SOCIOLOGY

FOCUS ON THE PHILIPPINES

BY

RAYMUNDO AND PANOPIO

2004 Edition

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 Chapter 1

THE STUDY OF SOCIOLOGY

Let me go to what seems to be the changing role of social scientists,

particularly sociologists. I hope I am quoting Cynthia Bautista correctly
when I say our role is not just as collaborators and not just as critics.
We`re not just basic scientist nor applied scientist, not just technocratic,
not just philosophical, not just theoretical, but something of a mixture or
a blending of all these. What the actual blending, is still emerging.
Bautista called it converging, sometimes eclecticism, but I think we
have to underscore now that there is a great need that has been
pointed out today for a systematic indigenous theory of sociology. I do
not envision a Filipino theory of general sociology to be coming out in
the next 10 year. But I do think that it is time for us to put our heads
together and come out with a meaningful indigenous theory of special
issue areas in the field.

Leodivina V. Carino, 1991

Dr. Carino, former president of the Philippines Sociological Society

(PSS), made these remarks during the society`s convention in 1991
where the theme was Sociology of/and Development: Consensus and
Controversy. She emphasized the changing role of sociologist in
society and called for the formulation of an indigenous theory on
specific areas in sociology.

What is Sociology?

All fields of study started as attempts to answer questions about ones

environment, ones own nature. Theologians have sought to explain our
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relationship with Gods will; scientist have tried to explain our physical
environment and our physical being; painter, novelist, composers,
poets, and other artists have attempted to express their interpretation of
life, human conditions, and beauty through creative means;
philosophers have sought through logic the causes and principles of
reality and the conduct of life.

Between the 18th and 19th centuries, the social sciences grew out of
social philosophy. The social science drew heavily on the scientific
logic of the physical sciences that yielded fruitful results. The most
recent of these specialized social sciences is sociology.

Sociology is the science of society and the social interactions taking

place within it. It is concerned with social interaction involving social
acts, social relationships, social organizations, social structures, and
social processes. The social facts it gathers include the recurrent and
repetitive forms of behaviour (attitudes, beliefs, values, norm) and
social institutions that make up the social order. Sociology studies not
only the structure and functions of social organization, but also the
changes which take place within it.

Some people have criticized sociology as using a lot of jargon in

dealing with the ordinary and commonplace phenomena. While it is true
that sociologists deal with such kinds of social relationships, it analyzes
the pattern and processes of social relations in a scientific and
systematic way. Sociologists formulate theories and principles about
human behaviour as shaped by group life and how, in turn, group life is
affected by individuals (Kendall 2000:3).

Sociologists abstract various factors from the behaviour of people and

develop methods of controlling observation through rigorous
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categorization. Conclusions in sociology are in the form of
generalizations, specifying the conditions under which certain forms of
behaviour take place. Findings in Sociology debunk some common
sense notions and myths. It is concerned with that goes on between
and among people and the patterned relationships within social groups.
Its fascination lies in the fact that its perspective makes us see in a new
light the world in which we have lived all our lives (Berger 1967:32-33).
The emphasis of sociology is on the social behaviour of the individual
within the context of his or her social group or society. It is a broad
discipline, encompassing the various facts of human life.

The various areas of study in sociology include social organization,

rural and urban communities, social change and social problems,
socialization, social stratification and social class, population and
demography, medicine, law, age and gender roles, modernization,
social transformation, and development. It delves into topics like family
life, separation and divorce, poverty, agrarian reform, ecological
degradation, labor relations, ethnic relation, crime, and other issues
prevailing in society.

Linkages among nations have increased through communication

technology and trade. Thus, Sociology currently stresses a global
perspective to provide a meaningful basis of comparison among
nations. Sociologist seeks cross-national comparison so that general
theories about them may be formulated (Stark 1998:12-13).

The Sociological Imagination

C. Wright Mills (1956:12) coined the phrase. He describes it as a

quality of mind, a capacity to understand the interplay of individual and
society, biography and history, of the self and the world. This is the
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ability to see the relation between our personal life and the social world
we live in. It enables us to see things beyond our established ways of
acting and behaving, and gain a better grasp of the situation by relating
oneself to a bigger society. It is a set of mind that enables us to locate
ourselves in the period in which we live and study the events in our
personal lives against events in society, thus gaining a wider freedom.
The various factors of our life-family, gender, social class, economy,
politics, religion, and culture-are shaped by social forces and the larger
social patterns in society. For example, if one gets laid off from work,
one has to go beyond his or her personal self and view the problem in
the context of the employment problem in the whole of society. By
relating biography and history, one is able to place one`s experiences
and attitudes in the context of the wider society.

According to Mills, the promise of sociology is that, with the problems

and confusions of modern life, it can help us understand what is
happening to us and why such social phenomena occur. On the whole,
sociology contributes to the development of a liberal-minded individual
imbued with a sense of identity and appreciative of his or her cultural
heritage.

What is Science?

Science is the systematized and detailed explanation of any

phenomenon. The body of knowledge about this phenomenon is
obtained through observation or experimentation. It entails the
classification and analysis of data and making explanations or
conclusions. Science is made up assumptions, concepts, and rigorous
methods and answers (March 1996:C). It aims to organize findings
about the natural or social world that are verifiable.

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All fields of science are concerned with the discovery and
developments of propositions, general truths, and laws primarily
through observation and experimentation. Science may be categorized
into two broad areas: the natural sciences and the social sciences. The
natural sciences deal with objects and processes in nature and provide
information on the nonhuman and physical aspects in the natural world.
They include the biological sciences such as biology, botany, zoology,
and bacteriology which study both human and nonhuman living
organisms; and physical sciences such as astronomy, geology,
chemistry, and physics which examine the non-living physical
characteristics of the world. The social sciences deal with people, their
behavior, and social systems. Human behaviour includes a persons
dreams, hopes, ambitions, activities, and problems which involve other
people.

An important difference between the natural sciences and the social

sciences is that the subjects of study in the natural sciences do not talk
back to the researcher. There is no human consciousness. The
subjects of study in the social sciences can and do talk back, and it is
possible to discern and change their behaviour. In the natural sciences,
one can make accurate predictions, particularly when explaining large-
scale phenomena. In the social sciences, such accurate predictions are
difficult to make (Applebaum and Chambliss 1995:12-13).

