Course Content: Design of Sewers

Terminology
Methods of collection
Types of sewers
Design period
Variations in sewage flow
Estimation of wastewater discharge
Sanitary sewage and storm water.
 Introduction
Major difference between water mains and sewers :

Water Mains: Free from solid particles, Designed as

pressure conduits.

Sewers: Majority solid particles- organic and inorganic,

Designed as open channels thus laid according to gradient
to flow with gravity as far as possible.
 Introduction
Important terminology:
Storm water: Runoff percolation evaporation
Sewer: Underground conduits or drain to convey sewage
Sewage: Liquid waste from community Sullage, toilet waste etc.
Sewerage: System- science of collection and conveyance of sewage
Gravity Main: Conduits flowing due to gravity
Rising Main: Conduits which requires power to push flow against
gravity. (Pressure main!)
Invert:
Crown:
Non scouring velocity:
Self-cleaning velocity:
DWF: Dry weather flow
WWF: Wet weather flow
 Introduction
Sewage is water-carried waste, in solution or
suspension, that is intended to be removed from a
community.

Also known as wastewater, it is more than 99% water

and is characterized by volume or rate of flow, physical
condition, chemical constituents and the bacteriological
organisms that it contains.
 The system of pipes used to collect and carry rain,
waste water and trade waste away for treatment and
disposal is called the sewerage or the waste water
system.

There are three types of public sewers, each classified

according to the kind of wastes it is required to handle.
 Methods of Collection
Conservancy System: dry system
Rubbish , garbage, street waste separately
Night soil collected separately
Sullage and storm water in open drains
Water carriage system :
Sewage is collected and conveyed by water
Quantity of water 99.9% against solid matters
0.1% which remains in suspension
 Comparison
Conservancy System
Cheap in initial cost
Toilet cant be attached to room
Aesthetically bad
To bury excremental matter large area
required
Storm water in surface drain hence no
more additional pumping is required in
case of flood
Excreta is not removed quickly which
create nuisance after decomposition
Quantity of waste reaching to treatment
is less hence disposal without treatment
is also possible
Manpower is required-strike
Pollution to natural resource on disposal
of waste
Water-carriage system
High initial cost
Attached toilet is feasible
Aesthetically better
Less area compared to Conservancy
System
Problem during heavy flood to avoid
clogging of sewers in low area
Excreta is immediately removed with
water, hence no nuisance
Large quantity at end point requires
treatment before disposal
No manpower hence safe
Treated sewage is safe for natural
resources
 Combined sewers

Sanitary sewers

Strom sewers
Combined sewers

Combination public sewers are the oldest variety of

the three types of sewers and they are required to carry
storm and sanitary wastes to some safe terminal.

Rain water should be carried to some terminal not

associated with the disposal plant
Sanitary sewers

Sanitary sewers are those which are required to carry

domestic sanitary wastes only. All rain water must be
excluded from them.

Combination and sanitary sewers generally are placed

about 3 metre under the street grade and usually are
found below the centre line of the street.
Strom sewers

Storm sewers are a comparatively new installation,

made necessary because of sewage treatment.

These sewers are made to carry only storm water and

may terminate at any natural drainage area.
 Combined Sewer
Collects sanitary sewage & storm water run off in a single pipe
system.
Can cause serious water pollution problems due to combined
sewer overflows
Caused by large variations in flow between dry and wet weather.
This type of sewer design is no longer used in building new
communities.
 Sanitary Sewer
Used for transporting sewage from houses and commercial
buildings
Sanitary sewers serving industrial areas also carry Industrial
sewage.
Sanitary sewage is collected with the help of sanitary sewer line
The sanitary sewer is attached to a main sewer.
The main sewer runs directly to the sewage treatment plant.
Storm Sewer
A storm sewer collects storm water with the help of gutter &
catch basin
Gutter allow the storm water to drain from the street
directly into the storm sewer.
 Comparison
Separate System Combined System
Quantity of sewage to be treated is less Quantity of sewage to be treated more
due to inclusion of storm water
Suitable for area having more intensity Suitable for area having less intensity of
of rainfall rainfall
In case of pumping of sewage, it is more It is uneconomical for uneven
suitable topography
Two sets of lines are laid. It is more Overall cost is more
cheaper
Less degree of sanitation is achieved as High degree of sanitation is achieved
storm water is directly disposed off due to concentrated sewage.
without treatment
Narrow street, it is difficult More suitable
Highly wet area with less intensity , this It is more suitable
system is not suitable
Problems in sewer system

