LTNIT 27 INTRODUCTION TO ROMANTIC

POETRY
Structure
Objectives
Introduction
Background to the Romantic Movement
Definition of Romanticism
Salient Features of Romanticism
Early Romantic Poets
27.5.1 James Thomson (1700-1748)
27.5.2 Mark Akenside (172 1-1770)
27.5.3 Joseph Warton (1722-1800)
27.5.4 William Collins (1721-1759)
27.5.5 Thomas Gray (1716-71)
27.5.6 William Cowper (1731-1800)
Robert Burns (1759-1796)
27.6.1 The Use of Folk Song
27.6.2 Themes
27.6.3 Form
27.6.4 Vocabulary
27.6.5 Rhyme
27.6.6 Love Poems
William Blake (1757-1827)
William Wordsworth (1770-1850)
27.8.1 Wordsworth's Theory of Poetry
27.8.2 Wordsworth's Practice of his Theory
27.8.3 Wordsworth's Partnership with Coleridge
S.T. Coleridge (1772-1834)
The Second Generation of Romantic Poets
27.10.1 Lord Byron (1788-1824)
27.10.2 P.B. Shelley (1 792-1822)
27.10.3 John Keats (1795-1821)
Summing Up
Questions for Comprehension
Suggested Reading
Answers to Exercises

27.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this unit are to:

1) '
provide a comprehensive view of the Romantic Movement, its beginnings, its
sources of inspiration, its important features, its major figures and their
contributions.
2) enable you to analyse, identify and appreciate Romantic poetry, and
3) make you realise the importance of the Romantic Movement in English
literature as a significant and fruitful literary epoch.

27.1 INTRODUCTION
-.

This unit introduces you to the Romantic Movement in England. It deals with the
political, social, literary and other factors which brought about this movement; it
considers various definitions of the term, 'Romanticism'; it devotes a good part to a
discussion of the salient features of Romanticism. The work of the early romantic
poets is covered in section 27.5. Then the major romantic poets and their
Romantic Poets contribution to the movement are discussed in detail. After providing an account of
Robert Burns's use of the folk song and William Blake's use of mysticism and
symbolism, the unit moves on to the major figures of the Romantic Movement in
England, William Wordsworth and Samuel Tylor Coleridge, who are deemed to be
the pioneers of Romantic poetry in English. After a brief survey of Wordsworth's
work, his theory of poetry as stated in the Preface (1800) to Lyrical Ballads is
examined critically. The literary partnership between Wordsworth and Coleridge and
'
their later differences are considered with reference to Coleridge's Biographia
Literaria. The deviations from his stated principles in the actual writing of
Wordsworth's poetry are briefly illustrated. A section is set apart for Coleridge's
poetry and criticism. The last section of the unit introduces you to the second
generation of Romantic poets, Byron, Shelley and Keats.

The lesson provides self-check exercises at the end of each important section so that
you can assess your comprehension of the material presented. Questions covering the
entire lessoil are given at the end of the unit.

The major points discussed in the lesson are recapitulated briefly in "Summing up"
The unit concludes with a suggested reading list which is a selected and annotated
bibliography relevant to the subject matter of the unit.

27.2 BACKGROUND TO THE ROMANTIC MOVEMENT

Historians of English Literature have designated the period from 1798 to 1832 as the
Romantic period. Wordsworth and Coleridge published Lyrical Ballads in 1798; Sir
Walter Scott died in 1832. Also, the Reform Bill which extended the right to vote to
the middle class and labourers was passed by Parliament in 1832. During this period,
England moved from a primarily agricultural to a modem industrialized society.
Thus the balance of power passed on fiom the land-owning aristocracy to the owners
of industrial units which employed large numbers of people. The mill-owners and
their employees had developed different perspectives. In the political arena there
were revolutions of far-reaching consequences to England: The American
Revolution led to the Declaration of Independence (1776) by the thirteen colonies.
The French Revolution was a shattering and sundering event which affected the
whole of Western Europe in several ways,

The French Revolution received enthusiastic support in the beginning fiom the
liberals and radicals in England. The Declaration of the Rights of Man by the French
National Assembly was welcomed. Edmund Burke disapproved the events in France
in his Reflection on the Revolution in France (1790). Tom Paiiie issued a spirited
rejoinder to Burke in his Rights ofMan (1791-92). Tom Paine pleaded for a '
democratic republic for England by peaceful or violent means. Another book,
Inquiry Concerning Political Justice (1793) by William Godwin made a great impact
on Wordsworth, Shelley and others. Godwin predicted that eventually all property
would be distributed equally and all government would disappear. Later events in the
French Revolution, notably the execution of the royal family, the guillotine of
innocent people during the Reign of Terror, and Napoleon's dictatorship disenchanted
the early supporters.

The economic sphere also saw great convulsions. The manufacturing class became
more powerful than the agricultural class. With the .invention of James Watt's steam
engine which replaced wind and water as sources of energy in 1765, there was a
revolutionary change in the means and pace of production. The population of
England was becoming either owners and traders or wage earners without property.
Thus the people were effectively divided into the rich and the poor. With the
introduction of more machinery into industry, there was more unemployment. The
, soldiers demobilised after the French wars aggravated the labour m'kkef. There was
an economic depression in 1815 caused by the fall in 'wartime demand for
manufactured goods, These political, economic and social factors caused agftations
and riots by the working class. The ruling class responded by more repressive
measures. The unrest culminated in passing the Reform Bill which met thc political
of at least some sections of the population.

There were important developments in other spheres also. Capt. Jaines Cook
circumnavigated the globe (1768-7 1) and discovered Australia and the Sandwich
Islands. Fascinating accounts of life in the South Seas led to a re-thinking on the
nature of society and the political systems. Ocean travel became safer with Cook's
accurate charting of the coastlines.

The exploitation of new markets in India and elsewhere gave a fillip to commerce.
This in turn led to the development of industry and tcchnology. The disseinination of
ideas kept pace with the improvements in the conlmunications network. The
pamphlet became a powerful means for debating controversial issues. For instance,
the debate on the French Revolution was conducted through pamphlets. Eventually
the pamphlet was replaced by the periodical for debate on political rcforms further.
Parliamenta~yRefoim was inspired by the achievement of the middle class in France.
Public opiilion in England favoured representation to big towns leading to the
passage of the Reform Bill.

