recall 2 = A C A.
Find directions A for which takes extreme values.
Find the minimum and maximum of 2 = A C A under the
constraint A A = 1.
Results in eigenvalue problem:
C A* 2
A*.

The extreme values of 2 are the eigenvalues of C and occur in the


directions of the eigenvectors (A* ) of C.
Alternatively, the extreme values of are eigenvalues of U (recall
C = U2).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A1.24

Principal Stretches and Principal Axes of Deformation

Since U is symmetric and positive-definite, its principal values are real


and positive:


1 2 3
principal stretches
Moreover, U has 3 orthogonal principal directions:

A , A2 , A3
1
principal axes of U

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


276
A1.25

Principal Stretches and Principal Axes of Deformation

The motion that corresponds to F = R U consists of three extensions of


magnitude 1, 2, 3 along the three directions A1, A2, A3, followed by
the rotation R.
A similar interpretation can be given for the motion F = V R.
It can be shown that:
The principal values of 1, 2, 3 are also the principal values of V.

A , A2 , A3 a1 R A1 , a2 R A2 , a3 R A3
1
principal directions of U principal directions of V

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A1.26

Principal Stretches and Principal Axes of Deformation

Since C = U 2 and E = C I , the principal directions of C and E


coincide with those of U.
2 2 2
The principal values of C are 1 , 2, 3.

1 2
The principal values of E are ( i 1) i 1, 2, 3.
2

Likewise, the principal directions of B and V coincide.

2 2 2
The principal values of B are 1 , 2, 3.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


277
Strain Invariants

A1.28

Strain Invariants

The strain invariants are defined by

I1 tr( B ) tr( F F T ),
1 2
I2 ( I1 tr( B B )),
2
J det( F ).
In terms of the principal stretches these invariants are

2 2 2
I1 1 2 3,
2 2 2 2 2 2
I2 1 2 2 3 3 1,
J 1 2 3.

Without deformation B = I, so I1 = I2 = 3, J=1.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


278
A1.29

Strain Invariants

In Abaqus revised invariants are used to separate deviatoric and


volumetric effects in solid rubbers:

13
F J F, F J 1 3F ,
I1 tr( B ) tr( F F T ),
1 2
I2 ( I1 tr( B B )).
2
13
In terms of principal deviatoric stretches, i J i, the revised
invariants have the form
2 2 2
I1 1 2 3,

2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1
I2 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 2 2
,
1 2 3
where
1 2 3 1.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Summary

279
A1.31

Summary

F=3 3 deformation gradient tensor which contains all information


about the motion in the vicinity of a point in the material.
We take F = F(X, t), where X is the position in the reference
configuration.
This is called a Lagrangian description.
We need to separate rigid body motion and deformation. This can be
done as
F R U or F V R,

where R is a pure rigid body motion (so R 1 = RT) and U and V


represent deformation.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A1.32

Summary

We can write U in terms of its principal values, 1, 2, 3, (the principal


stretch ratios) and the corresponding principal directions, A1, A2, A3,
(which are given in the reference configuration):

U 1 A1 A1 2 A2 A2 3 A3 A3 .

Likewise, we can write as:

V 1a1a1 2 a2 a2 3a3a3 ,
aI R AI .

The AI (and ai) are orthogonal unit vectors.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


280
A1.33

Summary

This is really all we need to know about deformation. However, many


materials such as ceramics or concrete cannot undergo large
deformation ( I cannot be much different from 1.0), while others yield
inelastically at small amounts of deformation (in metals, yield typically
happens when I 1 0.01).
For convenience we introduce the idea of strain to have a measure of
deformation that is 0.0 when there is no deformation
(that is, when I = 1.0).
Useful strains are:
N
Nominal strain: I I 1.
N
Thus, I = change in length per unit initial length.
ln
Log strain: Iln( I ).
G 1 2
Green strain: I ( I 1).
2

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A1.34

Summary

We easily construct three-dimensional strain tensors from the principal


stretch directions:

N nominal strain ( 1 1) A1 A1 ( 2 1) A2 A2 ( 3 1) A3 A3 ,
ln log strain ln 1 A1 A1 ln 2 A2 A2 3 A3 A3 ,
or, in the current configuration,

N ( 1 1)a1a1 ( 2 1)a2a2 ( 3 1)a3a3 ,


and so on.
Such strains are convenient for output. Abaqus provides them for
this purpose.
Rubber constitutive models in Abaqus are written directly in terms of
deformation.
Strain is just given for output purposes.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


281
282
Notes

283
Notes

284
Rubber Elasticity Models:
Mathematical Forms
Appendix 2

A2.2

Overview

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers (Isotropic)


Polynomial Model
Mooney-Rivlin Model
Reduced Polynomial Model
Neo-Hookean Model
Yeoh Model
Ogden Model
Marlow Model
Arruda-Boyce Model
Van der Waals Model
Foam Rubber Model
Mullins Effect

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


285
Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

A2.4

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

General form of strain energy function (assuming isotropy):

U U ( I1 , I 2 , I 3 ).
In general, the response of rubber is completely different to volumetric or
deviatoric deformations.
This suggests an additive split of the strain energy function.
In Abaqus we write this modified strain energy function as

U U1 ( I1 3, I 2 3) U 2 ( J el 1).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


286
A2.5

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

There are several forms of the strain energy function for solid rubber in
Abaqus.
Most forms are expressed in terms of series expansions.
For all strain energy functions expressed in terms of a series
expansion, some terms are common:
N is the order of the strain energy function.
The Di coefficients introduce compressibility into the material
behavior.
When the material is incompressible, the terms with Di are
ignored.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A2.6

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

Jel is the elastic volume ratio,


J
J el ;
J th
and the thermal volume ratio, Jth, follows from the linear thermal
expansion, th, with
3
J th (1 th ) ,
where th follows from the temperature and the thermal expansion
coefficient.
Abaqus assumes that the thermal expansion coefficients define
nominal thermal strains. Usually thermal strains are small enough
that this distinction is not important.
Only isotropic thermal expansion can be used with the hyperelastic
material models in Abaqus.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


287
A2.7

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

Polynomial model
The polynomial strain energy function has the following form:
N N
i j 1
U Cij ( I1 3) ( I 2 3) ( J el 1) 2i .
i j 1 i 1
Di
The constants Cij and Di are calibrated from experimental test data.
Abaqus allows up to N = 6 terms in the above function.
The initial shear modulus and bulk modulus are given by
2
0 2(C10 C01 ), K0 .
D1
If D1 is equal to zero, Abaqus requires that all Di must be zero.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A2.8

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

Mooney-Rivlin model
This form is obtained when N = 1 in the full polynomial form:
1 el
U C10 ( I1 3) C01 ( I 2 3) (J 1) 2 .
D1
If D1 is equal to zero, the material is fully incompressible.
The initial shear and bulk moduli are given by

2
0 2(C10 C01 ), K0 .
D1

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


288
A2.9

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

Reduced polynomial model


The reduced polynomial strain energy function has the following form:

N N
i 1 el
U Ci 0 ( I1 3) (J 1)2i .
i 1 i 1
Di

Curve fitting with experimental test data for polynomial models with this
parameter can be performed up to N = 6.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A2.10

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

Neo-Hookean model
The simplest form of the strain energy function, U, proposed by Treloar
in 1943, is
1 el
U C10 ( I1 3) (J 1)2 ,
D1
where C10 is a calibration constant.
1
C10 0, where 0 is the initial shear modulus.
2

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


289
A2.11

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

Yeoh model
The Yeoh strain energy function is a special case of the general reduced
polynomial model with N = 3:
3 3
i 1 el
U Ci 0 ( I1 3) (J 1)2i .
i 1 i 1
Di
The initial shear and bulk moduli are given by
2
0 2C10 , K0 .
D1
The following relationships are usually seen between the Ci0:
C20 is negative and 12 orders of magnitude smaller than C10.
C30 is positive and 34 orders of magnitude smaller than C10.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A2.12

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

Ogden model
The Ogden strain energy function is based on the principal stretch ratios,
I:
N N
2 1 el
U 2
i
( 1 i
2
i
3
i
3) (J 1)2i ,
i 1 i i 1
Di

where 1
J 3
i i

and i, i, and Di are to be determined from experimental test data.


Abaqus allows up to N = 6 terms in the above form.
Up to N = 3 is common.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


290
A2.13

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

Only if i = 2 or i = 2 can the first part of the strain energy function be


expressed explicitly in terms of I1 and I 2 .
The Mooney-Rivlin form is also a special case of the Ogden form,
for which N = 2, 1 = 2C10, 2 = 2C01, 1 = 2 , and 2 = 2.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A2.14

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

Marlow Model
The Marlow strain energy function has the following form

U U dev ( I1 ) Uvol ( J el )

The deviatoric part of the potential is defined by providing either


uniaxial,
equibiaxial, or
planar test data.
The volumetric part is defined by providing
volumetric test data,
defining the Poisson's ratio, or
specifying the lateral strains together with the uniaxial, equibiaxial,
or planar test data.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


291
A2.15

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

Arruda-Boyce model
The Arruda-Boyce strain energy function has the following form:

5
Ci 1 J el2 1
U 2i
( I i 3i )
2 1
ln( J el ) .
i 1 m D 2

The first term in the above equation is a function of I1 only.


Three material parameters:
, which is the initial shear modulus.

m, which is the locking stretch at which the models stress-strain


curve will rise (stiffen) significantly.
2
D, which is related to the initial bulk modulus through K 0 .
D

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A2.16

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

If experimental test data are specified, and m are calculated by


Abaqus by using a nonlinear least-squares-fit procedure based on all the
test data provided.
These values will be output to the data (.dat) file.
The strain energy function can be viewed as a polynomial of order 5,
with the constants Ci arising out of the statistical treatment of the
material.
1 1 11 19 519
C1 , C2 , C3 , C4 , C5 .
2 20 1050 7000 673750

Calculation of D requires volumetric test data.


If D is zero, the material is fully incompressible.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


292
A2.17

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

Van der Waals model


The Van der Waals strain energy function has the following form:

3
2 2 I 3 2 1 J el2 1
U ( m 3) ln(1 ) a ln( J el ) ,
3 2 D 2

where

I 3
I (1 ) I1 I 2 and 2
.
m 3

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A2.18

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

Four material parameters: , m, a, and .


is the initial shear modulus at low strains.

m is the locking stretch.