The per capita water supply (including the local and

individual sources) to the population is less than the
minimum requirement of water supply for the efficient
performance of the sewerage system, i.e., 100 LPCD.

This will cause the operation and maintenance

problems with frequent clogging, due to silting in the
absence of self cleansing velocity;
 The topography of the town is flat necessitating
deeper excavation of trenches and more number of
sewage pumping stations.

Either ground water table is high or the substrata are

made up of hard rock, leading to difficult construction
of sewerage system.
Sanitary sewer system

Public sanitary sewers perform two primary functions:

Safely carry the design peak discharge,

Transport suspended materials to prevent
deposition in the sewer.

Three types of sanitary wastewater collection systems

based on hydraulic characteristics and purpose:
 Gravity sewer system

Pressure sewer system

Vacuum sewer system

Gravity Sanitary Sewer
Most common.

Wastewater transported by gravity.

Used to collect wastewater from residential,

commercial, industrial, and institutional sources.

Conveyance capacity allowances must be made for

groundwater infiltration and unavoidable inflow.
Gravity sewer system
Conventional Gravity Sewer
Typical Layout of Gravity Sewer
 Pressure (Pumped) Sanitary Sewer

Economical and environmentally friendly way of

collecting, transporting and disposing of wastewater
from households.

They are often used in areas when the landscape is

either very hilly or very flat, in areas that regularly
flood or have high water tables, or where it is
impractical to install other types of sewerage systems.
 A pressure sewer system is made up of a network of
fully sealed pipes which are fed by pumping units
located at each connected property.

The pumping unit processes the household

wastewater and transfers it to the pressure sewer
located in the street via a small pipeline within the
property.
 The pressure sewer system is made of four key
elements. These elements are:

The pumping unit

The boundary valve kit

The house service line

The control panel

Pressure sewer system
Advantages
Being smaller in diameter are installed at shallower
depths than conventional sewers.
They need not be laid on a precise grade as in gravity
sewers, but can often go over hill below the hydraulic
gradient line.
Since there are no elements such as access manholes
and sewer line is under pressure, the inflow from
storm runoff is virtually eliminated.
The system is cheaper than conventional sewerage
where unfavourable conditions prevail.
Disadvantages
They are to be differentiated from the water supply
distribution system with proper colour code.

Awareness among the public is required about the

hazard risk of the pressure sewer system if they are
tampered.

Each and every house should have a collection sump

and pumping facilities.
Vacuum Sewerage System
The wastewater is being delivered by a gravity system
to the pre tank of the domestic shaft.

While the pre-tank being filled, an electronic sensor

opens the interface valve.

During the opening air flows into the mixing chamber

and is being mixed with the wastewater and leaves the
valve flowing into the vacuum pipe network as a water-
air mixture.
Vacuum Sewerage System
 There are also pneumatically controlled valves that
open and close depending on the vacuum in the pipe
network.

The vacuum pump produces a vacuum in the

wastewater collection tank as well as the pipe network
by which the wastewater is sucked from the pipe
network to the collection tank at the pumping station.
Vacuum sewer system
Sewer Pipes Profiles
Circular
Egg-shaped (inverted)
Egg-shaped
Mouth-shaped
Square
Trapezoidal
Sewer Pipes Materials
Concrete, Reinforced concrete, Prestressed concrete
Ceramics
Asbestos cement
Cast iron
Steel
Plastics - PVC, PE, PP, reinforced with fibre-glass
Resins - epoxy resin, reinforced with fibre-glass
PVC CONCRETE

CERAMIC
STEEL CAST IRON

RESIN
Design approach
Where does the wastewater come from?