The Romantic writers lived through such inomentous changes in the political,
economic, social and literary spllcres. The idea of revolution informed the Roinantic
Movement from the beginning. Many inajor writers of this period were aware that
great changes were taking place around thein and that these changes would inevitably
find their way into literature also. The French Revolution seeined to be the great
divide and the beginning of a new era in thc history of mankind. William Hazlitt
rightly observed in his book, Tlie S'jirit of llze Age. "There was a mighty ferment in
the heads of statesmen and poets, kings and people.. .. It was a time of promise, a
renewal of the world - and of letters".

The French Revolution swept away time-honoured hierarchies in different spheres.

The new slogans, liberty, equality and fraternity promised a free and egalitarian
society. Monarchy was abolished and the feudal structure was demolished, The
principle of the dissolution of hierarchies carried into literature ineant that the epic
and tragedy which were at the top of the literary pyramid had to yield place to such
forms as the lyric, the ode and the ballad. In language, the cultivated speech of the
elite was sought to be replaced by the speech of the common people. In the choice of
themes, gl-eat events had to make way for inore coinmonplace incidents. The
characters depicted in poetry need not be kings or queens; humbler folk like a leech-
gatherer, or a highland lass, or even an idiot boy, is good enough for poetic
composition. Thus the French Revolutioil caused a democratisation of literature in
genre, in language, in themes and in characters. The spirit of the age den~aildedthese
changes and the creative writer responded enthusiastically,

Self-check Exercise 1

1. Which years specify the Romantic period in English literature?

2. What is the special significance of these years in English literary or political

history?
!
Roniantic Poets Name two important changes which occurred in the political and economic
3.
spheres in this period.

4. What is Tom Paine's theme in Rights ofMan?

5. What did Godwin predict in his book?

6. Explain briefly the impact of the French Revolution on literature.

27.3 DEFINITION OF ROMANTICISM

The term, 'Romanticism', is controversial. F.L. Lucas, in his book, 7Ze Decline and
Fall of the Romantic Ideal (1948), counted as many as 11,396 definitions. The term
comes from the name, 'Rome'. In the seventh and eighth centuries there were three
main languages in Europe;(l) lingua Latina which was the language of the scholars,
(2) lingua barbara which was the language of Germanic tribes, and (3) lingua romana
rustica which was a group of vulgar Latin dialects from which the Romance
languages, namely, French, Italian, 'Spanish, Portuguese and Rumanian are derived,
The term, 'Romantic', is related to the Romance languages, the peripheral tradition,
rather than to Latin, the main tradition.

The term, 'romantic', was first used in the late seventeenth century to describe
paintings with certain bizarre qualities. When Le Tourneur referred to Shakespeare
as a romantic writer, he meant that the English playwright was not a neo-classic
writer. What is meant by a romantic writer is one who insists, implicitly or
otherwise, on his own uniqueness. In the Age of Reason, many writers said that they
represented their age. Thiswas not so with the Romantics. Wordsworth and
Coleridge who worked together for sometime never applied the term, "romantic", to
themselves. Goethe defined "classic" as good health and "romantic" as sickness.
This distinction is more psychological than aesthetic and it has received much
currency. Around 1800, when Madame de Stab1introduced German romantic
literature into France,~sh~stressed the medieval and chs~stianqualities in that
literature. These qualities replaced rationalism and agnosticism of the Age of
Reason. She felt that the aridity of the eighteenth century was over and that the new
literature celebrated the open heart. Heine, the German poet, held an opposite view.
Victor Hugo described romanticism as 'liberalism in literature'. The important point
is that romanticism has political overtones.

The term implies a literary and philosophical theory which tends to see the individual
at the very center of all life and all experience. The individual is placed at the center I
of art. Literature is therefore an expression of his unique feelings and particular
attitudes.
I

A
As Thrall and his associates say, romanticism, "places a high premium upon the Introduction
creative function of the imagination seeing art as a formulation of intuitive
imaginative perceptions that tend to speak a nobler tilth than that of fact, logic, or the
here and now." Romanticism spread through most of Western Europe in the
and nineteenth centuries. It affected literature, art, music, philosophy,
religion and politics.

1t may be more easy to understand the tenn, 'romanticism', by examining its salient
features in the next section.

Self-check Exercise 2

1. Explain the origin of the term, 'Romantic'.

2. What was implied in Le Tourneur's description of Shakespeare as a

romantic?

3. How did Goethe differentiate the two terms, 'Classic', and 'romantic'?

4. What features of romanticism did Madame de Stadl identify in Gernian

romantic literature?

5. What is Victor I-Iugolsdefinition of romanticism?

27.4 SALIENT FEATURES OF ROMANTICISM

Romanticism is opposed to the artificial conventions, the reigning literary tradition
and the poktic establishment. The Neo-classical theory of poetry conceived it as
imitation and as something acquired by training. The function of poetry, according to
this view, is to instruct and to please. Art is a mirror in which we find a reflection of
life. For the Romantics, the source of poetry is the poet himself. As Wordsworth
puts it, poetry is a "sportaneous overflow of powerful feelings". It is an inborn gift
and not something acquired. Poetry is the expression of emotion. The poet's
imagination creates poetry. The traditional view that poetry is a painstaking
endeavour is discarded by the Romantics. Blake thought that poetry comes from
inspiration, vision and prophecy. Keats said that poetry should come "as naturally as
the leaves of a tree".
Xonlnfrtic Poets
Romantic poets made daring innovations, in the themes, forms, language and style of
poetry. Lowly and eccentric characters like an idiot boy or a leech gatherer are
material for poetic treatment by Wordsworth. Supernatural themes are used by
Coleridge (The A~zcientMariner) and Keats (The Eve of St. Agnes). Romantic poetry
often deals with the "far away and long ago", exotic places and forgotten events
figure in Romantic Poetry. It draws inspiration fiom folk literature and the literature
of the Middle Ages and of classical antiquity. Yet another innovation is the use of
symbolist techniques, notably, by Blake and Shelley. The latter poet's "West Wind"
and "Skylark" are good examples.

The Romantic poets displaced humanity by external nature as poetic subject-matter.

Thus the description of landscape and its aspects become prominent. In fact, poets
like Wordsworth saw in nature the power to chasten and subdue. While neoclassic
poetry is written on other people - Pope's The Rape ofLock is an example - Romantic
poetry is about the poet himself. The latter is highly subjective. The Romantic poets
also had a fascination for solitary figures, social non-conformists, outcasts and rebels
such as Prometheus, Cain, Don Juan and Satan.