The Van der Waals strain energy function limits the deformation
of the material to stretches less than m.
a is the interaction parameter, which accounts for the interaction
between chains in the representative volume.
It is difficult to estimate the value of a; a reasonable
approximation is
2
m
a 3
.
m 1
Typical values are a 0.1 to 0.3.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


293
A2.19

Energy Functions for Solid Rubbers

represents the linear mixture parameter used to combine the two


strain invariants into .
When using test data to calibrate the Van der Waals model, it may
not be possible to calculate a value of that is admissible
(0 1.0).
In these situations Abaqus will attempt the fitting procedure again
with = 0.
= 0 is the recommended value when only one type of test data is
available.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Foam Rubber Model

294
A2.21

Foam Rubber Model

The energy function for the foam rubber model has the following form:

N
2 i 1
U 2 1
i
2
i
3
i
3 ( J el i i
1) ,
i 1 i i

where we have defined


J th1 3
i i

with the thermal volume change,


3
J th (1 th ) ,
and the elastic volume change,
J .
J el 1 2 3
J th

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A2.22

Foam Rubber Model

The coefficients are related to the initial shear modulus

0 i,
i 1
while the initial bulk modulus follows from

N
1
K0 2 i i .
i 1
3

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


295
A2.23

Foam Rubber Model

For each term in the energy function the coefficient i determines the
degree of compressibility. i is related to the Poissons ratio, i, by the
expressions

i i
i , i .
1 2 i 1 2 i

If i is the same for all terms, we have a single effective Poissons ratio,
.
This Poissons ratio is valid for finite values of the logarithmic principal
strains e1, e2, e3 ; in uniaxial tension e2 = e3 = e1.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A2.24

Foam Rubber Model

If we choose i = 0 (i.e., i = 0), there is no Poissons effect.


With the Taylor series expansion,

( x ln a)2 ( x ln a)3
ax 1 x ln a ,
2! 3!

we obtain for this case the energy function,

N
2 i
U 2 1
i
2
i
3
i
3 i ln J el .
i 1 i

The implementation in Abaqus follows the same procedure as the


implementation of the Ogden hyperelastic model.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


296
Mullins Effect

A2.26

Mullins Effect

The Abaqus model is based on the model developed by Ogden and


Roxburgh (1999).
The model is an extension of the classical theory of isotropic
incompressible elasticity, modified by the addition of a damage variable

U dev U dev ( i , ).

Equilibrium provides an additional equation for evolution of damage


variable

U dev
0.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


297
A2.27

Mullins Effect

The damage variable may be either active or inactive or may switch from
active to inactive; it always varies continuously.
When it is inactive, it is set to the constant value of 1.
In this case the energy density reduces to the primary strain energy
density function given by

U dev ( i ,1) U dev ( i ).

The primary strain energy density function defines the response of the
material under monotonic straining (usual hyperelastic potential)

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A2.28

Mullins Effect

Ogden and Roxburgh use the following modified energy function:

U dev ( i , ) U dev ( i ) ( )

The function ( ) is called the damage function ( (1) 0).

The above modified energy function leads to the following expression for
the deviatoric stress tensor:

S S

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


298
A2.29

Mullins Effect

Modified deviatoric stresses can be obtained by simply scaling the


primary deviatoric stresses with the damage variable.

For stress softening 1.

Require 0 so that stresses remain nonzero until zero deformation.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A2.30

Mullins Effect

Abaqus uses the following form of the


damage variable (which satisfies all the
required properties):

1 max ever
U dev U
1 erf max ever
r m U dev
r, m, and are material parameters

max ever
U dev is the maximum strain energy
density experienced on the primary
curve during the loading history

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


299
A2.31

Mullins Effect

Error function:

x
2
erf(x) exp( w2 ) dw
0

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A2.32

Mullins Effect

The damage variable, , varies monotonically from a maximum of 1 to a


minimum of m.
is 1 on the primary curve; = m at the origin of the stress-strain
plane.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


300
A2.33

Mullins Effect

The Ogden-Roxburgh model is modified to account for compressibility:

U( i, ) U dev ( i ) ( ) U vol ( J el )

The stresses are now given by

( i, ) S ( i ) p ( J el ) I .

Only the deviatoric part of the deformation is associated with damage.


A purely volumetric deformation will not exhibit the Mullins effect.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A2.34

Mullins Effect

At the zero-deformation state the


energy density has the residual
value of ( m ). This quantity
represents the energy dissipated
due to damage.

The recoverable part of the


energy is given by

U re ( i , ) U ( i , ) ( m )

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


301
302
Notes

303
Notes

304
Linear Viscoelasticity Theory
Appendix 3

A3.2

Overview

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


305
Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

A3.4

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

The stress at time t is characterized by:


t d e ( )
(t ) =
-
E (t - )
d
d
where e (- ) = 0.

E ( t ) is the relaxation modulus.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


306
A3.5

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

The relaxation modulus can be obtained from a standard stress


relaxation test.
The specimen has prescribed constant displacement (strain).
The measured response is the force (stress) over time.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A3.6

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

In this case e ( t ) = e0 H ( t ) and

t
(t ) = -
E ( t - ) e 0 d ( ) d = E (t ) e 0

(t )
or E (t ) =
e0

where H is the Heaviside (step) function and d is the Dirac delta


function.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


307
A3.7

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

The stress-strain relation can be inverted and strain at time t is


characterized by
t d ( )
e (t ) =
-
J (t - )
d
d

where (- ) = 0.
J ( t ) is the creep function, or creep compliance.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A3.8

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

The creep compliance can be obtained form a standard creep test.


The specimen is loaded with a prescribed constant force (stress) and the
measured response is the changing displacement (strain) over time.

In this case ( t ) = 0 H ( t ) and

t
e (t ) =
-
J ( t - ) 0 d ( ) d = J (t ) 0

or
e (t )
J (t ) = .
0

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


308
A3.9

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

E ( t ) and J ( t ) are related through

t
J (t - ) E ( ) d = t
0

Abaqus uses this relation to convert user-supplied creep test data into
relaxation data.
This is valid only for linear viscoelasticity.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A3.10

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

For a finite-strain viscoelasticity formulation it is important that the stress


relaxation equation be written purely in terms of stress.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


309
A3.11

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

Use integration by parts to obtain

dE ( )
( t ) = E0 e (t ) 0 d
e ( t - ) d

or
dE ( )

1
( t ) = 0 (t ) 0 ( t - ) d
E0 0 d

where 0 ( t ) E0 e ( t ) is the stress that would exist at the current


strain state if the specimen were purely elastic.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A3.12

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

A similar expression holds for the shear stress S in terms of the shear
strain g ( t ) for a specimen in a time history of pure shear:

dG ( )

1
S ( t ) = S0 (t ) S0 ( t - ) d .
G0 0 d

Here S0 ( t ) G0 g ( t ) is the shear stress that would exist at the current


shear strain state if the specimen were purely elastic.

The function G ( t ) is the shear relaxation modulus, and its physical


meaning is analogous to that of E ( t ).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


310
Notes

311
Notes

312
Harmonic Viscoelasticity Theory
Appendix 4

A4.2

Overview

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity


Harmonic Excitation

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


313
Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

A4.4

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

Recall the stress relaxation equation:


t d ( )
(t ) E (t ) d .
d
This equation is inadequate for Fourier transform methods since (for
solids) E(t) 0 as t .

E (t )
Introduce e(t ) 1 (dimensionless relaxation function).
E

Here E is the long-term modulus.

We see that e(t) 0 as t .

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


314
A4.5

Classical Linear Viscoelasticity

Substituting for e(t) in the stress relaxation equation yields

t d ( )
(t ) E (t ) E e(t ) d
d
t d ( )
(t ) e(t ) d .
d
Letting t yields

d (t )
(t ) (t ) e( ) d .
0 d

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

Harmonic Excitation

315
A4.7

Harmonic Excitation

Consider the application of a sinusoidal strain,

(t ) exp(i t ).

where is the angular frequency.


Substituting (t) in the long-term stress relaxation equation yields

d
(t ) E (t ) e( ) (E exp(i (t ))) d
0 d

E 1 i e( )exp( i )d (t ).
0

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A4.8

Harmonic Excitation

In other words, t E* t ,

where E* E 1 i e* is the complex modulus

and e* is the Fourier transform of e t .

Since e* Re e* i Im e* :

E * ( ) E (1 Im(e* )) i E Re(e* )

Es ( ) El ( )

storage modulus loss modulus

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


316
A4.9

Harmonic Excitation

Previous formulas relating storage and loss moduli to the Fourier


transform of the dimensionless relaxation function define frequency
domain viscoelasticity data:

Es ( )
Im( e* ) 1
E
data required by Abaqus
* El ( )
Re( e )
E

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A4.10

Harmonic Excitation

The storage and loss moduli can be measured with excitation tests in
the frequency domain.
The data produced can be used not only in frequency domain
analyses but also to derive short-term time domain data.
If the time periods of interest are of the same order as the response
time of the equipment used to measure relaxation or creep data,
this may be the only way to obtain such data.
Consider the complex modulus E* known (measured). Calculate an
intermediate function:

E* ( )
e( ) 1.
E

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


317
A4.11

Harmonic Excitation

The Fourier transform of the relaxation function is then

e( )
e* ( ) ,
i

from which we can do an inverse Fourier transform to obtain e(t):

1 e( ) 1 e( ) i t
e(t ) F e d .
i 2 i

Then

E (t ) E (1 e(t )).

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

318
Notes

319
Notes

320
Suggested Reading
Appendix 5

A5.2

Suggested Reading

Introductory
Aklonis, J. J., et al., Introduction to Polymer Viscoelasticity, 2nd ed.,
Wiley, New York, 1982.
Mathematical
Flugge, W., Viscoelasticity, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, New York,
1980.
Pipkin, A. C., Lectures on Viscoelasticity Theory, 2nd ed., Springer-
Verlag, New York, 1986.
Standard reference
Ferry, J. D., Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers, 3rd ed., Wiley,
New York, 1980.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


321
A5.3

Suggested Reading

Permanent set in elastomers


Lee, E.H. 1969. Elastic-plastic deformation at finite strain. Journal of
Applied Mechanics 36:1-6.
Weber, G. & Anand, L. 1990. Finite deformation constitutive
equations and a time integration procedure for isotropic
hyperelastic-viscoplastic solids. Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering 79: 173-202.
Simo, J.C. 1992. Algorithms for static and dynamic multiplicative
plasticity that preserve the classical return mapping schemes of the
infinitesimal theory. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and
Engineering 99: 61-112.
Govindarajan, S.M. Hurtado, J.A. & Mars, W.V. 2007. Simulation of
Mullins effect and permanent set in filled elastomers using
multiplicative decomposition. Proceedings of the 5th European
Conference of Constitutive Models of Rubber, Paris, France 5:249-
254.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus

A5.4

Suggested Reading

Detailed example on time-temperature correspondence


Mercier, J. P., et al., Viscoelastic Behavior of the Polycarbonate of
Bisphenol A, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, vol. 9,
pp. 447459, 1965.