How much wastewater flow is there going to

be?

How is the wastewater going to be removed

and treated?
Where does the wastewater come
from?
 Two main categories:

Sanitary Wastewater

Wastewater from residential, commercial,

institutional and industrial sources.
Storm water Runoff

Wastewater resulting from rainfall running off

streets, roofs, and other impervious surfaces.
 Components of a Communitys Wastewater

Domestic (sanitary) wastewater wastewater discharged

from residences and from commercial, institutional and
similar facilities.

Factors: Rate of water supply, population, type of area

served, groundwater infiltration.

Industrial wastewater wastewater in which industrial

wastes predominate.
 Infiltration/Inflow (I/I) extraneous water that enters
the sewer system from the ground through various
means, and storm water that is discharged from
sources such as roof leaders, foundation drains, and
storm sewers.

Storm water runoff resulting from rainfall and snow

melt
Infiltration to Sanitary Sewer Systems
Groundwater/percolating water in the subsurface
entering a sewer system through:
Defective pipes

Leaking pipe joints

Poor connections

Cracked manhole walls etc.

Inflow to Sanitary Sewer Systems

Water entering a sewer system from surface sources

such as:
Leaking manhole covers
Directly connected roof gutters
Cellar or foundation drains
Cross connections from storm drains and combined
sewers
Yard and area drains
Cooling-water discharges
Drains from springs and swampy areas
Street wash water
Sanitary Sewer Overflows

Heavy rains overload the system though inflow and

infiltration into cracks, ill-fitting joints, and leaky
manholes.

To prevent hydraulic overload of treatment plants, the

excessive sewage bypasses the plant and is discharged
without treatment.
Effects of SSOs
Environmental

Nutrients and toxicants may cause algal blooms and

harm wildlife. Algal blooms remove O2 from water,
smothering aquatic life.

Decrease in water quality reduces number and range

of plants and fish.
Public Health
Direct contact with water containing sewage can cause
skin and ear infections and gastroenteritis, and cuts
become infected.

Illnesses result from eating fish/shellfish that swim in

sewage contaminated waters.

Inhalation and skin absorption can also cause disease.

 Pattern of collection system
Perpendicular pattern:
Interceptor pattern:
Radial pattern:
Fan pattern:
Zone pattern:
How much wastewater flow is
there going to be?
Sources and Rates of Domestic
Wastewater Flows
Small residential districts wastewater flows
determined based on population density and average
per capita contribution of wastewater.
Large residential districts wastewater flows
developed based on land use areas and anticipated
population density (typically rates are based on
wastewater flows from nearby areas).
If data is unavailable, estimate 75-80% of the domestic
water-withdrawal rate is returned to the sanitary sewer
system.
 The quantity of sewage produced depends upon the
quantity of water use.
Generally;

Average daily flow = (75 80) % average water

consumption i.e.
Average Daily Flow (ADF) of Sewage = 75%
Average Daily Demand (ADD) of water consumption
= 0.75 ADD
 The flows in sanitary sewers vary seasonably monthly,
daily, hourly. For areas of moderate sizes be expressed as;
Maximum Daily Flow = 1.5 x ADF
Where

1.5 varies from place to place

Maximum hourly flow = (2 4) ADF
This is actually the peak flow
 Sewers are designed on peak flow basis, however the
minimum flow passing through the sewer is also
important in the design of a particular sewer because at
low flow the velocity will be reduced considerably
which may cause silting.
So the sewers must be checked for minimum
velocities at their minimum hourly flows.
Generally for a moderate area the following minimum
flows may be assumed.
Minimum Daily Flow = 2/3 ADF
Minimum Hourly Flow = 1/3 ADF
Relation Between water and waste water flow
Daily/Weakly variations in residential waste water flows for
dry/ wet periods
Typical hourly variations in residential area waste water flows
Average Wastewater Flows from Residential
Sources
Average Wastewater Flows from commercial
Sources
Industrial Wastewater Estimation
Industries without internal reuse programs:
approximately 85 to 95% of water used will be returned
to the sanitary sewer system.