Another significant innovation is the use of everyday speech of ordinary people

instead of lofty poetic diction. We shall discuss this in detail later. The Romantic
poets looked for new metres and stanzas to replace traditional forms. The heroic
couplet gave place to the ballad, the sonnet, the Spenserian stanza and other
experiinental verse fonns. Rural life is idealized in Romantic poetry. The wild, the
irregular and the grotesque in Nature and art fascinated the Romantic poets. Taboo
themes like incest are used without any inhibition. Conformity to tradition and
decorum as observed by the earlier generation are no longer respected.

Classicism and Romanticism are generally considered somewhat antithetical.

Classicism is concerned with the social, the formal, the intellectual and the static
whereas Romanticism is concerned with the individual, the inforillal, the emotional
and the dynamic. For instance, the common qualities, not the differences, of
individuals figures in classical literature. Joseph Addison's Sir Roger is a basic
human type. But the Romantics took their cue fiom Rousseau who said, "If I'm not
better than other people, at least I'm different". The Neo-classical writers were
interested in conformity, formality, acceptance of approved standards and patterns of
behaviour. Careful workmanship is the hallmark of classicisn~.The unities are
preserved by the classical writers whereas the Romantic writers do not observe them.
Classicism focusses on the intellectual, romanticism on the emotional. The former is
interested in' describing static scenes in Greek sculpture whereas the latter attempts to
catch the transient moments. Keat's "Ode on a Grecian Urn" depicts the activities of
people etched on a static urn.

Thus the Romantic Movement was a revolutionary movement in many ways.

Self-check Exercise 3

1. Explain the basic difference between the Neoclassical and Romantic theories
of poetry.

Name two important innovations in Romantic poetry.

 What type of themes and characters are chosen by the Romantic poets? Introduction
3.

4. What Poetic forms were favoured by the Romantics?

Explain the antithetical relationship between classicism and Romanticism.

27.5 EARLY ROMANTIC POETS

Some of the features of Ronlanticism which we discussed above are seen much
earlier than 1798 in a number of poets:

27.5.1 James Thomsoll (1700-1748) took a deep interest in nature. His poem, "The
Seasons" (1730), evokes interest in the processes of nature. He is fascinated
by the fearful aspects of nature such as floods and stoims. He is described as
"a poet of pictorical landscape". E-Ie spealcs of the interactions between man
and Nature in "Tlze Seasorts". The great variety and beauty ofNature move
him deeply. The following lines remind LISof Wordsworth:

Now the soft Hour

Of walking comes for him who lonely loves
To seek the distant Hills, and there converse
With Nature, there to harmonize his Heart,
And in pathetic Song of breathe around
Th.e harmony to Otllers.
("Tlze Seasons", 11, 1379-84)

27.5.2 Mark Akenside (1721-1770) was another fore-runner of Wordswortll. He

attempted to revive the Greek forms of the lyric. E-Iismost importailt poem, "T11e
Pleasztre of Imagination" (1744) is at once didactic and descriptive. The poet sees
that the beauty and harmoily of all nature is shown directly to the purified intellect:

Once more search, undismayed, the dark profound

Where nature works in secret; view the beds
Of min'ral treasure, and th'eternal vault
That bounds the hoary ocean; trace the forms
Of atoms moving with incessant change.
Their elemental round; behold the seeds
Of being, and the energy of life
Kindling the mass with ever-active flame:
Them to the secrets of the working mind
Attentive turn;
"The Pleasure ofIrnaginatiorr". Book I ,11 5 12-52.

27.5.3 Joseph Warton's (1722-1800) "Tlze E~rthusiast"(1744) presents Rousseau's

primitivism and the Romantics' love of the antique. It speaks of the cohmunion with
nature, the superiority of the Noble Savage and the idyllic innocence of the New
World:
Ronznrrtic Poets
Happy the first of Men, ere yet confin'd
To smoky cities; who in sheltering Groves,
Warm caves, and deep-sunk Vallies liv'd and lov'd
By Cares unwounded.

"The Enthzrsiast", 11. 78-81) .

27.5.4 William Collins (1721-1759) exercised pervasive influence on almost all the
Romantic poets. He finds that landscape evokes ideas and emotions. He p a r t i c u l ~ l ~
loves Nature at twilight. His "Ode to Evening" is the forerunner of Keats's "To
Autumn". Romantic tendencies such as a return to the past and anti-intellectualism
may be noticed in his "Ode on Popular Superstitions". Coleridge is impressed with
Collins's use of superstitions and classical legends. Collins's favourtie theme of the
twilight scene is illustrated in the following lines:

Now Air is hush'd, save where the weak-ey'd Bat,

With short shrill Shriek flits by on leathern Wing,
Or where the Beetle winds
His small but sullen Horn,
As oft he rises 'midst the tw"light Path,
Against the Pilgrim born in heedless Hum:
"Ode to Evening", 11.9-14

27.5.5 Thomas Gray's (1716-71) well-known poem, Elegy Written in a County

Churchyard, pays attention to nature and humble life which are dear to the Romantic
poets:

Now folds the glimmering landscape on the sight,

Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight,
And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds;
(1 1.5-8)

Gray's later writings indicate the swing in the taste towards Medieval literature and
Scandinavian folklore. His letters anticipate the Romantics' love of scenery and
nature. He records the different moods of nature in charming detail. Such .
descriptions paved the way for Wordsworth's memorable descriptioils of nature.
Here is a short piece from Gray:

"In the evening walked alone down to the lake by the side of Crow Park after sunset
and saw the solemn colouring of night draw on, the last gleam of fading away on the
hill-tops, the deep seiene of the waters, and the long shadows of the mountains
thrown across them, till they nearly touched the hithermost shore. At distance heard
the murmur of many waterfalls not audible in the daytime".
(Journal in the Lakes)

27.5.6 William Cowper (1731-1800) is yet another precursbr of romanticism. For

him, love of Natur'e and religious worship are related activities. 'He believes that
contemplation in the midst of Nature will bestow wisdom more easily than will .
reading of books. He prefers the beauty of the countryside, he portrays Nature in his
poems. Cowper also attacks Alexander Pope for his "smoothiless" and advocates the
'manly rough line'. This idea is later developed by Wordsworth. Cowper 'anticipated
the romantic generation in his p~liticalliberalism, in his humanitarianism, and most
of all in his sympathetic and faithful rendering of external nature". Contrasting the
rural with the urban scene, he wrote:
I

God made the country, and man made the town, ,

I

What wonder then that health and ~irtue,'~ifts

That can alone make sweet the bitter draught
I
 That life holds out to all, should most abound Introduction
And least be threatn'd in the fields and groves?
("77ie Task", Book I. 11.749-753).