Modeling Rubber and Viscoelasticity with Abaqus


322
Notes

323
Notes

324
Workshop Preliminaries

Setting up the workshop directories and files


If you are taking a public seminar, the steps in the following section have already been
done for you: skip to Basic Operating System Commands, (p. WP.2). If everyone in
your group is familiar with the operating system, skip directly to the workshops.
The workshop files are included on the Abaqus release CD. If you have problems finding
the files or setting up the directories, ask your systems manager for help.
Note for systems managers: If you are setting up these directories and files for someone
else, please make sure that there are appropriate privileges on the directories and files so
that the user can write to the files and create new files in the directories.

Workshop file setup


(Note: UNIX is case-sensitive. Therefore, lowercase and uppercase letters must be typed
as they are shown or listed.)
1. Find out where the Abaqus release is installed by typing
UNIX and Windows NT: abqxxx whereami
where abqxxx is the name of the Abaqus execution procedure on your system. It
can be defined to have a different name. For example, the command for the
6.91 release might be aliased to abq691.
This command will give the full path to the directory where Abaqus is installed,
referred to here as abaqus_dir.
2. Extract all the workshop files from the course tar file by typing
UNIX: abqxxx perl abaqus_dir/samples/course_setup.pl
Windows NT: abqxxx perl abaqus_dir\samples\course_setup.pl
Note that if you have Perl and the compilers already installed on your machine,
you may simply type:
UNIX: abaqus_dir/samples/course_setup.pl
Windows NT: abaqus_dir\samples\course_setup.pl
3. The script will install the files into the current working directory. You will be
asked to verify this and to choose which files you wish to install. Choose y for
the appropriate lecture series when prompted. Once you have selected the lecture
series, type q to skip the remaining lectures and to proceed with the installation
of the chosen workshops.

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Basic operating system commands


(You can skip this section and go directly to the workshops if everyone in your group is
familiar with the operating system.)
Note: The following commands are limited to those necessary for doing the workshop
exercises.

Working with directories


1. Start in the current working directory. List the directory contents by typing
UNIX: ls
Windows NT: dir
Both subdirectories and files will be listed. On some systems the file type
(directory, executable, etc.) will be indicated by a symbol.
2. Change directories to a workshop subdirectory by typing
Both UNIX and Windows NT: cd dir_name
3. To list with a long format showing sizes, dates, and file, type
UNIX: ls -l
Windows NT: dir
4. Return to your home directory:
UNIX: cd
Windows NT: cd home-dir
List the directory contents to verify that you are back in your home directory.
5. Change to the workshop subdirectory again.
6. The * is a wildcard character and can be used to do a partial listing. For example,
list only Abaqus input files by typing
UNIX: ls *.inp
Windows NT: dir *.inp

Working with files


Use one of these files, filename.inp, to perform the following tasks:
1. Copy filename.inp to a file with the name newcopy.inp by typing
UNIX: cp filename.inp newcopy.inp
Windows NT: copy filename.inp newcopy.inp
2. Rename (or move) this new file to newname.inp by typing
UNIX: mv newcopy.inp newname.inp
Windows NT: rename newcopy.inp newname.inp
(Be careful when using cp and mv since UNIX will overwrite existing files
without warning.)

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3. Delete this file by typing


UNIX: rm newname.inp
Windows NT: erase newname.inp
4. View the contents of the files filename.inp by typing
UNIX: more filename.inp
Windows NT: type filename.inp | more
This step will scroll through the file one page at a time.

Now you are ready to start the workshops.

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Workshop 1

Curve Fitting Hyperelastic Material Models


from Test Data

Goals
When you complete this workshop, you will be able to:
Use experimental data to derive coefficients for hyperelastic material models
within Abaqus/CAE.
See how very limited test data (such as using only uniaxial data) can yield poor
material model predictions.
Use Abaqus/CAE to visualize the accuracy of any given material model response
and compare the accuracy of various material models against each other.
Create and compare hyperelastic material models.
Use the correct keywords in Abaqus/Standard to define a material model for
hyperelasticity.

Introduction
For this workshop you will use experimental data gathered by L.R.G. Treloar based on
his work with lightly vulcanized natural rubber (The Physics of Rubber Elasticity, 1949).
Treloars data is presented in Table W11. Note that it is presented in the form of
engineering stressstrain values (also called nominal stressstrain). This is consistent
with the form required by Abaqus.

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Table W11 Uniaxial tension data from Treloar.

Engineering Stress, MPa Engineering Strain


0 0
0.03 0.02
0.15 0.10
0.23 0.20
0.33 0.34
0.41 0.57
0.51 0.85
0.59 1.13
0.67 1.40
0.86 1.98
1.04 2.55
1.22 3.00
1.59 3.77
1.95 4.37

Problems
A text file named st_treloar_abq.txt is provided which contains the data given in
the above table (note that st stands for Simple Tension).

Problem 1: Viewing stressstrain data in the Visualization module


1. Enter the working directory for this workshop:
../rubber_visco/workshop1
2. Start an Abaqus/CAE session and switch to the Visualization module.
3. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
4. In the Create XY Data dialog box, choose ASCII file as the source, and click
Continue.
5. In the XY Data From ASCII File dialog box, click Select to browse for the test
data file. In the ASCII File Selection dialog box, select the file
st_treloar_abq.txt and click OK.
6. Since you will want strain plotted along the X-axis, the X-values should be read
from field 2 and the Y-values (stress) should be read from field 1. Make these
changes in the XY Data From ASCII File dialog box.
7. Set the X-axis quantity type to Strain and the Y-axis quantity type to Stress.

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8. In the lower left corner of the dialog box, click Save As. Name the X-Y data
ST_TRELOAR and click OK.
9. In the XY Data From ASCII File dialog box, click Plot and then click Cancel.
10. From the main menu bar, select OptionsXY OptionsCurve (or click in
the toolbox).
11. Toggle on Show symbol, and set the symbol size to Large. Dismiss the dialog
box.
12. By default, the X- and Y-axes are labeled Strain and Stress, respectively. You
can specify alternate axis titles using the Axis Options (OptionsXY
OptionsAxis or simply double-click an axis). For example, double-click the X-
axis, switch to the Title tabbed page of the Axis Options dialog box and type
Engineering Strain as the title. Similarly, specify the Y-axis title
Engineering Stress (MPa). Change the axis title font size for each axis to
18.
13. In the Axis Options dialog box, switch to the Axes tabbed page. Change the axis
label font size for each axis to 12.
14. In the Scale tabbed page, specify an X-axis major increment size of 0.5.
The resulting stressstrain curve is shown below in Figure W11.

Figure W11 Stress-strain curve.


Notice that this test data from Treloar goes out to 437% strain. For the engineering design
of many products (such as seals) a more typical maximum strain of interest is perhaps 40-
50% strain. Use engineering judgment when testing your material. If your component
(product) sees maximum strains of 25%, then test out to about 40-50% strain. If your
component sees a maximum strain of 50%, then test your material specimen out to about
75-100% strain.

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In this workshop you will use only the simple tension (uniaxial tension) test data, but it is
important to understand what the typical responses are for the planar tension and
equibiaxial tension modes of deformation. Figure W12 shows the stress-strain curves for
all three modes of deformation. These data are taken from Treloars work. However, the
general trend you see here is common for a broad variety of elastomers. For instance,
even in the absence of equibiaxial test data, we know that the equibiaxial stressstrain
response should be about 1.5 to 2 times higher than the uniaxial response. This rule of
thumb allows us to have a reasonable expectation for the approximate equibiaxial
response even when the data are not available.

Figure W12 Treloar Test Data, Comparison of 3 tests.

Problem 2: Obtaining a Hyperelastic material model curve fit


You will use Abaqus/CAE to curve fit the test data and derive coefficients for several
different hyperelastic material models.
The file st_treloar_abq.txt is the basis for the workshop hyperelastic material
models. You can follow the directions below, and in addition you may want to refer to
curve fitting demonstration presented in Lecture 4.
1. In the Model Tree, double-click the Materials container to create a new material
definition. Name the material Treloar.
2. In the Edit Material dialog box, select MechanicalElasticityHyperelastic.
3. Click Test Data and select Uniaxial Test Data. The Test Data Editor appears.
Click mouse button 3 in the first cell of the table and select Read from File from
the list that appears.

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4. In the Read Data from ASCII File dialog box, click Select to browse for the test
data file. In the ASCII File Selection dialog box, select the file
st_treloar_abq.txt and click OK. In the Read Data from ASCII File dialog
box, click OK. In the Test Data Editor, click OK.
5. You should now be back in the material editor. If you wanted to read in more
experimental data you would repeat this process, selecting Biaxial Test Data,
Planar Test Data, or Volumetric Test Data from the Test Data pull-down
menu. You have finished importing test data for this workshop; thus, click OK in
the material editor.
6. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the material named Treloar; in the
menu that appears, select Evaluate.
The Evaluate Material dialog box has two tabbed pages: Test Setup and Strain
Energy Potentials.
7. In the Test Setup tabbed page, you will accept most of the defaults. However,
you will change the nominal strain values. Enter the value 0.0 in the Min Strain
field and 4.0 in the Max Strain field for the Uniaxial, Biaxial, and Planar tests.
This simply changes the range over which the material model response will be
plotted.
8. Switch to the Strain Energy Potentials tabbed page. Notice that the default
choices for the energy potentials are (full) Polynomial (N=2) and Ogden (N=3).
In addition to these two material models, also select the neo-Hookean model
(expand the Reduced Polynomial list and select N=1 (Neo-Hooke)).
9. When you click OK in the lower left corner of the Evaluate Material dialog box,
Abaqus performs a datacheck analysis to extract the material constants; then the
material response is calculated using a simple set of equations within
Abaqus/CAE. Once the evaluation is complete, the coefficients (such as Mooney-
Rivlin coefficients C10 and C01) and stability limit information are given in the
Material Parameters and Stability Limit Information dialog box. For example,
the Polynomial, N=2 data for this material are shown in Figure W13:

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Figure W13 Material Parameters and Stability Limit Information


(Polynomial, N=2).

All of the data in the Material Parameters and Stability Limit Information
dialog box are also written to the data (.dat) file produced by the material
evaluation analysis. Click Dismiss to close the dialog box.
The test results from the material evaluation are automatically displayed in the
Visualization module of Abaqus/CAE, as shown in Figure W14. Each of the
deformation modes is displayed in a separate viewport (you can maximize each
viewport to see the results more clearly). The first thing to notice, by looking at
the uniaxial results, is that the neo-Hookean, Polynomial N=2, and Ogden N=3
models all fit the uniaxial test data reasonably well. However, by looking at the
biaxial and planar results you can see that the Polynomial N=2 response in these
deformation modes is off the scale compared to the responses predicted by the
other two models. The Polynomial N=2 model is in fact very inaccurate in this
case and should not be used. In general, full polynomial models should not be
used when only limited test data are available (for instance, when only uniaxial
tension data are available).

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Figure W14 Material evaluation results.