Large industries with internal-water-reuse programs:

need data on how much water is reused internally.
Industry Production Unit Qty of water required/unit in Litres
Cotton-bleaching Tonne 250-300
Oil Barrel 700
Paper Tonne 175000
Rayon Kg 1-2
Steel Tonne 60000
Soap Tonne 4500-5000
Wool scouring Kg 12-14
Average Wastewater Flows from
Institutional Sources
Contd
How is the wastewater going to be
removed and treated?
Types of Sewer Pipes in a Typical Separate
Sanitary Collection System
Sanitary sewers must be laid near all occupied buildings in
order to collect wastewater.
Building Connecting Pipes
Connects the building plumbing to the public sanitary
wastewater collection system.
Convey wastewater from the buildings to lateral or
branch sewer, or any other sewer except another
building sewer.
Normally begins outside the building foundation
 Lateral or Branch Sewers
Forms the first element of a wastewater collection
system.
Usually in streets or special utility easements.
Used to collect wastewater from one or more
building sewers and convey it to a main sewer.

Main Sewers
Main sewers are used to convey wastewater from
one or more lateral sewers to trunk sewers or to
intercepting sewers.
 Trunk Sewers
Trunk sewers are large sewers that are used to
convey wastewater from main sewers to treatment
or other disposal facilities, or to large intercepting
sewers.

Interceptor Sewers
Intercepting sewers are large sewers that are used to
intercept a number of main or trunk sewers and
convey the wastewater to treatment or other
disposal facilities
Course content
Storm water-aspects
Hydraulic formulae
Hydraulic characteristics of circular sewer
in running full and partial full conditions
Maximum and minimum velocities in
sewer
Laying and testing of sewer
Sewer appurtenances and network
Design of Sewers
The hydraulic design of sewers and drains, means
finding out their sections and gradients, is generally
carried out on the same lines as that of the water
supply pipes.

However, there are two major differences between

characteristics of flows in sewers and water supply
pipes.
The sewage contain particles in suspension, the
heavier of which may settle down at the bottom of the
sewers, as and when the flow velocity reduces, resulting
in the clogging of sewers.

To avoid silting of sewers, it is necessary that the sewer

pipes be laid at such a gradient, as to generate self
cleansing velocities at different possible discharges.
The sewer pipes carry sewage as gravity conduits, and
are therefore laid at a continuous gradient in the
downward direction up to the outfall point, from
where it will be lifted up, treated and disposed of.
 Storm Runoff

Rational Formula

where,
Q : Runoff in m3/hr
C : Dimensionless runoff coefficient
i : Intensity of rainfall in mm/hr
A : Area of drainage district in hectares
 Percentage of Imperviousness of Areas

Source: CPHEEO 1993

 Percentage of Imperviousness of Areas

When several different surface types or land use

comprise the drainage area, a composite or
weighted average value of the imperviousness
runoff coefficient can be computed, such as:
I = [(A1I1)+(A2I2)++(AnIn)]/[(A1+A2+.+An)]
where,
I : Weighted average imperviousness of the total
drainage basin
A1, A2, An : Sub drainage areas
I1,I2,In : Imperviousness of the respective sub-
areas.
Hydraulic formulae
1. Chezys formula
where
V= is the mean velocity [m/s],
C= is the Chzy coefficient [m/s],
R= is the hydraulic radius (~ water depth) [m],
i= is the bottom slope[m/m].

Constant (C) is very complex.