1. What particular features make Thomson akin to Romantic poets?

2. What Romantic trait is noticeable in Akenside's poetry?

3. Which principle of Rousseau do you observe in Warton?

4. . . What Romantic teildencies in Collins won the appreciation of Coleridge?

5. In what particulars can Gray's Eiegy be called Romantic?

6. What is the justificatioil for calling Cowpel-a precursor of Romanticism?

27.6 ROBERT B U m S (1759-1796)

Burns is the most beloved poet of the Scots; he is also a symbol of their national
spirit. He was interested in a number of things which were later considered
essentially romantic tendencies. He was steeped in Scottish folklore; he loved
freedom; he respected the common man; He was attracted by nature; swimming
against the current in his time, he believed that elnotion was a better guide than
reason.

27.6.1 The Use of Folk Song

Scottish patriotism in the eighteenth century longed for independence and unity. It
seized upon any symbol of its uniqueness. Burns went in search of the Scottish .
ballad tradition both to oppose and reject the English culture. He is probably the best
eighteenth c e n t u , ~example of the influence of folk poetry on the mainstream English
poetry. There are twb tendencies in Burns's life:
Romantic Poets the cultivated tradition of polite poetry in the eighteenth century.
I.
2. peasant poetry about peasants among whom he lived.

Bums did not believe in any rules of composition. His poetry was strongly
influenced by folk poetry. The folk elements in his poetry are:

27.6.2 Themes

The themes are generally death, birth, youth, old age, love and grief. Seasonal
activities like harvesting and May dances and seasonal chsnges like snowfall are also
used. Settings and dramatic situations are often stylized. Tableaus repeating certain
fixed scenes occur in folk poetry.

The form of folk poetry is that of a debate, a series of riddles or tests. Birds and
flowers are given human qualities. Number three is significant; three riddles, three
actions, etc.

The vocabulary is simple. Many stock phrases, are used. Because of the oral origins
of folk poetry, stock phrases and patterns aided the memory of the oral poet. Formal
devices such as the refrain impose limits on language in folk poetry and indicate its
origin in dance.

27.6.5 Rhyme

Folk poetry is not rigid in its use of rhyme as Neoclassical poetry was. Assonance,
alliteration and internal rhyme are common in this poetry. Observe these poetic
devices in the following line of Burns:

There Wild Woods grow and rivers row.

There is variety in rhyme schemes. The metre in folk poetry is flexible.

Bums wrote many traditional and also original songs, but he wrote only three long
poems. There was a movement favouring the short, pointed lyric.

Bums wrote a poem entitled "To a Mouse", which is certainly a lowly subject.
Writing on such subjects was against the grain of Neo-classicism. b o t h e r poem,
"The Cotter's Saturday Night", shows his interest in the humble people. He had
sympathy for the oppressed, sharing the ideals of the French Revolution. He had
expressed dangerous sentiments such as the following just before the Revolution:

A fig for those by law protected!

Liberty's a glorious feast!
Courts for cowards were erected,
Churches built to please the priest.
("The Jolly Beggars", 11.292 ff)

Bums expressed strong patriotism for Scotland: he revolted against religious

orthodoxy; he satirized Presbyterian and Calvinist faith in Scotland in his poems.
"Holy Willie's Prayer" and "The Holy Fair". He is thus a precursor of the later
Romantic poets like Shelley who re-examined religious belief in a more serious way.

27.6.6 Love Poems

Bums's greatest poems are his love poems. They are also influenced by folk poetry.
Repetition as a poetic device to produce an incantatory effect may be found in: MY
Luve is like a Red, Red Rose". Neo-classical poets like Pope avoided repetition for Introduction
the sake of economy and for the progression of ideas.

Another poem of Bums, "Ye Flowery Banks" is a lament which presents a native
view of nature. In this girl's song, the traditional rose-thorn image is used to indicate
loss of chastity. Happy nature is contrasted with the melancholy speaker and there is
a return to the place of former happiness. Bums resorts to suggestion rather than
direct statement in this as well as in other poems. These are all intimations of
Romanticism.
The range of Bums's love-songs is great. He could write of love from his personal
experience and from a woman's point of view. He could write of love in old age with
equal charm. Male protectiveness appears repetitively in many of his love songs
including "A Red, Red Rose". Patriotism is another recurring theme in his songs.
"Auld Lang Syne" is called "the world's greatest song of human fellowship and
friendship".
Though Bums's poetry is based on local people and situations, he is not a 'regional'
poet in any narrow sense. He stresses the elemental, the universal and the permanent
moods and thoughts in all humanity. He used the real language of man as he found it
in the folk literature of his country and thus showed the path to Wordsworth. His use
of lowly subjects and simple diction was a worthwhile example to Wordsworth and
through him to other Romantic poets.

Self-check Exercise 5
1.. What Romantic tendencies are present in Burns's poetry?

2. To which age did Burns belong chronologically?

3. Mention one symbol of Scottish patriotism which Burns sought passionately.

- -- -- -

4. What are the contradictory but concurrent tendencies in Bums's poetry?

-
- - - - -

5. What are the principal themes of folk poetry.

6. Explain briefly the formal features of folk poetry.

Romantic Poets
7. What is the purpose of using stock phrases in folk poetry?

What poetic devices are frequently found in folk poetry?

How can we say that Bums sympathised with the French Revolution?

10, What intimations of Romanticism db you find in Bums's love poems?

27.7 WILLIAM B L A m (1757-1827)

We shall now discuss William Blake, but only briefly, because there is a separate unit
on him in his block. He was hardly known in his lifetime, but now he has a
respectable place among English poets and artists. He was an engraver at a time
when that art was losing its popularity.

Blake was a man of vision who saw ultimate truth at moments of great illumination.
Vision is for him the great secret of life. Ilis entire work - poetry or painting - is an
attempt to develop this faculty of vision so that man may see to understand and
thereby forgive and act rightly.