The Relationship of Sociology to the Social Sciences

The social sciences share common subject matters: social

relationships, social systems, and societies. Nevertheless, there are
differences in the aspects of the human being studied, in their
emphasis, tools, and mode of analysis. The other social sciences are:

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Anthropology is the study of humanity and the similarities and
diversity of cultures. It includes the study of the biological, social, and
cultural development of humankind. Biological or physical
anthropologists study a wide range of cultures, from primitive to
modern, through the examinations of artifacts and the genetic changes
of human and nonhuman aspects of life. Cultural and social
anthropologists study tribes, subcultures, or society as a whole, while
immersing in the community that they are studying.

Psychology is mainly interested in a wide range of mental,

psychological, and behavioural process such as learning, human and
personality development, perception, emotion, cognition, motivation,
creativity, personality disorders, and mental illness. Its focus is on
individual behaviour. Social psychology is a new field that integrates
sociology and psychology, with interactions among individuals and
groups it focus.

Economics is the concerned with human activities related to the

production, consumption, and distribution of goods, services, and
wealth within societies, as well as commercial exchange. It uses
mathematical methods to predict changes in economic indicators.
Statistics on gross national products, per capita income, savings and
credit, investments, trade, balance or imbalance, capital formation, and
economic cycles belong to the realm of economics, but these figures
are reflections of individual and group behaviour as they affect
population movements. A great deal of human behavior is economically
motivated. Sociologists are interested in the interrelation between the
economic and noneconomic aspects of social life.

Political Science is concerned with the history and theory of

government. It examines political processes and power struggle, noting
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patterns as these changes from previous elections and the nature of
voters and political parties. Political scientists and sociologists are
interested in the social interactions that take place within the political
institution and between the political institution and other social
institutions. Of interest to sociologists are the social backgrounds of
political activists, the distribution of power, the sources of political
beliefs of the electorate, and the role of women and ethnic minorities in
political events.

History is primarily interested in the study of past events of human

beings. It documents the chronology of significant past events and the
facts surrounding them. History studies as well important person, social
institutions, or ideas that may have influenced the outcome of events in
explaining the past. In searching for the underlying forces that
influences human behaviour, history uses the sociological approach.

The natural and social science is further divided into the pure and
applied sciences. Pure science is concerned with the pursuit of
knowledge and truth without considering its practical use. Applied
science focuses on the search for solutions to practical problems. The
knowledge derived from sociological research is used as a tool to
analyse a particular problem and provide a practical outcome.

Pure social sciences are represented by economics, political science,

anthropology, psychology, and sociology; while examples of applied
sciences are work, public administration, management, education, and
ethics. Pure and applied science social sciences are interrelated,
although they differ markedly from each other. Pure science can
provide verifiable facts and general principles which the applied
sciences can utilize for program planning. Applied science can provide

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pure science new observations and new data, so that new theories may
be formulated and old ones redefined.

Cynthia Bautista (1985) narrated the experience of a group of

Philippine sociologists who, in the 1970s, attempted to utilize particular
principles of the pure of basic disciplines to social problems within
specific historical and social frameworks and realized that, sociological
theories in the paradigmatic form can hardly provide the theoretical
systems or concepts needed by people grappling with concrete and
changing realities, and that the implicit assumption that an applied
science is one which applies the principles of the pure or basic
disciplines to practical concerns is a myth.

The Development of Sociology in Europe

Sociology, as a science, gradually developed in Western Europe as a

response to the vast social, cultural, economic, and political changes. A
number of scholars were interested in developing a scientific
understanding of social life. In the 18th and 19th centuries, social
changes swept Europe as a result of the Industrial revolution. In
France, social upheavals like the French revolution occurred, resulting
in numerous social problems. Attempts to understand the social forces,
their causes and solutions, were initiated by using scientific
approaches. Most significant of the forerunners of Sociology are
Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, and Max
Weber.

Auguste Comte

Auguste Comte (1798-1857), a French philosopher, believed in

applying scientific method to the study of society and social relations.
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He coined the term sociology, which is derived from the Latin socius
which means social or being with others, and the Greek logos meaning
study or science. As a result, he is credited for being the Father of
Sociology (Timasheff 1967:17-29). Comte published the book Positive
Philosophy, in which he summarized the stages of development of all
knowledge about humanity. He advocated the use of positivism or the
empirical method for studying and understanding society. His theory
was that societies contain social statistics, the study of the structure of
society and the forces for social order and stability, and social
dynamics which refers to the forces of conflict and change (Kendal
2000:9)

The progressive development of science was analysed in his law of the

three stages of humanity: theological or fictitious, metaphysical or
abstract, and scientific of positive. Each mental stage has an
accompanying type of social organization and political dominance. The
supernatural is the basis for explaining and understanding everything in
the theological stage. The model or standard social unit for conformity
has always been the family, but political dominance was invariably
lodged in the priests or the military leaders during this earliest stage. In
the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance, the state superseded the
family, and the church and lawyers became politically dominant. In the
third and highest stage, the whole of humanity becomes the operative
social unit. Political dominance is taken over by industrial
administrators and scientific moral guides. Comte believed that social
physics or positivism would be the key to humanitys on-going program.
Positivism involves the study of a phenomenon by rigid observation and
experiments as used in the natural science. Through this method, laws
on social behaviour could be formulated.

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Comte himself did little social research; his significant contribution
consists primarily of his having aroused and inspired other scholars to
make further pursuits in sociology. He believed that sociology was the
means by which a more rational and just society could be achieved.

Karl Marx

Karl Marx (1818-1883), a German economist and philosopher, was one

of the influential thinkers of the nineteenth century whose ideas persist
up to the present time. Together with Friedrich Engels, a lifelong friend,
he wrote the Communist Manifesto in 1847. The common feature in all
Marxs and Engels works was an intense anger over the misery of the
lower classes caused by the existing industrial order. Marx believed
that history is a continuous struggle between conflicting ideas and
forces, and that the most important change was economic. He
recognized the existence of several social classes in the 19th century
industrial society: laborers, factory workers, proprietors of small
businesses, and moneyed capitalists. He predicted that there would be
a constant struggle between the capitalist class and the working class.
The laborers or working class representing the forces of production
would be the ruled subordinates, while the bourgeoisie exploit the
laborers and enjoy the economic surplus (Jesser 1975:103-110).