Depends on size, shape, slope and roughness of
the channel, the mean depth etc.
C can be calculated by using Bazins formula.
C can be calculated by using Kutters formula
2. Bazins formula Where,
C = 157.6 K= Bazins constant
[1.81 + (K/R1/2)] R= hydraulic radius

Sr. No. Inside nature of the sewer K values

1. Very smooth 0.109
2. Smooth: bricks & concrete 0.290
3. Smooth: rubble masonry 0.833
4. Good, earthen material 1.540
5. Rough: bricks & concrete 0.500
6. Rough earthen material 3.170
3. Kutters formula

Where
C = Chzy's roughness coefficient
S = Friction slope
R = Hydraulic radius (m)
n = Kutter's roughness (unit less)
k1 =Constant (23.0 SI,)
k2=Constant (0.00155 SI,)
k3= Constant (1.0 SI,)
4. Mannings formula

V = Velocity of flow (m/s)

n = Mannings coefficient
R = Hydraulic radius (m)
S = Slope of the water surface

* The value of n is calculated by Kutters formula

5. Hazen Williams formula

where:
V is velocity
k is a conversion factor for the unit system k = 0.849
for SI units)
C is a roughness coefficient
R is the hydraulic radius
S is the slope of the energy line (head loss per length of
pipe )
6. Crimp and Burges formula
V = 83.47 R 2 / 3 S 1/ 2

Where,
V = Velocity of flow (m/s)
R = Hydraulic radius (m)
S = Slope of the water surface
 Densities of Population vs Populated Areas

Source: CPHEEO Manual 1993

 In cities where Floor Space Index (FSI) or Floor
Area Ratio (FAR) limits are fixed by the local
authority this approach may be used for
working out the population density.
The FSI or FAR is the ratio of total floor area
(of all the floors) to the plot area.
 Peak factor for Contributory Population

The peak factor also depends upon the density of

population, topography of the site, hours of water supply
and hence, individual cases may be further analyzed if
required. The minimum flow may vary from 1/3 to 1/2 of
average flow.
Source: CPHEEO Manual 1993
 Ground water Infiltration

The design infiltration value shall be limited to a

maximum of 10% of the design value of sewage flow.
 The densities of population may be worked out as in the
following example for an area of one hectare (ha)
Roads 20%, Gardens 15%, Schools (including playgrounds) 5%
Markets 2%, Hospital and Dispensary 2%
Total 44%
Area available for Residential Development = 100 - 44 = 56% or
0.56
Actual total floor area = Area for residential development x FSI
Assuming an FSI of 0.5 and floor area of 9 m2/person
Number of persons or density per hectare
 Example: A district having an area of 16
hectares with coefficient of relatively
impermeability as 0.75 has to be drained of by
sewer of 900 metres length laid at gradient of
1 in 300. The rainfall intensity may be
assumed to be of 10 to 20 minutes duration
and the time of entry at the sewer-inlet as 3
minutes. Design storm water sewer.
 Minimum Size of Circular Sewer

The minimum diameter : 200 mm for cities having

present / base year population of over 1 lakh.

Hilly locations, minimum diameter :150 mm

For similar velocity and depth of flow for the unit

length of a conduit, flow in sewer: steady flow
 Minimum Velocity for Preventing Sedimentation
Shields formula

where,
n = Mannings n
R = Hydraulic Mean Radius in m
KS = Dimensionless constant with a value of about
0.04 to start motion of granular particles and about 0.8
for adequate self cleansing of sewers
SS = Specific gravity of particle
dp = Particle size in mm
 Velocity required to transport material in sewers is
mainly dependent on the particle size and specific
gravity and slightly dependent on conduit shape and
depth of flow. The specific gravity of grit is usually in
the range of 1.2 to 2.65. Gravity sewers shall be
designed for the velocities as under

Source: WPCF, ASCE, 1982

 Minimum velocity of sewage
Pipe Diameter, mm Velocity of flow m/sec
Up to 225 0.90
225-600 0.75
Larger 0.60

Type of material Max. permissible velocity m/sec

Earthen Channel 0.60 to 1.2
Brick lined 1.5 to 2.4
Concrete 2.4 to 3.0
Stoneware 3.0 to 4.5
Cast iron 3.5 to 4.5
Vitrified tiles and 4.5 to 5.0
glazed bricks
 Example: A district, having an area of 40 hectares
with coefficient of relatively impermeability as
0.3 with projected population of 50,000 and daily
water supply 200 litres has to be drained by
sewer laid at gradient of 1 in 300. If the time of
concentration is 30 minutes. Design sewer line
for flow equivalent to the wet weather flow plus
twice the dry weather flow.
Assume that 75% of the water supply reaches to
the sewer as wastewater.
Mannings Formula for Gravity Flow