His Songs of Irrnocence (1789), created through a new process called "illuminated
printing1', are examples of originality. He equated his extreme sense of freedom and
happiness to the condition of childhood. In these poems, he says that childhood is the
original state of happiness, self-enjoyment and unity. In his Songs of Experience
(1794) he expresses his deep indignation at the hypocrisy and cruelty in the world. In
The Marriage ofHeaven and Hell, he affirms the re-integration of the human soul
divided by Innocence (Heaven) and Experience (I-Iell) through Imagination.

Blake's poetry and painting are didactic. He wanted people to free themselves from
convention and tradition and to depend on their own intuition to realize their
potential. The mystical tone, the symbols, the revolutionary ideas and the newness of
his art made people think that he was a lunatic. Ile was more revolutionary in
themes, diction and technique than Burns or Wordsworth, but his genius was not
recognised in his lifetime. He carved a place for himself in World literature because
he swam against the current by defying reason in an age of Reason and because he:
gave importance to intuition and imagination in an age of scientific skepticism.

. Self-check Exercise 6 \

1. What, in Blake's view, is the importance of the faculty of vision?

 I
What is the relationship between innocence and experience as Blake sees it? Introduction
r 2.
,

3. How did Blake's views go against the prevailing ideas?

27.8 WILLIAM WOWSWORTW (1 770-1850)

Wordsworth is a prominent leader of the Romantic Movement in England. He
supported the French Revolution in its early phase, but his liberalism gradually
dwindled, In 1795, he met S.T. Coleridge and this meeting was beneficial to both of
them. They jointly authored Lyrical Ballads (1798) which is considered to.be the
beginning of the Romantic Movement in England. On the urging of Coleridge,
Wordsworth explained the guiding principles of this new movement in his preface to
1 the second edition of the book published in 1800. (We shall discuss the preface in
detail in the next section). In addition to many lyrics, Wordsworth wrote The Prelude
(1850), a sort of spiritual autobiography as its subtitle, "The Growth of a Poet's
Mind," indicates. As the tille suggests the Prelude is the first of a three-part poem
The Recluse. The second part entitled The Excursion was published in 1814, but the
I
third part was never written.

Wordsworth is better known for his short poems like "Tintein Abbey" and
"Immortality Ode" than for his long and ambitious works. "Tintem Abbey" recounts
three stages in the development of the poet's love of nature; (1) sensuous animal
passion, (2) moral influence, and (3) mystical communion. "Michael" deals with the
I
sturdiness of character and nature's healing power. The five "Lucy Poems" are also
I
popular. In "Ode on Intimations of Immortality", Wordsworth attributes a child's
wisdom and glory to the unconscious memory of a previous life. "Resolution and
I Independence" is yet another inemorable poem. Wordsworth influenced modem
thinking on the natural goodness of childhood, the moral value of simple living and
the inspiring and healing powers of nature. Wordsworth seems to have attempted to
I translate into action both in his life and in his work the principle: "Simple living and
I
I
high thinking". (A separate unit on Wordsworth discusses in detail his poetic
1 achievement).

27.8.1 Wordsworth's Theory of Poetry

Wordsworth's observations prefixed to Lyrical Ballads, generally called "Preface" to

the second edition of 1800, is his manifesto in which he discusses a number of issues
related to the art of poetry. These issues include the nature of poetry, the creation of
poetry, the impact of the poem on the reader, and the difference between the language
of prose and the language of poetry. The poet's views on these important topics are
scattered throughout the preface and we have to piece together what he had said on
each question,

First, the question of the subject matter.' "Incidents and situations fiom cominon life" ,

are chosen. Wordsworth thought that rustic and humble life is better suited for "the
essential passions of the heart". He believed that the emotions of the rural people are
simpler, purer and perhaps better than those ofstbecity-dweller. He also thought that
people living in the midst of nature have a better moral attitude, and they become part
of the sense of divinity present in nature.
Ronrantic Poets
The second innovation is the use of "a selection of language really used by men".
Wordsworth attacked the so-called poetic diction of an earlier generation. Poetic
diction is a painstaking invention and hence far removed f;om the living speech of
ordinary people. The common speech or a selection of it, Wordsworth felt, is more
appropriate to describe the incidents and situations from common life. Throughout
the preface Wordsworth repeatedly states that "simple and unelaborated express'ions~~
as his choice. "My purpose was to imitate, and as far as possible, to adopt the very
language of men; and such personifications [of abstract ideas] do not make any
natural or regular part of that language."

Wordsworth finds a moral justification for poetry. The aim of the poet, in his view, is
to correct men's feelings, to render these feelings more consonant with eternal nature.
A poet provides us with spiritual exercises in order to give us new feelings and make
our feelings more sane and pure.

The creative process is explained by Wordsworth in the following words:

"Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings; it takes its origin fiom
emotion recollected in tranquillity; the emotion is contemplated till, by a species of
reaction, the tranquillity gradually disappears, and an emotion, kindred to that which
wasbefore the subject of contemplation, is gradually produced, and does itself
actually exist in the mind. In this mood successful coinposition generally begins, and
in a mood similar to this it is carried on."

Implicit in this explanation of how poetry is created is a psychological approach.

Wordsworth discussed the difference between the language of poehy and the
language of prose. He says: "It may be safely affirmed that there neither is, nor call
be, any essential difference between the language of prose and metrical composition."
This is a major point of disagreement between Wordsworth and Coleridge. Simila ly,
Wordsworth's views on metre are questioned by Coleridge. According to
Wordsworth metre is a kind of restraining iniluence. By its regularity, metre holds
passion in check. Also, metre seems to give poetry a kind of unreality:
"The end of poetry is to produce excitement in co-existence with an overbalance of
pleasure... Now the co-presence of something regular.. .cannot but have great
efficacy in tempering and restraining the passion by an intertexture of ordinary
feeling, and of feeling not strictly and necessarily connected with the passion".

The Romantics give a high place to the poet; they endow him wilh the ability to
speak to other men. Wordsworth asserts:

"He [the poet] is a man speaking to men; a man, it is true, endowed with more lively
sensibili~,more enthusiasm and tenderness, who has a greater knowledge of human
nature, and a comprehensive soul than are supposed to be common among mankind;"

A poet is related to other men who have the same ingredients, but the poet has them
in greater measure.

Thus the preface discusses a wide range of topics concerning poehy and the .
innovations which Lyrical Ballads has introduced.