Marx contended that all the aspects of society work, religion,

government, law, morality are economically conditioned and
controlled by the capitalists (Sullivan 1995:88). According to Marx,
political revolutions are significant in the evolution of society and is the
only means to attain the improvement of social conditions; all history
were branded with economic determinism meaning, social conditions
and society itself were based on economic factors and economic
inequality is the result of class struggles between the bourgeoisie (the
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owners rulers) and the proletariat (the industrial workers) conflict,
revolution, and the overthrow of capitalism are inevitable.
So far, the prediction of Marx has not come true. In capitalist societies,
a number of social classes continue to flourish. According to Smelser,
what Marx did not realize is the capacity of capitalism to regulate itself
and for the government to regulate competition in order to avoid
exploitation (Smelser 1995:423).

Emile Durkheim

Emile Durkheim (1858-1977) was the first French Academic Sociologist

conferred by the University of Paris a Doctors degree in sociology in
1892 and, 6 years later, the first to hold a chair in sociology. He taught
and became a prolific writer and critic. Among his best books are The
Division of Labor in Society, The Rules of Sociological Method, Suicide,
and Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Durkheim does not believe
that social events operate under the same rules as biology or
psychology. He defined social phenomena as social facts that have
distinctive social characteristics and determinants; social facts being,
every way of acting, fixed or not, capable of exercising on the
individual and external constraint, such as customs, laws, and the
general rule behaviour which people accept without question the
general rule of behaviour which people accept without question
(Timasheff 1967:110-111). Hence individuals are more the products
rather than the creators of society. The idea that societies are based on
social facts is the significant contribution of Durkheim to sociology.

In the Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim pointed out that rapid

social change and specialized division of labor produce strains in
society. These strains result in the breakdown of the traditional social

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organization, values, and authority, which eventually lead to a condition
of normlessness and loss of social control called anomie.

He advanced social theory and contributed fresh insights into social

methodology with his classical study on the incidence of suicide as it
varied from one population to another, and as it was influenced by
certain social forces. In his book Suicide, he showed the relationship
between the individual and the society when the values of life become
precarious, he pointed out that while suicide is a solidary act. It can be
understood only by analysing society.

Max Weber

Max Weber (1864-1920) was a German economist. He studied law and

economics at The University of Heidelberg, where he obtained the best
known of which are The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,
The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism, Theory of Social and
Economic Organization, and Methodology of the Social Sciences. Like
Karl Marx, he also foresaw the development of several social classes in
society and examined the consequences of the peoples relationship to
economic institutions. Weber believed that power and prestige are the
major causes of inequality.

Webers works dwelt on the significance of subjective meaning people

give to their interactions with others. Aside from studying social facts
and social structures, he encouraged the study of social actions, the
external objective behavior, the internalized values, motives, and
subjective meanings that individuals give to their own behavior and
subjective meanings that individuals give to their own behavior and
perceptions of the behavior of others. He believed that qualitative,
subjective method as well as objective methods should be used in
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studying social actions. A sympathetic understanding, verstehen, of
the mind of others. Weber said, was understanding human action by
examining the subjective meaning that people attach to their own
behavior and the behavior of others. He contended that these could be
treated objectively and scientifically. In studying social class, Weber
believed in the significance of the subjective perceptions of power,
wealth, ownership, and social prestige, as well as the objective aspects
of these factors.

Other pioneers in sociology in Europe are George Simmel, Ferdinand

Toennies, Wilfredo Pareto, and Karl Mannheim.

Development of Sociology in the United States

From Western Europe, Sociology spread to the United States (US).

The first department of sociology in the US was established at the
University of Chicago. Eventually, the American Sociological Society
(now American Sociological Association) was founded. The Chicago
School of Sociology produced scholars, such as Robert E. Park, who
pioneered in the multidisciplinary approach and social ecology. One of
the earliest, popular female social thinkers was Jane Adams who made
studies in the impoverished areas of Chicago. Charles Horton Cooley,
George Herbert Mead, and W.I. Thomas formulated theories
emphasizing the importance of social interaction in the development of
human thought and action, later known as symbolic interaction
perspective.

William G. Summer collected volumes of data on the customs and

moral laws of different societies. He argued that the state ways cannot
change folkways overnight, that social change comes only in its own

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good times, and that morality cannot be legislated. These ideas are
incorporated in his book Folkways (1960).

The rapid growth of sociology in the US accelerated the shift from

social philosophy to social science land, later, to the separation of
sociology as a discipline of the social sciences. After the two world
wars and ensuing conflicts in different parts of the world, sociology
became a regular course offering in colleges and universities.

Sociologists have become involved in various social research studies

and are being employed by government, industrial, social, civic, and
religious agencies all over the world. Their work with decisions-makers
and policy implementors led to the development of instruments to
measure and asses the direction, extent, and intensity of vocational or
occupational aptitudes, personality profiles, consumption habits or
trends, public opinion polls, and development programs.

The 1930s ushered in the field service-related national public policy,

with theoretical focus on micro systems and methods of large-scale
quantification. In he 1940s, more sociological research were conducted
in Harvard and Columbia. Talcott Parsons (1902-1979), founder of
action that analyzed social phenomena ranging from individual
behavior to the larger structure of society. Talcott Parsons was a
follower of Durkheim, who advocated that sociology, should be
concerned with large-scale phenomena like society. He talked of the
evolution of human society and the emergence of large-scale, societal
institutions. Societies, he said, possess four features of great
importance, namely: religion, communication, social organization
through kinship, and technology. Other essential features in society are
social stratification, money and markets, norms, and democratic
association (Bainbridge 1967:6)
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Robert K. Merton, known for the middle-range theory, was more
concerned with linking general theory to empirical testing developing
concepts of social structure functions, self-fulfilling prophecies,
deviance, and bureaucracies.

From these significant works in sociology, major theoretical perspective

have been developed to serve as guidelines with which to test human
behavior and hypothesis.

The Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology

The various significant works on sociology in Europe and the United

States produced diverse theoretical perspectives which have served as
guidelines to analyse and test theories about human behaviour and
society. Macro- or micro- analysis is utilized to examine society. Macro-
analysis looks at the broad, large picture such as social institutions and
social organizations. When viewing social problems, it first looks at this
level and then how it affects individuals. Micro-level analysis is
centered on small groups of individuals interacting with one another.

Three major theoretical perspectives that have emerged in society are:

the structural-functional perspective, the conflict perspective which
uses macro level analysis, and the symbolic interaction perspective
which uses the micro-level analysis.