Next you will use the X-Y plotting capability of the Visualization module to look
further at the Ogden N=3 and neo-Hookean material models.
10. Maximize the viewport with the uniaxial test results.
11. In the Results Tree, expand the XYData container.
12. Use [Ctrl]+Click to select the three data objects associated with the OGDEN_N3
model, the three data objects associated the R_POLY_N1 model and the original
uniaxial test data (Test Data UNIAXIAL Treloar_1). Click mouse button 3,
and from the menu that appears, select Plot.
The resulting X-Y plot is shown in Figure W15.

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Biaxial,
Ogden (N=3)

Figure W15 Reduced polynomial (neo-Hookean) and Ogden (N=3) results.

Notice that the Ogden N=3 biaxial material model response is overly stiff. We
conclude that the Ogden N=3 material model based only on uniaxial test data
should not be used. Like the conclusion drawn earlier for full polynomial models,
this conclusion is indeed generally true.
13. In the XYData container of the Results Tree, select just the three R_POLY_N1
(neo-Hookean) curves and the uniaxial test data. Plot these curves. The resulting
plot is shown in Figure W16.

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W1.9

Uniaxial
neo-Hookean

Uniaxial
test data

Figure W16 Reduced polynomial (neo-Hookean) results.

While the uniaxial neo-Hookean response is not as good as we might like, the
neo-Hookean material model predictions in the planar tension and equibiaxial
modes are much better than the Ogden and full polynomial predictions.
14. Using a text editor, open the input (.inp) file that this curve fitting exercise
produced. In this file search for the string *MATERIAL. You will see a fragment of
text such as:
*MATERIAL, NAME=OGDEN_N3
*HYPERELASTIC, OGDEN, N=3, TEST DATA INPUT
*UNIAXIAL TEST DATA
0.0,0.0
0.03,0.02
0.15,0.1
0.23,0.2
0.33,0.34
0.41,0.57
0.51,0.85
0.59,1.13
0.67,1.4
0.86,1.98
1.04,2.55
1.22,3.0
1.59,3.77
1.95,4.37
This is the appropriate syntax for using experimental data to define the Ogden
material model in an Abaqus input file. Following this text you will see the
definitions for the POLYNOMIAL, N=2 and the REDUCED POLYNOMIAL, N=1

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(neo-Hookean) material models. In addition to the UNIAXIAL TEST DATA


option, there are also options available (but not used in this input file) for entering
equibiaxial and planar test data to define the hyperelastic material. In general,
using all three types of test data and allowing Abaqus to simultaneously curve fit
all the data creates the best material model.
15. Try curve fits using the Yeoh, Arruda-Boyce, Van der Waals, and Marlow
models.

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Workshop 2

Inflation of a Spherical Balloon

Interactive Version
Note: This workshop provides instructions in terms of the Abaqus GUI
interface. If you wish to use the Abaqus Keywords interface instead, please
see the Keywords version of these instructions.

Please complete either the Keywords or Interactive version of this


workshop.

Goals
In this workshop you will:
Use experimental data from a uniaxial tension test to calibrate various
hyperelastic models in Abaqus/Standard.
Use the Visualization module of Abaqus/CAE to create X-Y plots.
Introduction
Ogden (1972) computed the inflation pressure vs. radial displacement of a spherical
balloon assuming a material stress-strain relationship based on a 3-term fit to Treloars
rubber data (1944):

Initial radius = 10 cm
Thickness = 0.4 mm

Figure W21 Inflation pressure vs. radial displacement of a spherical balloon.

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References:
1) Ogden, R.W., Large Deformation Isotropic Elasticity: on the Correlation of
Theory and Experiment for Incompressible Rubberlike Solids, Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, Series A, Vol. 326, pp. 565-584, 1972
2) Treloar, L.R.G., Stress-Strain Data for Vulcanized Rubber under Various Types
of Deformations, Trans. Faraday Soc., Vol. 40, pp. 59-70, 1944

Modeling the Balloon


1. Enter the working directory for this workshop:
../rubber_visco/workshop2/interactive
2. Run the script ws_rubber_balloon.py using the following command:
abaqus cae startup=ws_rubber_balloon.py
The above command creates an Abaqus/CAE database named balloon.cae in
the current directory. It contains a quarter-symmetry shell model suitable for a
simulation along with Treloars test data for vulcanized natural rubber. The
uniaxial, biaxial, and planar test data are all included in the hyperelastic material
definition; however, the hyperelastic material definition is incomplete because the
form of the strain energy potential has not been specified. The model is meshed
with S4R elements. The initial quarter-symmetric mesh is shown in Figure W22.

Figure W22 Rubber balloon mesh.

The purpose of this workshop is to simulate the inflation of a spherical balloon and to
compare the FEA results with Ogdens solution, which can be found in the file
balloon_cur.inp.

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Figure W23 Inflation of the rubber balloon.

Fitting Case 1
First, perform the simulation with the best possible fit to the experimental data:
1. Edit the material definition so that the Ogden strain energy potential of order 3 is
used.
a. In the Model Tree, expand the Materials container and double-click the
material named rubber.
b. Select Ogden as the material strain energy potential.
c. Increase the strain energy potential order to 3.
d. Click OK.
Question W21: How do you pressurize the shell model, given that as the
balloon is inflated the applied pressure increases to a
maximum and then further inflation is achieved with a
reduced pressure?
2. In the Step module, activate the DOF monitor (OutputDOF Monitor). Monitor
the radial displacement (degree of freedom 1) of the set monitor (click Points
in the prompt area).
3. Create a history output request to write the radial displacement (U1) of the set
monitor to the output database (.odb) file (in the Model Tree, double-click
History Output Requests).
4. Apply a pressure load to the inner surface of the balloon (in the Model Tree,
double-click Loads). Choose an arbitrary magnitude for the pressure load (e.g.,
1.0). The magnitude is arbitrary because the problem is solved using the
modified Riks method, and the analysis terminates only when the displacement in
the radial direction passes a specified value: 70 cm in this case.

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5. Edit the job case1 so that model definition data will be printed during
preprocessing (in the Model Tree, double-click the job named case1; activate the
option in the General tabbed page of the job editor). With this option Abaqus will
write detailed model information, including the coefficients used for the
hyperelastic material model, to the data (.dat) file.
6. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the job named case1; in the menu
that appears select Submit to run the analysis job.
7. While the job is running, create a data object containing the Ogden data.
a. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
b. Select ASCII file as the source and select the file balloon_cur.inp.
c. Set the X-axis quantity type to Displacement. This will facilitate
comparison with the curves that will be created later.
d. Save the data as Ogden.
8. When the job completes, open the output database file (case1.odb) in the
Visualization module and use the X-Y plotting capability to compare the
simulation results with the Ogden results. A reasonable comparison can be made
by plotting the pressure versus the radial displacement. The pressure at any time
in the analysis is equal to the product of the load proportionality factor and the
magnitude of the distributed load. Detailed instructions to create the pressure
versus the radial displacement curve from the Riks analysis results are provided
below. Your plot should look similar to Figure W24. (Note the axis labels in this
figure have been customized.)
a. In the Results Tree, expand the History Output container underneath the
output database named case1.odb. Select the radial displacement (U1)
variable for the set MONITOR. Click mouse button 3, and from the menu
that appears, select Save As. Name the X-Y data OgdenN3-U.
b. Click mouse button 3 on the load proportionality factor (LPF) variable;
from the menu that appears, select Save As. Name the X-Y data
OgdenN3-LPF.
c. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
d. Choose Operate on XY data as the source and click Continue.
e. In the Operate on XY Data dialog box, select combine(X, X) from the list
of operators. Select OgdenN3-U and click Add to Expression. Repeat
this for OgdenN3-LPF. If necessary, edit the expression to use the load
magnitude specified earlier for the model (this is not necessary if you used
a load magnitude of 1.0). The final expression is:
combine( "OgdenN3-U", "OgdenN3-LPF"* load_magnitude )
where load_magnitude is the magnitude of the pressure load you applied.
f. Click Save As and name the X-Y data OgdenN3-PvU.
g. Plot both curves (Ogden and OgdenN3-PvU) simultaneously.

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Figure W24 Inflation pressure vs. radial displacement of rubber balloon.

Fitting Case 2
Ogdens analysis reveals that for a single-term Ogden strain energy function with
23 3, a maximum inflation pressure exists but no minimum pressure exists.
For such values the pressure reaches a maximum and then decreases eventually to
zero.
Question W22: Can you confirm this numerically?

1. Reduce the strain energy potential order of the material name rubber to 1.
2. Create a new job named case2 and rerun the analysis. Check the value of
(run the job with model data printed during preprocessing and look for
ALPHA_I in the .dat file).
3. Compare the results with case1 using the Visualization module.

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Fitting Case 3
Suppose that not all three types of test data are available and all we have is the
uniaxial test data:
1. Copy the model named case1 to a new model named case3 (in the Model Tree,
click mouse button 3 on the model named case1; in the menu that appears, select
Copy Model).
2. In the new model, delete the biaxial and shear test data.
a. In the Model Tree, expand the Materials container and double-click rubber.
b. At the top of the material editor, select Biaxial Test Data and click Delete.
c. Select Planar Test Data and click Delete.
d. Set the strain energy potential to Ogden N = 3.
e. Click OK.
3. Create a job named case3 and run the analysis.

Question W23: Are the results of the simulation realistic? Are the results
different if we fit the hyperelastic constants to the biaxial test
data only? Why?
Note: With the biaxial test data only, Abaqus fails to
converge on the material coefficients when Ogden N = 3;
use Ogden N = 2.
4. Calibrate the following material models with just the uniaxial test data:
a. Yeoh
b. Reduced Polynomial, N = 2
c. Arruda-Boyce
d. Van der Waals with = 0
e. Marlow
Note: The Marlow model requires that the test data include a data point
corresponding to zero stress at zero strain. You must add this point to the
uniaxial test data to use this material model.
Rerun each to simulate the balloon inflation.

Question W24: What can we conclude from all this?

Note: A script that creates the complete model described in these


instructions is available for your convenience. Run this script if you
encounter difficulties following the instructions outlined here or if you wish
to check your work. The script is named ws_rubber_balloon_answer.py
and is available using the Abaqus fetch utility.

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Workshop Answers 2

Inflation of a Spherical Balloon

Interactive Version

Question W21: How do you pressurize the shell model, given that as the balloon
is inflated the applied pressure increases to a maximum and then
further inflation is achieved with a reduced pressure?

Answer: The Riks method must be used when a structure has a negative
slope in the global force-deflection curve (a global instability).
With the Riks method both the displacement and load applied to a
structure are considered unknowns.

Question W22: Can you confirm this numerically?


Answer: Yes. When the Ogden model with N = 1 is calibrated the value of
is set to 2.16. With this value of no minimum pressure is
attained. Instead, the pressure continues to drop asymptotically to
zero. This confirms Ogdens result (at least at one value of ).