Self-check Exercise 7

1. What are the three stages in the development of Wordsworth's attitude to

nature in "Tintem Abbey?"

r
 2. Why did Wordsworth choose rustic life as his subject matter?
-- --

-- - - -

Explain Wordsworth's views on the use of the language of common people.

What, according to Wordsworth, is the aim of the poet?

5. How did Wordsworth explain the creative process of poetry'?

6. What is the difference between the language of poetry and the language of
prose in Wordsworth's view? Is it valid?

7. What is the role of meter in poetry, according to the "preface"?

' 8. What is the position of a poet in society? How does he compare wit11
ordinary men?

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27.8.2 Wordsworth's Practice of his Theory

For all his commitment to "the language really used by men" Wordsworth could not
help using archaisms, words of Latin origin, and inversion of normal word order in
several of his well-know poems including "Immortality Ode" and The Prelude. For
instance in "Immortality Ode", he used "apparelled" and "celestial", in The Prelude
he used "recreant", "inscrutable", "discordant" which are polysyllabic words derived
from Latin. Then there are archaisms like 'shod' (shoe) 'deigned (desired) 'springles'
(traps). There are also inversions, of word order in plurases like "by the vision
splendid'! for the sake of rhyme. In "Resolution and-Independence", we have:

"Himself he propped, limbs, body, and pale face,"

Or again, "Motionless as a cloud that old Man stood".
Ronlantic Poets Wordsworth must have realized that the demands of his poetic art are more important
than a rigid adherence to his theory as enunciated in the "Preface" to Lyrical Ballads.

27.8.3 Wordsworth's Partnership with Coleridge

Wordsworth and S.T. Coleridge met in 1795. Coleridge spotted talent in Wordsworth
and praised him as "the best poet of the age". The two fkiends met almost daily,
discussed poetry, and composed large quantities of poetry. Their association was so
close that the same phrases occur in the poems of both. They collaborated in some
poems; they exchanged thoughts and lines of poetry. Coleridge helped Wordsworth
in completing the latter's unfinished poems. Lyrical Ballads was the fruit of this
extraordinary partnership. The famous "Preface" of 1800 was also a result of
consultation between the two poets.

Of the two sorts of poetry based on the theme, Coleridge agreed to choose the
supernatural and Wordsworth the ordinary. Accordingly, Coleridge wrote "The
Ancient Mariner" and Wordsworth wrote many of his poems for the Lyrical Ballads,

However, serious differences developed between the two on important questions.

Coleridge did not'agree with many parts of the "Preface". He objected to thein as he
considered them "erroneous". Soine of Wordsworth's statements appeared to
contradict "other parts of the same preface and the author's own practice in the greater
number of the poeins themselves". One such question was the difference between the
language of poetry and that of prose. Wordsworth thought that there was no essential
difference between the two. Coleridge thought they were different. He argued that
metre is essential for poetry which implies passion.

27.9 S. T. COLERIDGE (1772-1834)

Since there is a separate unit on Coleridge, we shall briefly touch upon the major
achievements of Coleridge here. He was a man of many parts; poet, philosopher,
journalist, preacher, lecturer, playwright, literary critic and literary theorist. He
pioneered a movement against the mechanistic psychology of the eighteenth century.
More than the other Romantics, he recognised the supremacy of imagination as a
creative power. Biogrnphia Literaria (1817), is a seminal work dealing with his
philosophy of poetry and a critical statement of Romantic ideas. It is in this book that
he explains how hehad dea-k with the supernatural in his poetry. He attempted to
give "a semblance of truth sufficient to procure for these shadows of imagination that
willing suspension of disbelief for the moment which constitutes poetic faith".

Coleridge tries to differentiate between the two key terms, 'fancy' and 'imagination' in
the same book. He called irnagination the "shaping and modifling" power, fancy, the
"aggregative and associative" power. The former "struggles to idealize and to unify",
while the latter is only "a mode of memory emancipated from the order of time and
space". To illustrate his point, Coleridge said that Milton had a highly imaginative,
mind whereas Cowley had a fanciful one. Imagination itself is of two kinds, primary
and secondary. Primary imagination, in Coleridge's view, is the organ of common
perception through the senses, secondary imagination is poetic vision. The latter one
is the faculty that the poet ideally exercises. Fancy seems to correspond with the
eighteenth century notion of wit in poetry the faculty that enables the poet to put
together metaphors and similes. Coleridge criticizes the mechanical sort of apparatus
in poetry, exemplified by the fancy, which the imagination transcends. The use ofthe
secondary imagination is a mystical operation. The secondary imagination mediates
between.man and nature and indicated the organic unity of the universe. Coleridge's
discussion of Wordsworth's faults and merits is a balanced presentation. I-lis criticism
of Shakespeare and other Elizabethan playwrights is of great value. He attempted to
find "the essences of Shakespeare's ideas to discover the laws that a great work of art
creates within itself'. He explained the nature of poetic expression and sought to
 ahswer the question 'What is poetry"? His views on criticism are particularly Introduction
significant as he was also an accomplished poet. '

Coleridge is remembered for three poems, The Ancient Mariner, Kubla Khan and
Christabel. All the three have the stamp of originality, all of them arise from the
w ~ l of d dreams, the subsonscious. The Ancient Mariner is a ballad with memorable
i h g c s and phrases. Kubia Khan is a vision poem seen in an opium dream.
Christabel is a poetic fragment which evokes the medieval atmosphere through
suggestion.

As a literary theorist and as a poet, Coleridge made original contributions and his
influence in these two areas is permanent.

Self-check Exercise 8
I

1. What are Wordsworth's shortcomings in practising his theory?

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2. What are the positive aspects of Wordsworth's collaboration with Coleridge?

I 3. What are the points of disagreement between Wordsworth and Coleridge?

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4. &plain Coleridge's ideas on fancy and imagination.

I 5. What is Coleridge's contribution to criticism?

27.10 THE SECOND GENERATION OF ROMANTIC

POETS
'lhm poets Byron, Shelley and Keats, belong to the second generation of Romantic
I poets. Although they ao not belong to a school, they have many resemblances. They
I w a e a11 "rebellious geniuses" who were not recognized or understood in their country
and time. All of them died young before they could realize their full potential. They
1 ore thus "the inheritors of unfulfilled renown".