Structural-Functionalism Perspective

Durkheim, Weber, Cooley, Thomas, and Pareto were the early

advocates of structural functionalism, although parsons and Merton are
credited with further expounding on the theory. Other proponents are
A.R. Radcliffe-Brown, Marion Levy, and Robert Bales. Structural
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functionalism has also been referred to as the social system theory,
equilibrium theory, or functionalism.

Society can be likened to a biological structure like the human body

which is composed of various organs, each with a unique functions but
interdependent with one another. In the same way, a social system has
several parts like families, neighborhoods, schools, banks, etc.
functionalism explains society in terms of structure and functions.
Social structure refers to the interdependent networks of statuses and
roles. Within a structure are statuses which are ascribed by birth (sex,
age, race) or achieved (school, degree, corporate or social positions,
professions) interrelated sets of which are social systems, i.e.,
parents and children make up a family system. Associated with each
status is a set of expectations that compromises a general idea of
appropriate behaviour. The expectation of a behavior and the actual
performance in a certain position however may not always be
congruent. Role performance and behaviour are learned through the
socialization process.

Parsons (1955) emphasize that for societies to survive, they must be

able to provide for the social needs of its members. It is also important
that various institutions in the society like the family, church,
government, economy, education, etc. must work together to preserve
the system over time.

Merton (1956) identified the functions of a social system as what the

system does and the outcomes that arise from a certain type of
structure. A social system can have both manifest (intended or
recognized) and latent (unintended or unrecognizable) functions.
Parents have the manifest function of procreation and the latent
function of ensuring that their children acquire occupational skills. The
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function of fiestas is to commemorate an occasion, like the feats day of
a saint or thanksgiving to the Lord for a bountiful harvest; its latent
function is to provide an opportunity for members of a family to reunite.

Merton claimed that not all functions of a social system ensure its
equilibrium. Some may lead to an imbalance or disintegration of the
system. Theses he termed dysfunctions, such as spouse beating,
unfaithfulness, and child abuse.

Functionalism maintains that social structures exist in society in order

to carry out certain functions. Proponents of this theory focus on order
and stability, to the neglect of the process if change.

Conflict Perspective

Marxs and Webers works initiated the conflict theory. This is shared by
recent scholars, C. Wright Mills, Lewis, Coser and Ralph Dahrendorf,
who proposed that society can best be studied through conflict and
power struggle. Marx maintained that history was a series of class
struggles between the owners or production and the workers, the
dominant and the dominated, the powerful and the powerless; and that
the structure of society is determined by economic organization and
ownership of property, in which personal beliefs, cultural value,
religious dogmas, institutional organization, and class hierarchy are
reflected. Inequalities in the exploited classes realize their inferior
status and rebel against the dominant property owners and employers.

For Weber, the economic dimension is a source of inequalities that

eventually leads to conflict. He viewed the industrial revolution as the
result of technological advancements new methods of mining, textile
weaving, traveling, and communication. With this, the rural areas
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became urbanized and new social classes arose. The capitalist class
who hold the economic power can decide where, when, and how work
will be done; while workers have limited choices. These became new
sources of conflict.

To Ralph Dahrendorf (1950), conflict applies to all of social life, not just
economic class conflict resulting from the nature of authority. The key
to conflict is not the economic relations, but the relations between the
superior or the boss and the subordinates over whom the boss tries to
impose authority (Smelser 1995:184).

To other conflict perspectives are the Neo-Marxist approach which

holds that the struggle between social classes is inevitable and is the
primary source of change. Another view focuses on the racial ethnic
inequalities. There is also the feminist view which says that gender is
an element of social conflict, and thus change is necessary for people
to achieve their human potential.
Functionalists present a contrasting view. They maintain that society is
balanced, consensual, and integrated, and that social processes
continually maintain harmony. On the other hand, conflict theorists view
society as being in a state of competition, conflict, constraint, and
change; that society is continually in a struggle for improvement,
neglecting its less conflictive and more integrative facets.

Symbolic Interaction Perspective

The structural-functional and conflict theories deal with larger units of

society, the macro sociological such as organizations institutions, social
stratification, communities, and nations. George Herbert Mead, W.I.
Thomas, Herbert Blumer, and Charles Horton Cooley of the Chicago
School dealt more on the micro-sociological orientation, the symbolic
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interaction theory involving individuals in society, their definitions or
perceptions of situations, meanings, roles, and interaction patterns.
How society affects individuals and vice-versa is the core of this theory.
Durkheim and Marx assumed that society was an entity existing apart
from the individual, while those who advocated the symbolic interaction
theory as: society is reflected in every socialized individual, and its
external forms and structures are likewise reflected through the social
interactions occurring among individuals at the symbolic level.
Language consists of symbols representing physical objects and
abstract ideas and is used for communication.

The symbolic interaction perspective focuses on the communicative

aspect or language that enables the individual to develop a personal
identity within a society with members having scripted statuses and
roles. An individual human being born in society is provided with food
and other material necessities as well as formal and informal education.
Human behaviour is influenced by the definitions and meanings people
develop and maintain through the medium of language.

W.I. Thomass significant contribution to symbolic interactionism is the

concept of the definition of the situation. A persons definition of the
situation refers to the act or behaviour being examined and deliberated.
This definition has behavioural consequences because, if a person
defines a situation as real, it becomes real in its consequences. One
has to pay attention to the subjective meanings in order to understand
human activity (Wallace 1999:94)

George Herbert Mead, a significant contributor to the development of

symbolic interactionism, theorized that humans are set apart from
animals because of their ability to use language and to create and
acquire social institutions, societies, and cultures. Socialization occurs
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at both symbolic and non-symbolic levels. Social interaction enables
individuals to acquire the beliefs, values, and language of the society to
which they belong.

The key concept in Meads theory is the social self. It refers to viewing
oneself or the conception of oneself in relation to other individuals
selves. The development of the self depends on the individuals ability
to interpret the behaviour of others in the community and which
behaviour is appropriate to particular situations. This requires the
organization of the individuals whole self in relation to the social groups
and the community where he or she belongs. The unity of self to the
individual is called generalized others. Through the attitude of the
generalized others, individuals are able to see themselves as others do
and to understand the attitude of others toward the various aspects of
social life (Marsh 1996:93). The idea of the self depends in the
individuals ability to take the role of the others in the community.