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Question W23a: Are the results of the simulation realistic?

Answer: No. The Ogden N = 3 model calibrated with only uniaxial test
data produces results that are much too stiff.

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Question W23b: Are the results different if we fit the hyperelastic constants to the
biaxial test data only? Why?

Answer: Yes. When we use just the biaxial test data to curve fit our Ogden
hyperelastic material model the pressure vs. radial displacement
curve looks good out to about 40 cm of radial displacement. The
reason for this is coincidentalthe deformation mode in spherical
balloon inflation just happens to be almost exactly that of
equibiaxial tension. In fact, some researchers use a disk inflation
experiment to measure equibiaxial tension stress-strain
relationships.

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Question W24: What can we conclude from all this?


Answer: Simulating complex multiaxial behavior with hyperelastic models
that are calibrated with only uniaxial data can be very difficult,
and using the wrong energy potential can give very inaccurate
results.
As a general rule, when only limited test data is available, one
should use a simple material model, preferably an I1-based model.
All of the I1-based models tested here (Arruda-Boyce, Yeoh,
reduced polynomial N = 2, Van der Waals, and Marlow) do a
reasonable job in this case out to about 40 cm of radial
displacement (see the figure below). The results past 40 cm of
radial displacement vary widely due to extrapolation past the end
of the uniaxial experimental data.

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Workshop 3

Time Domain Viscoelasticity

Interactive Version
Note: This workshop provides instructions in terms of the Abaqus GUI
interface. If you wish to use the Abaqus Keywords interface instead, please
see the Keywords version of these instructions.

Please complete either the Keywords or Interactive version of this


workshop.

Goals
When you complete this workshop, you will be able to:
Obtain an N-term Prony series fit to given relaxation data.
Examine this fit numerically and graphically for N = 1, N = 2, and N = 3.
Modify a model to conduct a shear-relaxation analysis in Abaqus/Standard.
View the shear relaxation modulus versus time in the Visualization module for
N = 1 and N = 3.
Define the temperature-dependent viscoelastic properties, and demonstrate the
effect that raising the temperature has on the relaxation curve.
Attempt gross time integration of viscoelastic equations by using a large
viscoelastic strain error tolerance (CETOL).
Simulate a simple shear creep test and study the effects of using a large
viscoelastic strain error tolerance.

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Introduction
The following is a normalized shear relaxation modulus for polycarbonate of bisphenol
taken approximately from Mercier (1965)1:

Shear relaxation modulus Time (seconds)


1.0000 .01
0.8913 .1
0.6310 1.
0.1995 3.981
0.0631 12.589
1.585E-2 31.622
7.943E-3 100.
3.548E-3 398.1
1.995E-3 10000.

Table W31 Normalized relaxation modulus for polycarbonate of bisphenol.

Figure W31 Normalized relaxation modulus vs. time.

1
Mercier, J. P., Journal of Applied Polymer Science, vol. 9, pp 447-459, 1965.

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Problems

Problem 1: Viewing relaxation data


1. Enter the working directory for this workshop:
../rubber_visco/workshop3/interactive
2. The normalized shear relaxation data for polycarbonate of bisphenol is included
in the file bis_cur.inp. Look at the contents of this file in a text editor.
3. Start an Abaqus/CAE session and switch to the Visualization module.
4. Create an X-Y plot of the relaxation data in file bis_cur.inp. Detailed
instructions are provided below.
a. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
b. Select ASCII file as the source, and click Continue.
c. Next to the File field, click Select to browse for the file bis_cur.inp.
The X-values (time) should be read from field 2, and the Y-values (shear
relaxation modulus) should be read from field 1.
d. Set the X-axis quantity type to Time and the Y-axis quantity type to
Stress.
e. In the XY Data From ASCII File dialog box, click Save As. Name the X-Y
data BIS, and click OK.
f. In the XY Data From ASCII File dialog box, click Plot and then click
Cancel.
g. From the main menu bar, select OptionsXY OptionsCurve (or click
in the toolbox).
h. Toggle on Show symbol, and set the symbol size to Large. Dismiss the
dialog box.

Question W31: What is wrong with the curve?

5. Use logarithmic scales for both of the X-Y plot axes.


a. Double-click the X-axis to open the Axis Options dialog box.
b. In the Scale tabbed page of the dialog box, choose the Log scale type
with 8 minor ticks per decade.
c. Repeat for the Y-axis (simply select the Y-axis in the Axis Options dialog
box, and make the changes).
d. Enter Normalized Relaxation Modulus as the Y-axis title.

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Problem 2: Obtaining a Prony series fit


Next, you will evaluate the material to obtain a Prony series fit to the above data.
1. Run the script ws_visco_plate.py (FileRun Script).
The script creates an Abaqus/CAE database named visco.cae in the current
directory. This model is the basis for a shear relaxation simulation in
Abaqus/Standard, although it is not complete. For now you will use the model to
evaluate the Prony series parameters to fit the BIS curve.
2. In the Model Tree, expand the Materials container and double-click Material-1.
3. Add elastic properties to Material-1. The material has an instantaneous shear
modulus of 100 and a Poissons ratio of 0.499.
a. From the material editor's menu bar, select MechanicalElasticity
Elastic.
b. Select Instantaneous as the moduli time scale.
c. Enter the appropriate Young's modulus and Poissons ratio in the data
table.
Note: The relationship between the shear modulus G, Young's modulus E,
and Poissons ratio is G E 2 (1 v) .

You can use the command line interface (CLI) of Abaqus/CAE as a simple
calculator. Click the tab in the bottom left corner of the Abaqus/CAE
window to activate the CLI.
4. Add viscoelastic properties to Material-1. Use the normalized shear relaxation
modulus data for polycarbonate of bisphenol provided in Table 31 and the file
bis_cur.inp.
a. From the material editor's menu bar, select MechanicalElasticity
Viscoelastic.
b. Select Time in the Domain field and Relaxation test data in the Time
field.
c. Decrease the maximum number of terms in the Prony series to 3 and set
the allowable average root-mean-square error to 0.05.
Note: a fit with an order N that is larger than 3 will not attempted; fewer
terms may be used if the error tolerance is satisfied.
d. Click Test Data and select Shear Test Data.
The Test Data Editor appears. You will read in the normalized shear
relaxation modulus (gR) and time data pairs from the file bis_cur.inp
as follows.
e. In the Test Data Editor, click mouse button 3 in the first cell of the data
table and select Read from File.

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f. In the Read Data from ASCII File dialog box, select the file
bis_cur.inp and click OK.
g. In the Test Data Editor, click, click OK.
h. In the Edit Material dialog box, click OK.
5. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the material named Material-1. In the
menu that appears, select Evaluate.
6. In the Evaluate Material dialog box, select Stress Relaxation as the response
mode (i.e., deselect Creep) and specify a time period of 10000. Click OK.
7. When you click OK in the lower left corner of the Evaluate Material dialog box,
Abaqus performs a datacheck analysis to extract the material constants; then the
material response is calculated using a simple set of equations within
Abaqus/CAE. Once the evaluation is complete, the Prony series terms are given in
the Material Parameters and Stability Limit Information dialog box.
8. The test results from the material evaluation are automatically displayed in the
Visualization module of Abaqus/CAE. By default, linear scales are used for the
plot. Customize the plot as follows:
In the Results Tree, expand the XYData container.
Rename the SHEARRELAXATION* curve to N1-10000.
Delete the first data point of curve N1-10000 and set the X-axis type to
Time and the Y-axis type to Stress (click mouse button 3 on the curve
name and select Edit from the menu that appears).
Plot N1-10000 together with BIS.
Using the method indicated earlier, change both axis types to logarithmic.
Figure W32 (left) shows how the one-term Prony series fits the normalized
relaxation curve. The data is skewed towards times greater than 250 and shows a
constant value.
To get a more complete representation of the fit over the entire timescale,
re-evaluate the material using time periods of 2, 75, and 1000.
After each evaluation, expand the XYData container of the Results Tree,
and rename the corresponding SHEARRELAXATION* curve to N1-2, N1-
75, or N1-1000 (according to the time period).

Delete the first data point of the N1-75 and N1-1000 curves.
Set the X-axis type of each N1-* curve to Time and the Y-axis type of
each to Stress.
Figure W32 (right) shows the complete fit using the four evaluations.

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Test data

N=1 N=1

Test data

Figure W32 Comparison of Abaqus model with N=1 to experimental data.

The plot seems to indicate that the fit is good for the first four data points, but
after that the fit is poor. However, the logarithmic scale for the Y-axis (which
represents the stress in a relaxation test) tends to exaggerate the misfit for very
small values of gR at large times and understate the misfit at large values of gR.

Question W32: How much should the total stress change as a fraction of the
initial stress after t=100 in a relaxation test?

9. Try making the Y-axis linearly spaced, and assess the fit again.
a. Double-click the Y-axis.
b. In the Scale tabbed page of the Axis Options dialog box, choose the
Linear scale type. Click OK.
The fit is not very good even for the second data point.
10. Modify the viscoelastic properties of Material-1 (in the Model Tree, double-click
Material-1) to decrease the allowable error to 0.025. Evaluate the material using
time periods of 250 and 10000. Rename each curve N2-250 and N2-10000,
respectively. Delete the first data point of each N2-* curve; set the X-axis type of
each to Time and the Y-axis type of each to Stress.

Question W33: What effect does restricting the allowable error have on the
number of terms used?

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11. Modify the viscoelastic properties of Material-1 to further decrease the allowable
error to 0.01. This will force Abaqus to use three terms in the curve fit. Evaluate
the material using time periods of 250 and 10000. Rename each curve N3-250
and N3-10000, respectively. Delete the first data point of each N3-* curve; set
the X-axis type of each to Time and the Y-axis type of each to Stress.
12. Display all the curves in an X-Y plot, as shown in Figure W33.

N=1

N=2

N=3

Figure W33 Comparison of Abaqus models with N = 1, 2, and 3


(log scale for normalized modulus).

The long-term behavior is somewhat off for all of the Prony series fits. We can
specify the long-term modulus exactly at the top of the shear test data editor,
although this will not necessarily produce a better overall fit.

Question W34: Is the curve for N = 3 really better than the curve for N = 2? Is
the fit for N = 3 good enough after t = 100? (View it with a
linear Y-axis scale.)

We had a crude set of data points for the original curve. The curve-fitting
procedure for the Prony parameters only fits to the given data points; i.e., those
marked by a square in the graph.

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Problem 3: Simulating a relaxation test

Figure W34 Shear relaxation test.