I 27.10.1 Lord Byron (1 788-1824)

Byron's rep~tationas a poet and'as a personality outside his own country was
immense. He had influenced several French and German poets. His life itself was
like a romantic poem and he is the hero of his poems. The 'Byronic hero" has
Ronrantic Poet? become a critical term to describe a youthful, daring, passionate, cynical, moody and
rebellious figure. This type appeared first in Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, a long
poem which describes in Spenserian stanza, a tour in which Ihe hero contemplates on
the decaying monuments of European civilization and on human achievement. Byron
describes the famous Coliseum in the following words:

Arches on arches! as it were that Rome,

Collecting the chief trophies of her line,
Would build up all her triumphs in one dome,
Her Coliseum stands.
(CXXVIII)

An example of Byron's cynical view of history is given below:

There is the moral of all human tales;
'Tis but the same rehearsal of the past,
First Freedom, and then Glory - when that fails,
Wealth, Vice, Conupti011 - barbarism at last.
(CVIII)

Byron was unlike other Romantic poets except, perhaps, Shelley. Also, he did not
have much respect for the others because of his aristocratic background. Augustan
wit and elegance suited his elitist tastes better than rustic life and common speech.
He had great admiration for Alexander Pope unlike several romantic poets. He felt
that measured against the poetic practice of Pope, he and his contemporaries were "all
in the wrong; one as much as another.. . we are upon a wrong revolutionary poetical
system, or systems, not worth a damn in itself".

Byron's forte is his verse satire which is not surprising because of his admiration for
Pope and other Augustan writers. English Bards and Scotell Reviewers (1 809)
written in the popular Augustan verse form of the heroic couplet is brilliant. Don
Juan (1818-21) written in ottava rirna is an unfinished satire. It is described as a
picaresque novel in verse in which a variety of themes, styles and tones are used.
Considered Byron's best, Don Juan is a criticism of life. Goethe called it "a work of
a boundless genius". Byron states his poetical preferences and prejudices thus:

Thou shalt believe in Milton, Dryden, Pope,

Thou shall not set up Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey,
Because the first is crazed beyond all hope,
The second drunk, the third so quaint and mouthy
With Crabbe it niay be difficulty to cope,
(CCIV)

The lone-of the poem is characteristic of Byron's verse satires. In Don Juan "he
sought to depict life in the comic spirit, to strip off the tinsel of sentiment and
illusion".

His other verse satires are Beppo and The Vision oj'Jzrdgment. FIe also wrote two
powerful dramas, Manfred and Cain. Russell Noyes says: ''By the measure of his
titanic energy and his impassioned self assertion, Byron has given us a more potent
expression of 'raw and naked humanity' than all the romantic poets put together.. .He
has given us masterly pictures of love, hate, patriotism, honour, disdain, revenge,
remorse, despair, awe, mockery".

27.10.2 , P.B. Shelley (1792-1822)

Shelley had very radical ideas; he was an idealist. He believed that mankind can be
made perfect; tyranny can be abolished, freedom can flourish in all walks of life. He
has hardly any equal as a lyric singer.
The main theme of much of his work is that when tyranny and suffering are Introduction
eliminated from this world and reaqon and love are given impoitance, then the Soul
of the Universe, The Spirit of Love wodd be reveled. This is the theme of his most
ambitious work, Prometheus Unbound (18 18-19).

Shelley, like Blake, was a poet of prophecy and of vision. "Ode to the West Wind''
concludes with the prophecy:

If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?

Adonais (1821) is a pastaral elegy written in Speilserian stanzas on the death of

Keats. Genius like that of Keats, unfortunately, is misunderstood. The critics hated
Keats and that killed him. Adonais is regarded as one of the two or three great
elegies in English.

Like Wordsworth Shelley spent a good deal of time in the contelnplation of natural
phenomena. He believed that Nature was the outward manifestation of the inner,
divine beauty. He called the inner reality, 'Light', 'Beauty' of 'Sustaining Love' and he
tried to identify himself wit11 this.

Shelley was fascinated with clouds, wind, waterfalls and such other natural
phenomena. They became symbols of great significance to him. The cloud
represents the cyclic mutation of water and it also symbolises mutability and
permanence inherent in the human spirit.

Light and sound attracted him. He found music everywhere; in fact, he heard a 'vast
universal symphony': His own aspirations, his own poetic fervour are like the skylark a

which soars above scorning the ground. And the music of the skylark's song would
inspire

Such harmonious madness

From my lips would flow
The World sl~ouldlisten then.

Shelley's "A Defence of Poetry" written as a response to Thomas Love Peacock's.

"The Four Ages of Poetry", supplements Wordsworth's "Preface" to Lyrical Ballads.
Shelley's Platonic ideas find expression in the "Defence". He says that the poet
reveals the noumenal World to mankind. The word, 'poet' as used by Shelley,
includes all artists, and1even philosophers. The artist is a superior being. M
improves imagination and so it is useful. Shelley asserts in the "Defence". "Poets are
the unacknowledged legislators of the World".

('here are two units on Shelley in the next block).

27.20.3 John Keats (1795-1821) .

Among the Romantic poets, John Keats's dedication to poetry was tot& Wordsworth
and Coleridge were both interested in philosophy which deflected their attention;
Blake's didactic intention coloured much of his work; Byron moved away from
poetry to active participation in the liberation of Greece; Shelley's poetry and political
beliefs were closely linked, But Keats strove hard throughout his brief career to
achieve the essence of poetry.

"On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" written in his twenty-first year may be
called his poetic efflorescence, In "Sleep and Poetry" he spoke of his poetic
aspirations and his dedication to poetry. "Endymion" was written to compete with
Shelley in writing a long poem. "Hyperion" was an ambitious venture a la Paradise
Lost.
Ronratttic Poets Keats wrote his most important poems in a period of nine months, January to
September 181 9. These are: Tlze Eve of St. Agnes, La Belle Dame Sans Merci, all the
six great odes, and Lalrlia.

Keats presents all experience as a mass of inseparable and irreconcilable oppoites:

Melancholy dwells with Beauty; the dividing line between love-and death is thin. He
believes that the great end of poetry is
that it should be a friend
To sooth the cares and lift the thoughts of man.
Keats's letters are an "indispensable accompaniment to [his] poetry". They contain
some of his germinal ideas such as "negative capability". In a letter to his brothers,
he sa;rsl' "The excellence of every art is its intensity, capable of making all
disagreeables evaporate, from their being in close relationship with Beauty and
Truth". His letters also show his concern for suffering and evil in the World. He
does not accept traditional philosophy or institutional religion as an adequate
palliative for the "complexity and contradictions of experience."