Cooleys contribution to symbolic interactionism is the concept of the

looking glass self, which is a set of ideas an individual has about
him/herself derived from the social interaction of the judgement of other
people towards us. This is discussed further in Chapter 5.

Diverse theoretical perspectives characterize sociology as theories of

social behaviour and society formulated. In the decades between the
two world wars of the 20th century, German scholars and other
sociologists shared Marxs vision that people should be able to change
the circumstances of their society to build a better one.

A wave of intellectual activity shifted the unit of analysis of the nation

state to a world system of society. In the 1960s and 1970s, there
emerged feminist theorists who pointed out how inequalities in the
21
distribution of resources by gender are not only a form of exploitation
but also a source of conflict and tension in societies.

A broad intellectual movement, known as post-modernism, also arose.

It argues that there are no objective truths but only texts about reality; it
rejected Comtes faith that a science of society would be possible.

Sociological theories are now highly differentiated and have little

coherence. Attempts to converge the diverse theoretical perspectives
have failed on account of the complexity of the study of the people and
their behaviour. This diversity of perspectives sometimes results in
overlapping ideas. However, the various theories still emphasize
human behaviour as a product of the social milieu (Marsh 1996:41)

Development of Sociology in the Philippines

Sociology was introduced in the Philippines during the latter part of the
Spanish regime. Fr. Valentin Marin introduced a course on criminology
at the University of Santo Tomas, using a social philosophical
approach.

When Americans took over the reign of the government from the
Spanish colonizers, they fused anthropology and sociology using
western models to guide the colonial administrators and settlers. This is
attributed to two significant conditions: the persistence of traditionalism
and the lack of a strong belief that science can be a strong force in
studying and rendering social realities (Abad and Eviota 1982:131-
132).

The first stage was characterized by the inclusion of sociology in

college and university courses and the teaching of social philosophy.
22
This approach was used until the 1950s when sociology was taught
from the normative point of what ought to be, with the little emphasis
on the scientific nature of sociology. This was followed by similar
courses under the initiative of American educators A.W. Salt and
Murray Bartlett at the University of the Philippines in Manila and Clyde
Heflin at Silliman University in Dumaguete. Filipino social scientists
Conrado Benitez and Luis Rivera also taught sociology courses, using
materials that were western in orientation.

The view of sociology as a problem oriented discipline was introduced

by Serafin N. Macaraig, the first Filipino to acquire a doctorate degree
in sociology and to write a sociology textbook, An Introduction to
Sociology, in 1938. He attempted to introduce the scientific view but
with little success. Although sociology was taught in colleges and
universities outside Manila, the courses contents and teachers
orientation were substandard in terms of sociological theory and
method (Abad and Eviota 1982:132). Sociology made very little dent on
the academic communities. Some social research studies were made
by western social scientists on Philippine ethnic groups, when
sociology and anthropology were merged into a department headed by
H. Otley Beyer. Although sociology gained more academic recognition
in the 1940s, very little systematic social research was conducted in the
field.

In the 1950s, a scientific orientation started to seep slowly into

sociology with the increased number of educational exchange program
grantees, the establishment of social science research centers and
councils, the growing frequency of conferences, and the publication of
professional journals. A number of Filipinos enjoyed foreign
scholarships in the United States, with a number of them training at the
University of Chicago and Cornell University. The returning scholars
23
ushered into the country a number of theoretical perspectives, like the
functional theory of Durkheim, Parsons, and Lundberg, the neo-
positivism of George Lundberg, the social psychological theories of
Cooley and Mead, and Webers value free sociology. There was also
an impetus to social research.

Public and private agencies became increasingly aware of the

significance of social facts in the decision-making process. Data
collected by pioneer Filipino sociologist Benicio Catapusan on rural
Philippines for the government became benchmark of the distribution of
economic aid to the different regions. In 1952, Filipino educators and
visiting professor from the University of the Philippines, Ateneo de
Manila University, and Silliman University organized the Philippines
Sociological Society (PSS). The objective of the organization was to
increase knowledge about social behaviour, to gather data about social
problems, to train social science teachers and researchers, and to
develop cooperation between Philippine social scientists and those
from other countries. Dr. Chester Hunt, a visiting professor from the
US, played an important role in organizing the PSS. The society soon
published its quarterly journal, the Philippines Sociological Review.
Although membership in the PSS has not grown considerably through
the years, it has organized meetings, conferences, conventions,
seminars, and roving lectures yearly. These activities focus on
empirical research on vital issues and current sociological development
within the Philippine setting.

In 1957, the Community Development Research council (CDRC) was

created to conduct or support social science researches. Among the
several sociologists who availed of its research grant was Mary
Hollnsteiner whose work, The Dynamics of Power in a Philippine
Municipality, became a benchmark for studies on value and power
24
structure. Other research grantees were Prospero Covar, Agaton Pal,
Fr. Francis Madigan, S.J., and Felicidad Cordero.

In 1960, the Institution of Philippine Culture (IPC) was founded at the

Ateneo de Manila University by Fr. Frank Lynch, S.J. who was its
moving spirit. IPC spearheaded researches on economic development,
modernization, and problems of education with the aim of
understanding the Filipino way of life using the interdisciplinary
approach. The researches were printed as IPC papers.

In 1968, The Philippine Social Science Council (PSSC) was formed to

improve the quality and relevance of social sciences. Hence the
different social sciences, through their respective organizations, set as
their goal the improvement of their performance through
communication and collaboration (PSSC Social Information,
May1973:3). PSS represents sociology in the Council.

The PSSC Research Committee also drafted a set of guidelines

regarding the rights and responsibilities of social scientists in the New
Society (the term used by President F. Marcos when he declared
Martial Law). It stated that Filipino social scientists had made significant
contributions to society and urged them to continue their tasks under
the new social order.

The PSSC has awarded research grants, subsidized researches and

publications, ran research training programs for both basic and
advanced level trainees, and conducted seminars, conferences, and
conventions for the various social sciences. It has put up research
networks in various parts of the country. Regional research consortia
setups are the Visayas Research Consortium (VRC), with its center at
the University of San Carlos, Iloilo; the Eastern Mindanao Research
25
Center (EMARC), with its center at Ateneo de Davao University; the
Bicol Research Center; and one center in Cagayan Region.

The scope of Philippines sociology expanded with the increasing

industrialization, urbanization, and modernization and their
corresponding social problems. Researches, therefore, focused on
rural and urban communities, poverty, agrarian reform, and population.
The resulting studies were essential aids to leaders and decision-
makers who needed scientific knowledge as basis for policy-making
and program implementation.