1. Copy the model relax to relax1 (in the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the
model named relax and select Copy Model in the menu that appears), and make
the following modifications:
a. Modify the viscoelastic properties of Material-1. Set the maximum
number of terms in the Prony series to 1 and adjust the average root-mean-
square error tolerance in such a way that this single Prony series parameter
will be accepted (e.g., set to 0.03).
b. In the Model Tree, double-click the Steps container to create a Visco step
after Step-1 with a total time of 1000 and an initial time increment of 1E-
2. Specify a viscoelastic strain error tolerance (CETOL) of 0.05E-2 to
allow automatic time incrementation. (This value was arrived at as
follows: the total creep strain when the material relaxes fully will be 0.01,
which is equal to the instantaneously applied shear strain. We can force at
least 20 increments by taking CETOL to be 0.01/20.)
c. In the Model Tree, double-click the History Output Requests container
to create a history output request in Step-2. Request shear stress S12 and
shear strain E12 for the set plate.
d. In the Model Tree, double-click the BCs container to create a
Displacement/Rotation boundary condition in Step-1 named moveTop.
Apply the boundary condition to the set top and specify a U1
displacement of 0.01. This will put the model into a state of simple shear
with a positive shear strain of 0.01 during the first step.

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The shear modulus of 100 was chosen so that the shear stress in this test will
coincide with the normalized shear relaxation modulus:

R
G (t ) 0
G0 g (t ) 0
.

We have contrived G0 0 = 1 so that we can read the normalized shear modulus


gR ( t ) as .
2. In the Model Tree, double-click the Jobs container to create a job named relax1
for the model relax1. Submit the job for analysis.
3. When the job completes, create a plot of the shear stress (S12) versus the step
time, using the history data reported for the second step of the relax1 analysis.
a. In the Model Tree, click mouse button 3 on the job named relax1; in the
menu that appears, select Results to open relax1.odb in the
Visualization module.
b. In the Results Tree, expand the History Output container underneath the
output database named relax1.odb.
c. From the list of output variables, select Stress components: S12.
d. Click mouse button 3; from the menu that appears, select Save As. Name
the X-Y data S1 and click OK.
e. In the Results Tree, expand the XYData container, and double-click S1 to
plot the curve.
4. Copy the model relax1 to relax3.
5. Modify the viscoelastic properties of Material-1. Set the maximum number of
terms in the Prony series to 3 and adjust the average root-mean-square error
tolerance in such a way that the Prony series will be accepted for N = 3, but not
N = 1 and N = 2 (e.g., set to 0.01).
6. Create a job named relax3 for the model relax3. Submit the job for analysis.
7. Repeat the procedure given above to define curve S3 using the data in
relax3.odb.
8. Plot curves N1-* and S1 together (select in the XYData container of the Results
Tree, click mouse button 3, and then select Plot from the menu that appears).

Question W35: Are the results from the viscoelasticity analysis true to the
Prony series defined for it?

9. Similarly, compare curve S3 with curves N3-*.


The integration of the viscoelastic equations is very accurate.

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Problem 4: Simulating the effects of temperature-dependent relaxation data


1. Copy the model relax3 to relax_hot.
You will use relax_hot to model a relaxation test under the following conditions:
the relaxation data are assumed to be applicable to 20 C, the relaxation test is
carried out at 70 C, the material has the time-temperature transformation
properties of the rubber material referred to in Lecture 10, and the time constants
for the WLF shift function have already been worked out to refer to 20 C ( 0 =
20, C1=6.106, C2=146.6).
Make the following modifications to the model:
a. Modify the viscoelastic properties of Material-1 to define the required
constants for the temperature-time shift. Add these constants using the
viscoelastic suboption Trs (under the viscoelastic properties, click
Suboptions and select Trs).
b. Edit Step-2 and specify a minimum time increment of 1.E-10 to prevent
premature termination of the analysis due to small time increment sizes.
c. In the Model Tree, double-click the Predefined Fields container to create
a temperature field in the Initial step to assign an initial temperature of 20
to the set plate.
d. Edit the temperature field defined above to change the model temperature
to 70 in Step-1. This can be done by selecting the appropriate cell in the
Predefined Field Manager and clicking Edit. In the field editor that
appears, change the temperature magnitude to 70.
2. Create a job named relax_hot for model relax_hot. Submit the job for analysis.
3. Once the job completes, save the shear stress history data as S-HOT. Plot this
against the curve of your choice.

Question W36: What do you notice? What is the value of the time shift? Does
it correspond to the calculated value in the notes?

Figure W35 shows the normalized relaxation moduli versus time.

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Figure W35 Effect of temperature on viscoelastic response.

Problem 5: Determining the effects of time integration in a relaxation


analysis
1. Copy the model relax3 to relax_coarse.
2. Edit Step-2. Set the initial time increment to 100 seconds and increase the
viscoelastic strain error tolerance to a value that is so large it will never restrict
the time step.
3. Create a job named relax_coarse for the model relax_coarse. Submit the job
for analysis.
4. Once the job completes, save the shear stress history data as S3-COR and compare
it to curve N3 or S3.
The viscoelastic equations were integrated very well despite the coarseness of the
integration and the complexity of the relaxation response.

Question W37: Why did the integration procedure produce good results with
such large time increments?

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Problem 6: Determining the effects of time integration in a creep analysis


1. Copy the model relax3 to creep.
2. Modify the model so that it conducts a creep test rather than a relaxation test; that
is, it subjects an element to constant shear stress of 0.01.
a. Delete the boundary condition named moveTop.
b. Create a concentrated force load in Step-1 named loadTop (in the Model
Tree, double-click the Loads container). Apply the load to the set
topCorners and specify a load magnitude of 0.005 in the CF1 field.
3. Set the Step-2 viscoelastic strain error tolerance to 0.05E-4. Use the same time
limits as before.
4. Create a job named creep for the model creep and submit the job for analysis.
5. Copy the model creep to creep_coarse. Modify this model so that the
Step-2 time integration is very coarse. (Use a very large viscoelastic strain error
tolerance, and specify an initial time increment of 100.)
6. Create a job named creep_coarse for the model creep_coarse and submit the
job for analysis.
7. View the shear strain response history data (E12) and compare the results of the
two analyses.
You will see small differences in the strain response at the output times because
the total strain no longer varies linearly with time. Nevertheless, the creep
integration is still quite good.
Your results should produce curves similar to the ones shown in Figure W36
(with both scales linear).

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Figure W36 Effect of time integration on viscoelastic response in Abaqus.

Note: A script that creates the complete model described in these


instructions is available for your convenience. Run this script if you
encounter difficulties following the instructions outlined here or if you wish
to check your work. The script is named ws_visco_plate_answer.py and is
available using the Abaqus fetch utility.

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Workshop Answers 3

Time Domain Viscoelasticity

Interactive Version
Question W31: What is wrong with the curve?

Answer: It has linear scales. It should have logarithmic scales.

Question W32: How much should the total stress change as a fraction of the initial
stress after t=100 in a relaxation test?

Answer: The normalized relaxation modulus is reduced to 0.0079 % at 100


seconds. Therefore, the stress in a relaxation test should also be
0.0079 % of the instantaneous value after 100 seconds.

Question W33: What effect does restricting the allowable error have on the number
of terms used?

Answer: More terms are required. With a 2.5% allowable error, two Prony
series terms are used.

Question W34: Is the curve for N=3 really better than the curve for N=2? Is the fit
for N=3 good enough after t=100? (View it with a linear Y-axis
scale.)

Answer: The distinction between the N=3 curve and the N=2 curve can be
misleading on the logarithmic scale. When viewed on a linear scale,
the differences appear to be very minor.

Question W35: Are the results from the viscoelasticity analysis true to the Prony
series defined for it?

Answer: Yes.

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Question W36: What do you notice? What is the value of the time shift? Does it
correspond to the calculated value in the notes?

Answer: The relaxation modulus at the elevated temperature is much smaller


than the value at 20 C. The time shift is 0.03, which corresponds to
the value calculated in the lecture on Time-Temperature
correspondence. You can verify this using the Operate on XY data
Visualization functionality (Results Tree: double-click XYData).
Use the following expression to multiply the time data of the S3
curve by 0.03: swap(swap("S3")*0.03). The resulting curve
is very similar to S-HOT, as expected.

Question W37: Why did the integration procedure produce good results with such
large time increments?

Answer: The viscoelastic equations are integrated exactly when the total
strain varies linearly over an increment. In this case the strain is
constant. Thus a large viscoelastic strain error tolerance (CETOL)
will not affect the accuracy of a simple stress-relaxation problem.

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Workshop 2

Inflation of a Spherical Balloon

Keywords Version
Note: This workshop provides instructions in terms of the Abaqus
Keywords interface. If you wish to use the Abaqus GUI interface instead,
please see the Interactive version of these instructions.

Please complete either the Keywords or Interactive version of this


workshop.

Goals
In this workshop you will:
Use experimental data from a uniaxial tension test to calibrate various
hyperelastic models in Abaqus/Standard.
Use the Visualization module of Abaqus/CAE to create X-Y plots.
Introduction
Ogden (1972) computed the inflation pressure vs. radial displacement of a spherical
balloon assuming a material stress-strain relationship based on a 3-term fit to Treloars
rubber data (1944):

Initial radius = 10 cm
Thickness = 0.4 mm

Figure W21 Inflation pressure vs. radial displacement of a spherical balloon.

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References:
1) Ogden, R.W., Large Deformation Isotropic Elasticity: on the Correlation of
Theory and Experiment for Incompressible Rubberlike Solids, Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London, Series A, Vol. 326, pp. 565-584, 1972
2) Treloar, L.R.G., Stress-Strain Data for Vulcanized Rubber under Various Types
of Deformations, Trans. Faraday Soc., Vol. 40, pp. 59-70, 1944

Modeling the Balloon


Go to the rubber_elasticity/workshop2 directory.
The Abaqus/Standard input file is named balloon.inp. It contains a quarter-
symmetry shell-element mesh suitable for a simulation along with Treloars test data
for vulcanized natural rubber.
Open this file in a text editor and scan the file. Note the shell element definitions
using S4R elements and the experimental data listed under the *UNIAXIAL TEST
DATA, *BIAXIAL TEST DATA, and *PLANAR TEST DATA options. This input
file is incomplete (the *HYPERLEASTIC option is incomplete). The initial quarter-
symmetric mesh looks like this:

Figure W22 Rubber balloon mesh.

The purpose of this workshop is to simulate the inflation of a spherical balloon and to
compare the FEA results with Ogdens solution, which can be found in the file
balloon_cur.inp.

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Figure W23 Inflation of the rubber balloon.