Q : Discharge in l/s
S : Slope of hydraulic gradient
D : Internal diameter of pipe line in
mm
R : Hydraulic radius in m
V : Velocity in m/s
n : Mannings coefficient of
roughness can be found by
Kutters formula
Note: Values of n may
be taken as 0.015 for
unlined metallic pipes
and 0.011 for plastic
and other smooth
pipes.
Source: CPHEEO, 1993
 Design Depth of Flow
The sewers shall not run full as otherwise the pressure
will rise above or fall below the atmospheric pressure
and condition of open channel flow will cease to exist.
Moreover, from consideration of ventilation, sewers
should not be designed to run full.
In case of circular sewers, the Mannings formula
reveals that:
The velocity at 0.8 depth of flow is 1.14 times the
velocity at full depth of flow.
The discharge at 0.8 depth of flow is 0.98 times the
discharge at full depth of flow.
Accordingly, the maximum depth of flow in design shall
be limited to 0.8 of the diameter at ultimate peak flow.
Hydraulic Element graph for circular sewers
Hydraulic elements of circular sewers that possess
equal self-cleansing properties at all depth
Hydraulic properties of circular sections for
Mannings formula
 Where,
D = Depth of flow (internal dia) d = Actual depth of
flow
V = Velocity at full depth v = Velocity at depth d
n = Mannings coefficient at full depth,
nd = Mannings coefficient at depth d
Q = Discharge at full depth q = Discharge at depth d
For practical purposes, it is not possible to measure
the value of nd and hence only the fixed value of
Mannings n shall be used.
Minimum slopes of sanitary sewers
Effects of Flow Variation on Velocity in a
Sewer

Due to variation in discharge, the depth of flow varies,

and hence the hydraulic mean depth (r) varies.

Due to the change in the hydraulic mean depth, the

flow velocity gets affected from time to time.

It is necessary to check the sewer for maintaining a

minimum velocity of about 0.45 m/s at the time of
minimum flow (assumed to be 1/3 of average flow).
The designer should also ensure that a velocity of 0.9
m/s is developed at least at the time of maximum flow
and preferably during the average flow periods also.

Moreover, care should be taken to see that at the time

of maximum flow, the velocity generated does not
exceed the scouring value.
 Example: Determine the velocity of flow in
sewer running half full. Sewer is laid at 1 in
400. The sewer is to be designed to serve a
population of 65000 with rate of water supply
150 litre per capita per day. Assume
Mannings constant: 0.011 and 75% of water
supplied enters to sewer as wastewater.
 Example: A stoneware sewer 45 cm in
diameter is laid at a gradient of 1 in 150. Using
Mannings formula calculate the velocity,
discharge and Chezys constant when sewer is
running full and half full. Take N=0.013 .
 Example: The main sewer was designed to serve an
area of 65 sq km with an average population of 215
person /hectare. The rate of water supply is 225 litre
per capita per day. The maximum flow is 50 % in excess
of the average together with the rainfall equivalent to
16 mm in 24hrs with 100% runoff. Determine design
discharge capacity of sewer.
Find minimum velocity gradient required to transport
coarse sand particle through 30 cm diameter with
particle size 0.4cm and specific gravity 2.40.
Take K=0.04 and f=0.03
 Example: The main sewer was designed to serve an
area of 65 sq km with an average population of 215
person /hectare. The rate of water supply is 225 litre
per capita per day. The maximum flow is 50 % in excess
of the average together with the rainfall equivalent to
16 mm in 24hrs with 100% runoff. Determine design
discharge capacity of sewer.
Find minimum velocity gradient required to transport
coarse sand particle through 30 cm diameter with
particle size 0.4cm and specific gravity 2.40.
Take K=0.04 and f=0.03