At present, the importance of sociology in Philippine society cannot be

denied. Gelia T. Castillo, a rural sociologist, says that sociologys
greatest challenge lies in the creative translation of practical problems
into researchable ones which will yield answers or solutions to practical
questions which have been asked by developers (Castillo 1974:4)

The first school to offer major in sociology was the U.P., while the first
school to offer Ph.D. program in sociology program was Xavier
University in 1972, followed by the U.P. A number of schools offer
sociology as major in the undergraduate level, while most colleges and
universities offer basic courses in sociology.

Since the 1960s, empirical researches have been undertaken by the

sociologists from different colleges and universities throughout the
country. De La Salle University established a social science research
center. Incentives for research came from the Rockefeller and the Ford
Foundations, National Economic Council, U.S Agency for International
Development, and UNESCO. Grants from Europe, Canada, and Japan
also poured in. Some sociologists have left the academe to test their
models in the field. (Bulatao 1979:90).
26
One trend evident in the social science is the indigenization of
concepts, methods, and theories. Attempts to re-examine the use of
western concepts and models have been made as early as the 1960s.
Gloria D. Feliciano, former chairperson of the U.P. Department of Mass
Communication (1965), pointed out the need to develop methods and
techniques suited to the local conditions. Efforts in indigenization
process are most evident in the local graduate training program. The
appropriateness of western-derived methods and theories continues to
be a topic of contention.

In the 1970s and 1980s, some social scientists started to question and
challenge the ideological assumptions of earlier researches. This was
influenced by Marxist ideas which diminished the functionalist and
positivist paradigms in sociology. Sociologists as well as political
scientists researched on the organization and impact of transnational
corporations, the operation of joint venture companies, and the political
economy of agriculture (Bautista 1998;68-69).

Randolf David (1980), a prominent Filipino sociologists, succinctly

depicts in his paper Philippine Underdevelopment and Dependency
Theory (Philippine Sociological Review 28 (1-4): (81-87), the social
realities that Filipino sociologists grapple with. In the Philippines, as
perhaps in the rest of third World countries, he says we can see the
growing unstoppable domination of the national economy by
transnational corporations, the impossibility of repaying national
indebtedness, the increasing pauperism of the rural masses, the total
degradation of the marginalized urban workers, the intensification of
political coercion as the economy increasingly fails to provide for the
needs of poor majority, the intensifying participation of the military in
national life, and more aggressive intervention by the United States and
Japan in national affairs result of the greater need to secure and protect
27
their investments from possible expropriation under another regime. He
urged the utilization of university time to deepen understanding of how
Philippine society works and articulating this critical knowledge in every
conceivable forum. The First Social Congress was held on November
17-19, 1983 with the theme, towards Excellence in the Social Sciences
in the Philippines. This was important event for the social sciences,
including sociologists. Subsequent social science congresses have
been held to assess the role of the social sciences in the life of the
country.

Another issue raised by social scientists is how to close the gap

between the research they produce and utilization of these by policy
makers and program managers. In her analysis, Cynthia Bautista
(1989) bewails the under-utilization, if not the non-utilization, of social
science research, which she attributes to the poor linkage between the
research and the people at the grassroots, popular organizations, and
government agencies. Another reason is the academic framework.
Linking people and real problems entails expense. Bautista (1989)
says:

It forces social scientists who are used to the safe haven of the
university, to wrestle with issues of objectivity and commitment.
The moral dilemma of value-free social science partly explains
why social scientists stick to the usual theories and methods,
even at the price of being irrelevant.

Furthermore, the symbolic interactionism and phenomenological ideas

also became popular and eroded the prevailing framework (Bautista
1998:70). There were shifts in the methodological frameworks of the
positivist position which advocated rigid observation, a theoretical
framework, and objectivity, and that of the interpretative explanatory
28
phenomenological, anthropological, position, and the Marxist position.
Methods of participatory research were developed; these aimed to
raise peoples consciousness and organize some kind of social action
to solve their problems. The University of the Philippines Center for
Women Studies, with Dr. Sylvia Guerrero as Director, took the lead in
producing and field-testing manuals, sourcebook, and multimedia
packages to meet the needs of policy makers, planners, researchers
and other practitioners and professionals on health, population, and
gender (Guerrero 1999:1). According to Guerrero (1999), the 1990s
saw the increasing convergence of social science theories and
methodologies, and the collaboration of various sectors academe,
government, NGOs, people organizations, and womens group.

The social science organizations belonging to the PSSC continued its

thrust in social transformation. In line with this, the Philippine Sociology
Society organized a convention in 1991 with Sociology of
Development as its theme. Fr. Renato A. Ocampo, S.J., PSS president
reiterated the role of sociologists as developing its research
capabilities at the service of information, effective delivery systems, and
monitoring and evaluation of private and government agencies. In this
same convention, Dr. Ledevina V. Cario, two-term PSS president,
called on sociologists to formulate an indigenous Filipino theory in
specific issue areas and the integration of specific areas, e.g.,
literature, fieldwork, etc., as suggested by Dr. Sylvia Guerrero. Filipino
sociologists are optimistic that the indigenization and the formulation of
a Filipino sociological theory will be accomplished soon.

The Question of a Value-Free Sociology

A critical issue that has long confronted sociologists is the question of a

value-free sociology. The basic question pertains to the main role of
29
sociologists in society. Should sociologists stick to the goals of their
science or should they actively get involved in social reform? The issue
of value-free sociology still rages.

The positivist stance is that only the use of the scientific method can
provide the truth in its research, so sociologists must be neutral,
objective, or value-free in their outlook and not take sides or make
personal judgements. They maintain that the main focus of sociologists
is to take a firm and conscious position of neutrality. Their foremost
task is to discover and organize knowledge about human behaviour.
Moral, political, and other significant convictions have to be set aside.
What is essential in the evaluation of any scientific work is not so much
the perspective but the degree to which the work has been carried out
with clear definitions and a systematic collection of the material, so that
an attempt can be made to assess the reliability and validity of the
observation.

Science requires the sociologist to be objective, to avoid bias when

interpreting data and investigation findings. To abandon this position of
ethical neutrality is to relinquish the position of sociology as the queen
of the social sciences and the science of the sciences. The activist
sociologist challenges this position and argues that it is impossible to
be value-free in contemporary society. To be value-free is to support
the status quo. This radical view of sociology states that, sociologists
technical knowledge puts them at a certain advantage in proposing and
advocating reforms.

