Crisis of the Third Century

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The divided Empire in AD 271.

The Crisis of the Third Century, also known as Military Anarchy or the Imperial
Crisis (AD 235284), was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under
the combined pressures of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression. The
crisis began with the assassination of Emperor Severus Alexander by his own troops
in 235, initiating a 50-year period in which there were at least 26 claimants to
the title of Emperor, mostly prominent Roman army generals, who assumed imperial
power over all or part of the Empire. The same number of men became accepted by the
Roman Senate as emperor during this period and so became legitimate emperors.

By 268, the empire had split into three competing states the Gallic Empire,
including the Roman provinces of Gaul, Britannia and (briefly) Hispania; the
Palmyrene Empire, including the eastern provinces of Syria Palaestina and Aegyptus;
and the Italian-centered and independent Roman Empire, proper, between them. Later,
Aurelian (270275) reunited the empire; the crisis ended with the ascension and
reforms of Diocletian in 284.

The crisis resulted in such profound changes in the empire's institutions, society,
economic life and, eventually, religion, that it is increasingly seen by most
historians as defining the transition between the historical periods of classical
antiquity and late antiquity.[1]

Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Dynasties
1.1.1 Gordian dynasty
1.1.2 Decian dynasty
1.1.3 Valerian dynasty
1.1.4 Caran dynasty
2 Economic impact
2.1 Breakdown of internal trade network
2.2 Increased localism
3 See also
4 Notes
5 Bibliography
6 Further reading
History[edit]

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Roman imperial dynasties
Crisis of the Third Century
Chronology
Barracks Emperors 235284
Gordian dynasty 238244
Valerian dynasty 253261
Gallic Emperors 260274
Illyrian Emperors 268284
Caran dynasty 282285
Britannic Emperors 286297
Succession
Preceded by
Severan dynasty Followed by
Diocletian and the Tetrarchy
[show] v t e
Crisis of the Third Century
Further information Alemanni Conflicts with the Roman Empire
The situation of the Roman Empire became dire in 235 AD, when emperor Severus
Alexander was murdered by his own troops. Many Roman legions had been defeated
during a campaign against Germanic peoples raiding across the borders, while the
emperor was focused primarily on the dangers from the Sassanid Persian Empire.
Leading his troops personally, Severus Alexander resorted to diplomacy and paying
tribute in an attempt to pacify the Germanic chieftains quickly. According to
Herodian this cost him the respect of his troops, who may have felt they should be
punishing the tribes who were intruding on Rome's territory.[2]

In the years following the emperor's death, generals of the Roman army fought each
other for control of the Empire and neglected their duties of defending the empire
from invasion. Provincials became victims of frequent raids along the length of the
Rhine and Danube rivers by such foreign tribes as the Carpians, Goths, Vandals, and
Alamanni, and attacks from Sassanids in the east. Climate changes and a rise in sea
levels ruined the agriculture of what is now the Low Countries forcing tribes to
migrate.[3] Additionally, in 251, the Plague of Cyprian (possibly smallpox) broke
out, causing large-scale death, possibly weakened the ability of the Empire to
defend itself.[citation needed]

After the loss of Valerian in 260, the Roman Empire was beset by usurpers, who
broke it up into three competing states. The Roman provinces of Gaul, Britain and
Hispania broke off to form the Gallic Empire. After the death of Odaenathus in 267,
the eastern provinces of Syria, Palestine and Aegyptus became independent as the
Palmyrene Empire, leaving the remaining Italian-centered Roman Empire-proper in the
middle.[citation needed]

An invasion by a vast host of Goths was defeated at the Battle of Naissus in 268 or
269. This victory was significant as the turning point of the crisis, when a series
of tough, energetic soldier-emperors took power. Victories by the emperor Claudius
II Gothicus over the next two years drove back the Alamanni and recovered Hispania
from the Gallic Empire. When Claudius died in 270 of the plague, Aurelian, who had
commanded the cavalry at Naissus, succeeded him as the emperor and continued the
restoration of the Empire.[citation needed]

Aurelian reigned (270275) through the worst of the crisis, defeating the Vandals,
the Visigoths, the Palmyrenes, the Persians, and then the remainder of the Gallic
Empire. By late 274, the Roman Empire was reunited into a single entity, and the
frontier troops were back in place. More than a century would pass before Rome
again lost military ascendancy over its external enemies. However, dozens of
formerly thriving cities, especially in the Western Empire, had been ruined, their
populations dispersed and, with the breakdown of the economic system, could not be
rebuilt. Major cities and towns, even Rome itself, had not needed fortifications
for many centuries; many then surrounded themselves with thick walls.[citation
needed]

Finally, although Aurelian had played a significant role in restoring the Empire's
borders from external threat, more fundamental problems remained. In particular,
the right of succession had never been clearly defined in the Roman Empire, leading
to continuous civil wars as competing factions in the military, Senate, and other
parties put forward their favoured candidate for emperor. Another issue was the
sheer size of the Empire, which made it difficult for a single autocratic ruler to
effectively manage multiple threats at the same time. These continuing problems
would be radically addressed by Diocletian, allowing the Empire to continue to
survive in the West for over a century and in the East for over a millennium.
[citation needed]

Dynasties[edit]
Several emperors who rose to power through acclamation of their troops attempted to
create stability by appointing their descendants as Caesar, resulting in several
brief dynasties. These generally failed to maintain any form of coherence beyond
one generation, although there were exceptions.

Gordian dynasty[edit]
Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Death Time in office
Gordian I Musei Capitolini MC475.jpg Gordian I
CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS GORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS c. 159 AD, Phrygia
Proclaimed emperor, whilst Pro-consul in Africa, during a revolt against
Maximinus Thrax. Ruled jointly with his son Gordian II, and in opposition to
Maximinus. Technically a usurper, but retrospectively legitimised by the accession
of Gordian III March 22, 238 AD April 12, 238 AD April 238 AD
Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of Gordian II. 21 days
GordianusIIsest.jpg Gordian II
CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS GORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS ROMANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS c. 192
AD, Proclaimed emperor, alongside father Gordian I, in opposition to Maximinus by
act of the Senate. March 22, 238 AD April 12, 238 AD April 238 AD
Killed during the Battle of Carthage, fighting a pro-Maximinus army 21 days
Pupienus Musei Capitolini MC477.jpg Pupienus (non-dynastic)
CAESAR MARCVS CLODIVS PVPIENVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS c. 178 AD, Proclaimed joint emperor
with Balbinus by the Senate in opposition to Maximinus; later co-emperor with