, Not many poets including Shakespeare and Milton could write such distinguished
poetry at the age of twenty-four when Keats's poetic career practically came to an
end.
Keats published fifty-four poems in his life-time, another ninety-six worlis were ,
published posthumously; his letters number about 300. This is an unmatched
achievement within a short period of three years. Keats attempted a variety of poetic
forms; Romance in Hyperion and The Eve ofst. Agnes, epic in Hyperion. He wrote
different kinds of lyric: Hymn in Hynzn to Pan, the ballad in La Belle Dame Sans
Mel-ci, the sonnet in "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer" and in the famous
odes. Lainia was composed in heroic couplets in the manner of Dryden.
The Pre-Raphaelite movement owes its origin to Keats's La Belle Dame Sans Meuci.
Browning, Tennyson, Hopkins and Yeats have acknowledged their debt to Keats.
Because of his achievement as a.poet and his wide-ranging and ever-growing
influence Keats deserves to be called the "Poet's Poet" an appellation Charles Lamb
gave Edmund Spenser in a different context.
Self-check Exercise 9
1, How is Byron different from the other Romantic poets?

2. What are Byron's affinities with the Augustan Poets?

3. What are some of the basic beliefs of Shelley?

4. What does the cloud represent for Shelley?

- I
 What is the usefulness of poetry as stated by Shelley in his "Defence"? Introduction

6. What, according to Keats, is the aim of poetry?

7. What is the usefulness of Keats's letters?

8. What is the justification for calling Keats, the "Poet's Poet"?

27.11 SUMMING UP
This unit makes an attempt to give you a comprehensive and concise view of the
Romantic Movement in England.

Keep the definition and features of Romanticism in mind while reading the poems of
the Romantics. Also, try to examine Wordsworth's principles and his actual
practices.

You may also notice that although the Romantic poets have something in common,
each of them is unique in his own way. Each of them made his own distinctive
contribution to Romantic poetry.

27.12 QUESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

1. Discuss the political, social, economic and other factors responsible for the
Romantic Movement.
2. Explain the salient features of Romanticism.
3. Show how Thomson, Akenside and Collins are precursors of Romanticism.
4. What early intimations of Romanticism do you find in Robert Burns?
5. Discuss Wordsworth's theoiy of poetry.
6. Write a note on Coleridge's contribution to poetry and criticism.
7. Comment on the uniqueness of Byron and Shelley,
8. Write a note on Keats's achievement.

27.13 SUGGESTED READING -

The following books/articlcs will be useful for understanding the Romantic
~ovement:

Abrams, M.H. The Mirrar and the Lamp,1953 (An original work of criticism,
Discusses Romantic theory and critical tradition).
 "The Romantic Period". The Norton Anthology of English Literature, I1 1962.
(Useful introduction to the Romantic Movement).
Bloom, Harold. 7Ae Visionary Company, 1960. (Brief discussions of the important
poems are given).
Cazamian, Louis. "The Romantic Period". A History of English Literature, Part II,
Book V,1947.
(tan insightfill discussion of the features of romanticism and its practitioners).
CnIeridge, S.T. Biographia Literaria, 1817, Chapters XIV and XWI.
Recluired reading for students of Romanticism. Coleridge dwells on his
disagreements with Wordsworth.
Ford, Boris (ed.) From Blake to Byron. T7ze Pelican Guide to English Literature,
Vol. 5, 1957. Extremely useful for the study of the Romantic period.

Noyes, Russell. "Introductory Survey". English Ronzantic Poetry and Prose. 1956,
(Valuable ancl comprehensive introduction.)
Weinberg, Kurt. "Romanticism" in Prilzceton Encyclopedia ofpoetry and Poetics.
Ed. Alex Preminger, Enlarged edn. 1974.
(Comprehensive account of Romanticism throughout Europe.)
Wordswortl~,William. "Preface" (1800) to Lyrical Ballads.
(A seminal statement reprinted in many anthologies of criticism.)
--
27.1 4 ANSWER TO EXERCISES
SelfCheck Exercise I
1. 1798 to 1832
2. See 27.2, first four lines.
3. Extending voting rights to the middle class Growing importance of the
manufach~ringclass.
4. Tom Paine advocated a democratic republic for England through peaceful or
violent means.
5. See 27.2,second paragraph.
6. See 27.2 last paragraph.

Self-Check Exercise 2
/

1. See 27.3, first paragraph

2. See 27.3, second paragraph
3. See 27.3, second paragraph
4. See 27.3, second paragraph
5. See 27.3, second paragraph

Self-check Exercise 3
1. See 27.4, first paragraph
2. Read 27.4, second paragraph
3. Read 27.4, second paragraph
4. Read 27.4, fourth paragraph
5. Read 27.4, fifth paragraph

Self-check Exercise 4
1. See 27S.1
2, See 27.5.2
 11
3. gee 27.5,3 j
Introduction I!
4. See 27,S.d
5. See 27.5.5 first paragraph
6. See27.5.6

Self-check Exercise 5
1. See 27.6
2. The Augustan Age
3. The ballad
I
4. See 27.6.1
5 . See27.6.1.1
6, See 27.6.1.2
I
7. See 27.6.1.3
1 , 8. See 27.6.1.4, first paragraph
9. See 27.6.1.4 fourth paragraph
I 10. See 27.6.2, third paragraph
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Self-Check Exercise 6

I 1. See 27,7, second paragraph

I 2. See 27.7, third paragraph
I 3. See 27.7, fourth paragraph
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I Self-check Exercise 7
See 27.8, second paragraph
See 27.8.1, second par&$aph
See 27.8.1, third paragraph
See 27.8.1, fourth paragraph
See 27.8.1, fifth paragraph
See 27.8.1, seventh paragraph
See 27.8.1, seventh paragraph
See 27.8.1, concluding paragraphs.

Self-check Exercise 8
1. See 27.8.2, first paragraph
2. See 27.8.3, first paragraph
3. See 27.8.3, last paragraph
4. See 27.9, second paragraph
5. See 27.9, second paragraph

Self-check Exercise 9
1. See 27.10.1, second paragraph
2. See 27.10.1, third paragraph
3. See 27.10.2, first paragraph
4. See 27.10.2, fifth paragraph
5. See 27.10.2, iast paragraph
1
6. See 27.10.3, fourth patagraph
1 7. See 27.10.3, fiflh paragraph
1 4. See 27,10.3, last paragraph.

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