They should, therefore, take the initiative and active leadership in

espousing the improvements of conditions for humankind and the
creation of a good society. Since sociologists have allowed their
talents, knowledge, and expertise to be availed of in business and
30
industry, they should now take an active role in fighting for the cause of
the underdog, the downtrodden, the poor, the minorities, and the
disadvantaged. These sociologists rally their colleagues in the struggle
against social injustice, inequality, and any sort of abuse. To them, the
sociologists main role is to be an innovator in solving social problems.

Sociological research cannot be value-free. It is difficult for one to

objectively study both sides; a study must inevitably lead to bias. C.
Wright Mills (1970) as mentioned by Marsh (1996:113) pointed out that
social scientists cannot avoid choices of values in their research.
Political and moral concerns are central to sociology, hence, it is
impossible to achieve value freedom.

In recent years, sociologists have become less hesitant to voice out

their findings, thus helping shape public policy. According to De fleur,
D Antonio, and De Fleur (1974:389), activism based on the
sociological knowledge has become increasingly acceptable as the
stature of their discipline has become more secure. Most sociologists
are now willing to make their vows known on public issues, whether or
not they wish to become actively involved in seeking social reform.
Kendall (2000:3-4) adds that all sociologists still strive to discover
patterns of behavior or commonalities in human behaviour. Sociologists
seek out the multiple causes and effects of such behavior on all people.

The Future of Sociology

What are the trends and prospects of sociology in the 21st century?
How relevant is sociology in a world of increasing globalization and
rapid social and technological changes? In the world today, particularly
in the United States, sociological perspective still remain diverse. Yet,
despite all the niches today, the core ideas from sociologys first one
31
hundred years of theorizing can still be found. Some sociologists feel
that sociology will always hold out the promise of sociology, perhaps,
never to fully realize that theoretical attention to social problems can
help solve them. Whether sociology can once again become important
and relevant depends on the degree to which sociologists of the 21st
century begin to build anew on the theoretical foundations provided by
the first theorists (Turner, Bieghley, and Power 1998:401-403).
Sociologists support the idea of a global sociology, going beyond the
studies focused on ones country and developing a more
comprehensive global approach. Robert Af-Klineberg (1998:29-37)
wrote of his field experiences from all over the world for over three
decades, using his sociological know-how and methodology in tackling
issues in rural development and the mitigating of natural and human-
made disasters.

His observations bolstered his conviction that sociology is a useful tool

for studying problems brought about by social change. He assert that
because sociology is pragmatic and practical, the need for it remains
and is in the solution of social problems and in helping people
understand each other and themselves. In the Philippines, sociology
has moved toward a multi-disciplinary and pluralistic approach in the
1990s. it is open to new methodological and theoretical approaches
and has been involved in diverse issues, including the economic,
political, and social-psychological phenomena. Its loose boundaries,
increasing pluralism, and lack of a distinctive substantive sociological
focus in the discipline has led to speculations on the demise of
sociology in the 21st century, but this has been quickly reputed by
practitioners in the field.

David (1998:76-84) talks of our post-modern world where the forces of

globalization and information technology have encumbered ones
32
behavior thinking due to the forces of speed. The usefulness of
sociology for any kind of meaningful social planning has been placed in
doubt. In such a situation, the conventional modernist paradigm may
not work. But, there is still hope for sociology of any kind of rethinking is
made base on transformative politics and social philosophy.

Bautista (1998) holds a similarly optimistic view on the future of

sociology. She affirms that sociologists, with their habits of analytical
and critical thinking coupled with the sociological imagination, will
flourish in the 21st century. Sociologists especially the younger ones,
will continue to explore new perspectives and methods and make use
of their sociological imagination.

Bautista (1998) adds: Given the way sociology has developed vis--vis
other social science disciplines in the last four decades, sociologists will
be at the forefront of research on critical issues in a rapidly globalizing
environment. They will pursue studies in areas ranging from
ergonomics, health, the environment, women, deviance, and literature.
They will never be engaged in rethinking social arrangements and
institutions in a new age, in exploring cultural issues including
questions of local or natural heritage and roots, and in critiquing
theoretical discourses and implicit framework. They will be exposing the
new generations to debates on identity, memory, and the invention of
self in a world where familiar conventions will no longer hold and the
routines of daily living will have changed dramatically (Philippine
Sociological Review 46 [Jan.-June. 1998] Nos. 1-2. pp72).

Summary

Sociology is the outcome of peoples search for a valid, reliable, and

precise knowledge about people and society. It developed from the
33
attempts of social thinkers to build up a science of society by
developing sociological theories and methods of data gathering. It is
the science of society and the social interactions taking place. As a
science of society, it studies behavior, social issues, and problems
arising from social change. With the leaps in science and technology,
particularly in communications, countries have been drawn closer
together. Thus sociology stresses a global-perspective.

The study of sociology broadens our experiences, and we learn to

discard our prejudices and develop a broad attitude toward people and
events. We acquire the sociological imagination which enables us to
understand the relationship between individual and society and to see
things beyond our established norms.

Auguste Comte, a French social philosopher, gave the name sociology

and advocated the use of positivism or the scientific method in the
study of social phenomena. Karl Marx, a German economist, analysed
that history is a continuing struggle between conflicting ideas and
forces and of social classes. He believed that the bourgeoisie and the
elite exploit the proletariat or the laborers, and that the basic cause of
the conflict is economic. Emile Durkheim, another French thinker, made
use of the scientific method in studying phenomena such as suicide,
religion, and division of labor.

A number of theories have been formulated in the study of society.

Among them are structural-functionalism, conflict theory and symbolic
interactionism. In the 1960s and 1970s, feminist theorists pointed to
gender inequalities in resource access and management. Attempts to
unify these diverse theoretical perspectives were made, but failed.

34
As we stand in the 21st century, sociology is still relevant in a world of
increasing globalization, despite diverse theoretical perspectives. In the
Philippines, sociology has been open to new methodological and
theoretical approaches and involved in multidisciplinary researches.
The idea of indigenous concepts and theories is being promoted.