Fitting Case 1
First, perform the simulation with the best possible fit to the experimental data:
1. Add the parameters TEST DATA INPUT, OGDEN, N=3 to the *HYPERELASTIC
option, so that the entire line reads:
*HYPERELASTIC, TEST DATA INPUT, OGDEN, N=3

Question W21: How do you pressurize the shell model, given that as the
balloon is inflated the applied pressure increases to a
maximum and then further inflation is achieved with a
reduced pressure?
2. Define a distributed pressure load across all elements of the shell. Choose an
arbitrary magnitude for this load (e.g., 1.0). The magnitude is arbitrary because
we are using the modified Riks method, and the analysis terminates only when the
displacement in the radial direction passes a specified value: 70 cm in this case.
3. Monitor the radial displacement of node 512 with the *MONITOR history option.
4. Run the analysis.
5. While the job is running, open Abaqus/Viewer and create a data object containing
the Ogden data.
a. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
b. Select ASCII file as the source and select the file balloon_cur.inp.
c. Set the X-axis quantity type to Displacement. This will facilitate
comparison with the curves that will be created later.
d. Save the data as Ogden.

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6. When the job completes, open the output database file (balloon.odb) in
Abaqus/Viewer and use the X-Y plotting capability to compare the simulation
results with the Ogden results. A reasonable comparison can be made by plotting
the pressure versus the radial displacement. The pressure at any time in the
analysis is equal to the product of the load proportionality factor and the
magnitude of the distributed load. Detailed instructions to create the pressure
versus the radial displacement curve from the Riks analysis results are provided
below. Your plot should look similar to Figure W24. (Note the axis labels in this
figure have been customized.)
a. In the Results Tree, expand the History Output container underneath the
output database named balloon.odb. Select the radial displacement (U1)
variable for the set N_OUT. Click mouse button 3, and from the menu that
appears, select Save As. Name the X-Y data OgdenN3-U.
b. Click mouse button 3 on the load proportionality factor (LPF) variable;
from the menu that appears, select Save As. Name the X-Y data
OgdenN3-LPF.
c. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
d. Choose Operate on XY data as the source and click Continue.
e. In the Operate on XY Data dialog box, select combine(X, X) from the list
of operators. Select OgdenN3-U and click Add to Expression. Repeat
this for OgdenN3-LPF. If necessary, edit the expression to use the load
magnitude specified earlier for the model (this is not necessary if you used
a load magnitude of 1.0). The final expression is:
combine( "OgdenN3-U", "OgdenN3-LPF"* load_magnitude )
where load_magnitude is the magnitude of the pressure load you applied.
f. Click Save As and name the X-Y data OgdenN3-PvU.
g. Plot both curves (Ogden and OgdenN3-PvU) simultaneously.

Figure W24 Inflation pressure vs. radial displacement of rubber balloon.

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Fitting Case 2
Ogdens analysis reveals that for a single-term Ogden strain energy function with
23 3, a maximum inflation pressure exists but no minimum pressure exists.
For such values the pressure reaches a maximum and then decreases eventually to
zero.
Question W22: Can you confirm this numerically?
1. Set N=1 on the *HYPERELASTIC option and check the value of (look for
ALPHA_I in the .dat file).
2. Rerun the analysis.
3. Compare the results using the Visualization module.

Fitting Case 3
Suppose that not all three types of test data are available and all we have is the
uniaxial test data:
1. Make a copy of the input file.
2. In the new file, delete the biaxial and shear test data.
3. Fit the hyperelastic constants with OGDEN, N=3.
4. Rerun the analysis.
Question W23: Are the results of the simulation realistic? Are the results
different if we fit the hyperelastic constants to the biaxial test
data only? Why?
Note: With the biaxial test data only, Abaqus fails to
converge on the material coefficients when Ogden N = 3;
use Ogden N = 2.
5. Calibrate the following material models with just the uniaxial test data:
a. Yeoh
b. Reduced Polynomial, N = 2
c. Arruda-Boyce
d. Van der Waals with = 0
e. Marlow
Note: The Marlow model requires that the test data include a data point
corresponding to zero stress at zero strain. You must add this point to the
uniaxial test data to use this material model.
Rerun each to simulate the balloon inflation.
Question W24: What can we conclude from all this?

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Note: Complete input files are available for your convenience. You may
consult these files if you encounter difficulties following the instructions
outlined here or if you wish to check your work. The input files are named
ball_ogden1.inp
ball_ogden3.inp
ball_uni.inp

and are available using the Abaqus fetch utility.

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Notes

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Workshop Answers 2

Inflation of a Spherical Balloon

Keywords Version

Question W21: How do you pressurize the shell model, given that as the balloon is
inflated the applied pressure increases to a maximum and then
further inflation is achieved with a reduced pressure?

Answer: The Riks method must be used when a structure has a negative
slope in the global force-deflection curve (a global instability). With
the Riks method both the displacement and load applied to a
structure are considered unknowns.

Question W22: Can you confirm this numerically?


Answer: Yes. When the Ogden model with N = 1 is calibrated the value of
is set to 2.16. With this value of no minimum pressure is
attained. Instead, the pressure continues to drop asymptotically to
zero. This confirms Ogdens result (at least at one value of ).

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Question W23a: Are the results of the simulation realistic?

Answer: No. The Ogden N = 3 model calibrated with only uniaxial test data
produces results that are much too stiff.

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Question W23b: Are the results different if we fit the hyperelastic constants to the
biaxial test data only? Why?

Answer: Yes. When we use just the biaxial test data to curve fit our Ogden
hyperelastic material model the pressure vs. radial displacement
curve looks good out to about 40 cm of radial displacement. The
reason for this is coincidentalthe deformation mode in spherical
balloon inflation just happens to be almost exactly that of
equibiaxial tension. In fact, some researchers use a disk inflation
experiment to measure equibiaxial tension stress-strain
relationships.

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Question W24: What can we conclude from all this?


Answer: Simulating complex multiaxial behavior with hyperelastic models
that are calibrated with only uniaxial data can be very difficult, and
using the wrong energy potential can give very inaccurate results.
As a general rule, when only limited test data is available, one
should use a simple material model, preferably an I1-based model.
All of the I1-based models tested here (Arruda-Boyce, Yeoh,
reduced polynomial N = 2, Van der Waals, and Marlow) do a
reasonable job in this case out to about 40 cm of radial
displacement (see the figure below). The results past 40 cm of
radial displacement vary widely because we are extrapolating past
the end of our uniaxial experimental data.

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Workshop 3

Time Domain Viscoelasticity

Keywords Version
Note: This workshop provides instructions in terms of the Abaqus
Keywords interface. If you wish to use the Abaqus GUI interface instead,
please see the Interactive version of these instructions.

Please complete either the Keywords or Interactive version of this


workshop.

Goals
When you complete this workshop, you will be able to:
Obtain an N-term Prony series fit to given relaxation data.
Examine this fit numerically and graphically for N = 1, N = 2, and N = 3.
Modify an input file to conduct a shear-relaxation analysis in Abaqus/Standard.
View the shear relaxation modulus versus time in Abaqus/Viewer for N = 1
and N = 3.
Define the temperature-dependent viscoelastic properties, and demonstrate the
effect that raising the temperature has on the relaxation curve.
Attempt gross time integration of viscoelastic equations by using a large CETOL.
Simulate a simple shear creep test and the effects of using a large CETOL.

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Introduction
The following is a normalized shear relaxation modulus for polycarbonate of bisphenol
taken approximately from Mercier (1965)1:

Shear relaxation modulus Time (seconds)


1.0000 .01
0.8913 .1
0.6310 1.
0.1995 3.981
0.0631 12.589
1.585E-2 31.622
7.943E-3 100.
3.548E-3 398.1
1.995E-3 10000.

Table W31 Normalized relaxation modulus for polycarbonate of bisphenol.

Figure W31 Normalized relaxation modulus vs. time.

1
Mercier, J. P., Journal of Applied Polymer Science, vol. 9, pp 447-459, 1965.

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Problems

Problem 1: Viewing relaxation data with Abaqus/Viewer


Go to the viscoelasticity/workshop directory.
1. The normalized shear relaxation data for polycarbonate of bisphenol is located in
the file bis_cur.inp. Look at the contents of this file.
2. Start an Abaqus/Viewer session.
3. Create an X-Y plot of the relaxation data in file bis_cur.inp. Detailed
instructions are provided below.
a. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
b. Select ASCII file as the source, and click Continue.
c. Next to the File field, click Select to browse for the file bis_cur.inp.
The X-values (time) should be read from field 2, and the Y-values (shear
relaxation modulus) should be read from field 1.
d. Set the X-axis quantity type to Time and the Y-axis quantity type to
Stress.
e. In the XY Data From ASCII File dialog box, click Save As. Name the X-Y
data BIS, and click OK.
f. In the XY Data From ASCII File dialog box, click Plot and then click
Cancel.
g. From the main menu bar, select OptionsXY OptionsCurve (or click
in the toolbox).
a. Toggle on Show symbol, and set the symbol size to Large. Dismiss the
dialog box.

Question W31: What is wrong with the curve?

4. Use logarithmic scales for both of the X-Y plot axes.


a. Double-click the X-axis to open the Axis Options dialog box.
b. In the Scale tabbed page of the dialog box, choose the Log scale type
with 8 minor ticks per decade.
c. Repeat for the Y-axis (simply select the Y-axis in the Axis Options dialog
box, and make the changes).
d. Enter Normalized Relaxation Modulus as the Y-axis title.

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Problem 2: Obtaining a Prony series fit


Next, you will run datacheck analyses to obtain a Prony series fit to the above data.
The file relax0.inp is the basis for a shear relaxation simulation in Abaqus/Standard,
although it is not complete. For now we will run the file to find the Prony series
parameters to fit the BIS curve.
1. Copy relax0.inp to the file relax_data1.inp, and modify the file to give
the material an instantaneous shear modulus of 100 and a Poissons ratio of
0.499 (must set MODULI=INSTANTANEOUS on the *ELASTIC option). Note
that there is a dummy static step in the file.
Note: The relationship between the shear modulus G, Young's modulus E, and
Poissons ratio is G E 2 (1 v) .
2. Add the viscoelastic properties to relax_data1.inp using the
VISCOELASTIC, TIME=RELAXATION TEST DATA option and *SHEAR
TEST DATA suboption. Add the shear test data according to the table listing the
normalized shear relaxation modulus for polycarbonate of bisphenol. Specify
NMAX=1 so that a fit with N larger than 1 is not attempted.
Be careful to place the data into the correct table columns. You can copy the data
from bis_cur.inp and paste it into your input file.
3. Conduct a datacheck analysis (we do not need the analysis results). Look at the
file relax_data1.dat. There is an error because the Prony series was not good
enough within the required tolerance. Search for ROOT to get to the right place
in relax_data1.dat. Notice the RMS percentage error. Abaqus still lists the
Prony parameters, however.
You will now look at how the given one-term Prony series fits the normalized
relaxation curve.
4. The file prony_prog.f (prony_prog.for on Windows systems) is a
FORTRAN program that takes Prony series parameters and writes the normalized
shear relaxation modulus versus time to a file.
Compile this program with the Abaqus make utility,
abaqus make job=prony_prog

and then execute the program:


abaqus prony_prog

Now enter the Prony series parameters for the N=1 fit we obtained (these
parameters will come from the data file relax_data1.dat where they are
labeled GP(TI) and TI). Then, specify some values of time in the table and
see how good the fit was. Observe, in particular, the fit for t=12.589.
The program does nothing more than evaluate the Prony series form for the
normalized shear relaxation modulus in terms of time:

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N t i .
g R (t ) 1 gi (1 e )
i 1
5. Enter a negative value of t to continue with the program, and write out the
normalized shear relaxation modulus for 30 intervals of time in the range
1E-2 seconds to 1E4 seconds. Write the data to the file n1.cur.
6. You can now compare the results of the Abaqus model with N=1 and the
experimental data using Abaqus/Viewer.
a. In the Results Tree, double-click XYData.
b. Select ASCII file as the source, and click Continue.
c. Next to the File field, click Select to browse for the file n1.cur. The X-
values (time) should be read from field 1, and the Y-values (shear
relaxation modulus) should be read from field 2.
Note: The order of the data pairs in n1.cur (time then shear relaxation
modulus) is the opposite of the data pair order in bis_cur.inp.
d. Set the X-axis quantity type to Time and the Y-axis quantity type to
Stress.
e. In the lower left corner of the dialog box, click Save As. Name the X-Y
data N1, and click OK.
f. In the XY Data From ASCII File dialog box, click Cancel.
g. Expand the XYData container of the Results Tree, select both BIS and N1,
and click mouse button 3. From the menu that appears, select Plot.
The output should look like the graph below:

Figure W32 Comparison of Abaqus model with N=1 to experimental data.

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The plot seems to indicate that the fit is good for the first four data points, but after that
the fit is poor. However, the logarithmic scale for the Y-axis (which represents the stress
in a relaxation test) tends to exaggerate the misfit for very small values of gR at large
times and understate the misfit at large values of gR.

Question W32: How much should the total stress change as a fraction of the
initial stress after t=100 in a relaxation test?

7. Try making the Y-axis linearly spaced, and assess the fit again.
a. Double-click the Y-axis.
b. In the Scale tabbed page of the Axis Options dialog box, choose the
Linear scale type. Click OK.
The fit is not very good even for the second data point.
8. Modify relax_data1.inp to remove the NMAX restriction (a default
restriction of 13 points will be applied). Run another datacheck analysis.

Question W33: Does this procedure find a satisfactory set of Prony


parameters? Abaqus tries N = 1 and N = 2 before going to
N = 3.

9. Run the program prony_prog again, enter the data for N = 2, and write the data
to a file named n2.cur. Then run prony_prog with the data for N = 3; write the
data to a file named n3.cur.

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10. Now read curves N2 and N3 into Abaqus/Viewer, and display all the curves again.

Figure W33 Comparison of Abaqus models with N = 1, 2, and 3


(log scale for normalized modulus).
The long-term behavior is somewhat off for all of the Prony series fits. We can
specify the long-term modulus exactly by using the SHRINF parameter on the
SHEAR TEST DATA option, although this will not necessarily produce a better
overall fit.

Question W34: Is the curve for N = 3 really better than the curve for N = 2? Is
the fit for N = 3 good enough after t = 100? (View it with a
linear Y-axis scale.)

We had a crude set of data points for the original curve. The curve-fitting
procedure for the Prony parameters only fits to the given data points; i.e., those
marked by a circle in the graph.

11. Try to obtain a better fit by tightening the tolerance with the ERRTOL parameter
(try ERRTOL = 0.001). The parameters for N = 7 to N = 13 are not listed because
they contain negative moduli.
Here is a graph of the various fits with a linear Y-axis scale:

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Figure W34 Comparison of Abaqus models with N = 1, 2, and 3


(linear scale for normalized modulus).

Problem 3: Simulating a relaxation test

1. Copy the file relax_data1.inp to relax1.inp, and modify the file so that the
first step puts the element into simple shear with a positive shear strain of .01
(move only nodes 3 and 4). Now add a VISCO step with an initial time
increment of 1E-2 and a total time of 1000. Use a CETOL parameter of 0.05E-2
to allow automatic time incrementation. (This value for CETOL was arrived at as
follows: the total creep strain when the material relaxes fully will be .01, which is

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equal to the instantaneously applied shear strain. We can force at least 20


increments by taking CETOL to be .01/20.) Finally, on the *VISCOELASTIC
option set NMAX=1, and adjust the ERRTOL parameter in such a way that this
single Prony series parameter will be accepted (e.g., set to 0.1).
The shear modulus of 100 was chosen so that the shear stress in this test will
coincide with the normalized shear relaxation modulus:

R
G (t ) 0
G0 g (t ) 0
.

We have contrived G0 0 = 1 so that we can read the normalized shear modulus


gR ( t ) as .
2. Run relax1.
3. When the job completes, create a plot of the shear stress S12 in element 1 versus
the step time, using data only from the second step.
a. In the Results Tree, expand the History Output container underneath the
output database named relax1.odb.
b. From the list of output variables, select Stress components: S12.
c. Click mouse button 3; from the menu that appears, select Save As. Name
the X-Y data S1 and click OK.
d. In the Results Tree, expand the XYData container, and double-click S1 to
plot the curve.
4. Copy relax1.inp to relax3.inp, and remove the NMAX and ERRTOL
parameters from *VISCOELASTIC. Run relax3.
5. Repeat the procedure given above to define curve S3 using the data in
relax3.odb.
6. Plot curves N1 and S1 together (select both in the XYData container of the Results
Tree, click mouse button 3, then select Plot from the menu that appears).

Question W35: Are the results from the viscoelasticity analysis true to the
Prony series defined for it?

7. Similarly, compare curve S3 with curve N3. The data points for curve S3 can be
viewed by using the XY Curve Options in Abaqus/Viewer.
The integration of the viscoelastic equations is very accurate.

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Problem 4: Simulating the effects of temperature-dependent relaxation data


1. Copy the file relax3.inp to relax_hot.inp. You will use this file to model a
relaxation test under the following conditions: the relaxation data are assumed to
be applicable to 20 C, the relaxation test is carried out at 70 C, the material has
the time-temperature transformation properties of the rubber material referred to
in Lecture 10, and the time constants for the WLF shift function have already
been worked out to refer to 20 C ( 0 = 20, C1=6.106, C2=146.6).
The input file must be modified to include the TRS option (after the
SHEAR TEST DATA option/data), and the required constants must be added.
In addition, assign an initial temperature of 20 C to all nodes with the
INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=TEMPERATURE option, and raise the
temperature to 70 C in the static step. The VISCO step is as before, except that
you will have to specify a minimum time increment of 1.E 10 to prevent
premature termination of the analysis due to small time increment sizes.
2. Run the job, and read the shear stress into the curve S-HOT. Plot this against the
curve of your choice.

Question W36: What do you notice? What is the value of the time shift? Does
it correspond to the calculated value in the notes?
Figure W35 shows the normalized relaxation moduli versus time.

Figure W35 Effect of temperature on viscoelastic response.

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Problem 5: Determining the effects of time integration in a relaxation


analysis
Copy the file relax3.inp to relax_coarse.inp, and modify the new file so
that the CETOL parameter is so large it will never restrict the time step. Set the
initial time increment to 100 seconds, and run the analysis. Now read the shear
relaxation modulus into curve S3-COR, and compare it to curve N3 or S3.
The viscoelastic equations were integrated very well despite the coarseness of the
integration and the complexity of the relaxation response.

Question W37: Why did the integration procedure produce good results with
such large time increments?

Problem 6: Determining the effects of time integration in a creep analysis


1. Copy the file relax3.inp to creep.inp, and modify this file so that it
conducts a creep test rather than a relaxation test; that is, it subjects an element to
constant shear stress. Subject the element to a constant shear stress of 0.01, using
an appropriate CLOAD, and use CETOL=.05E-4. Use the same time limits as
before.
2. Copy creep.inp to creep_coarse.inp. Modify this file so that the time
integration is very coarse. (Use a very large CETOL, and specify an initial time
increment of 100.)
3. View the shear strain response (E12) in Abaqus/Viewer, and compare the results
of the two analyses.
You will see small differences in the strain response at the output times because
the total strain no longer varies linearly with time. Nevertheless, the creep
integration is still quite good.
Your results should produce curves similar to the ones shown in Figure W36
(with both scales linear).

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Figure W36 Effect of time integration on viscoelastic response in Abaqus.

Note: Complete input files are available for your convenience. You may
consult these files if you encounter difficulties following the instructions
outlined here or if you wish to check your work. The input files are named
relax_data1.inp relax_hot.inp
relax_data3.inp relax_coarse.inp
relax_data_err.inp creep.inp
relax1.inp creep_coarse.inp
relax3.inp
and are available using the Abaqus fetch utility.

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Workshop Answers 3

Time Domain Viscoelasticity

Keywords Version
Question W31: What is wrong with the curve?

Answer: It has linear scales. It should have logarithmic scales.

Question W32: How much should the total stress change as a fraction of the initial
stress after t=100 in a relaxation test?

Answer: The normalized relaxation modulus is reduced to 0.0079 % at 100


seconds. Therefore, the stress in a relaxation test should also be
0.0079 % of the instantaneous value after 100 seconds.

Question W33: Does this procedure find a satisfactory set of Prony parameters?
Abaqus tries N=1 and N=2 before going to N=3.

Answer: Yes, a reasonably satisfactory set of parameters is calculated.

Question W34: Is the curve for N=3 really better than the curve for N=2? Is the fit
for N=3 good enough after t=100? (View it with a linear Y-axis
scale.)

Answer: The distinction between the N=3 curve and the N=2 curve can be
misleading on the logarithmic scale. When viewed on a linear scale,
the differences appear to be very minor.

Question W35: Are the results from the viscoelasticity analysis true to the Prony
series defined for it?

Answer: Yes.

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Question W36: What do you notice? What is the value of the time shift? Does it
correspond to the calculated value in the notes?

Answer: The relaxation modulus at the elevated temperature is much smaller


than the value at 20 C. The time shift is 0.03, which corresponds to
the value calculated in the lecture on Time-Temperature
correspondence. You can verify this using the Operate on XY data
Abaqus/Viewer functionality (Results Tree: double-click XYData).
Use the following expression to multiply the time data of the S3
curve by 0.03: swap(swap("S3")*0.03). The resulting curve
is very similar to S-HOT, as expected.

Question W37: Why did the integration procedure produce good results with such
large time increments?

Answer: The viscoelastic equations are integrated exactly when the total
strain varies linearly over an increment. In this case the strain is
constant. Thus a large CETOL will not affect the accuracy of a
simple stress-relaxation problem.

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Notes

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