Study Guide

1. What is sociology? What is social phenomena and social issues

does the sociologists focus attention on?
2. Why study sociology?
3. Explain Mills sociological imagination.
4. How is sociology related to other social sciences in contributing to
an understanding of ourselves and the society we live in?
5. Discuss the various sociological perspectives in the study of social
phenomena and society.
6. Trace the development of sociology as a science. How did
sociology develop in the Philippines?
7. What are the trends and prospects of sociology in 21st century?

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Is it possible to have a value-free sociology? Should sociologists

take a stand in the discussion of social issues like poverty, human
rights, Balikatan, charter change, and others?
2. Do you favour the formulation of indigenous concepts and theories?
Explain your answer.
3. What are the advantages of using the scientific method as a way of
acquiring knowledge?
35
 Chapter 2

THE LOGIC AND METHOD OF SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY AND

RESEARCH

In making their study on Student Organizations and Conflict Gangs at

the University of the Philippines (U.P.) Diliman campus, Prof. Ricardo
Zarco and Dr. Donald Shoemaker used two methodological procedures
in gathering data.

First, they reviewed police records on violence in the university campus

during the period January 1, 1991 to December 31, 1994. The
information consisted of (1) the names of individuals suspected of
involvement in the incident; (2) their social organization membership, if
any; (3) the identity of the victim(s) and assailant(s); and (4) a
description of the incident. The police supervisor was also interviewed
about the police reports.

The second methodological procedure involved personal interviews

with members of 20 fraternities in the U.P. students conducted the
interview under the supervision of Prof. Zarco. The interviews were
held in various campus locations, including the fraternity hangout or
tambayan. A total of 138 respondents were interviewed about their
attitudes regarding social values, educational or academic goals, peer
relationships, parental knowledge, previous involvement in fraternity
activities, and general perceptions on the image of their fraternity.

Prof. Ricardo M. Zarco and Dr. L. Shoemaker, 1995-

The above are illustrations of methods used by sociologists in the

sociological inquiry on any social phenomenon.
36
What is Sociological Inquiry?

Sociological inquiry, like any scientific activity, is like playing a game. It

has goals to achieve, roles to follow, and strategies to use in order to
obtain a high probability of success. It involves participants: the players
and the spectators. The players - the scientists, their assistants, and
other workers - work as a team to achieve results. The spectators -
interested or disinterested, appreciative or inappreciative benefited or
not - are the recipients of the results.

Sociological inquiry is primarily intended to find answers to questions

on the observable social world and social actions. Social actions are
the ways in which humans interact with each other in social units such
as the family, the school, the church, and other social institutions or
associations; they are the primary concern of sociological inquiry. This
concern goes beyond the study of face-to-face contact; it is also the
systemic analysis of the motivation and behavior of individuals within
groups, the study of social groups as a whole, and of institutions such
as government, the church, professional groups, trade unions, or
recreational units.

The Goals of Sociological Research

The basic goal of sociological research is to understand the observable

social world. Its main function is to test or verify a hypothesis. Merton
(1968:103) describes social research as initiating, reflecting, and
classifying theory. This involves having a scientific and theoretical
perspective about the aspect of the social world the sociologist
studying. Sociologists follow certain steps as they go along; in the
process, they acquire a set of generalizations on the nature of human
behavior and society, the patterns of social life, and the forces that lead
37
to social change. The ultimate result is the accumulation of scientific
knowledge that describes the realities that surround people (Timasheff
and Facey 1956). This body of knowledge stands for scientific truth.
Science is based on conclusions which are approximate, provisional, or
tentative, and agreed upon by trained and qualified scientists at a given
time. It is not absolute. Science is subject to change and refinement in
accordance with changing conditions. Being conditional, it is stated in
terms of probability, such as If X exists, then Y will follow. It is non-
moral or amoral, not immoral. People may use it for moral and immoral
purposes. Sociological inquiry is concerned with the repetitive patterns
in human behavior, presented according to logically related hypothesis
and supported by empirical evidence. To be meaningful, these facts
have to be ordered according to a conceptual scheme or theoretical
framework.

Conducting Sociological Inquiry

Sociological inquiry abides by certain fundamental procedures. The

steps are follows:

1. Define the research problem and review related literature.

Our social world is made up of a broad and complex range of
topics which can be researched on. Select a problem that can be
investigated. It is necessary for the researcher to limit the scope
and breadth of the problem. Sometimes, a specific experience,
such as meeting a drug addict, may stir an interest in the problem.
The topic may also be selected in order to fill a gap or correct a
misconception in an existing research.

Above all, researchers have to locate and evaluate what is

already known about this prospective area of inquiry. Scour the
38
 literature and see what has been written about the subject; look
also for unpublished materials. Talk to sociologists or other social
scientists to find leads that you can explore and to avoid
duplication. It is best to have computerized methods of library
research and storing data.

2. Formulate the hypothesis. In social research, one begins with a

hunch or a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a proposition or
assumption stating what is to be resolved. Facts can prove it to be
true or false. Among the sources of hypothesis are common
sense, ideas, folk knowledge, personal and social experiences,
values, and even theory. The hypothesis refers to specific
statements of relationships of two or more observable social
phenomena. Circumstances and challenges along the way may
induce the researcher to revise his/her procedures.

Precision is needed in doing research. Sociology involves many

concepts like social group, social interaction, cooperation, conflict,
and network. They do not explain anything, but they are the
building blocks of theory (Stark 1988:22). Key terms or concepts
used must be isolated and defined.

A concept is a general term that refers to all cases or a particular

class of objects, events, persons, relationships, processes, and
ideas. It is a unit of meaning, symbolizing or labelling a particular
segment of reality. It helps the researcher to identify and classify
regularities of phenomena from a very complex world o0f reality
or facts. Every field of study develops concepts which become
part of its technical vocabulary or jargon for communicating its
findings. The concepts vital to any scientific activity are the
operational definitions or empirical referents. These are
39
 specifications of an abstract concept in terms of simple,
observable procedures.

The measuring procedures constitute the full extent of the

definition as well as the method of observing the phenomenon.
Thus, concepts are tied to readily measurable and communicated
phenomena, and, in a sense, one determines what one wishes to
define by finding an acceptable way of measuring it empirically
(Theodorson and Theodorson 1969:284). Operational definitions
are then usually worked out by developing some indices.
Examples of indices are: social interaction in terms of gossiping at
ones backyard, social class in terms of attendance at meetings,
and democracy in terms of turnout at the polls.

3. Plan the research design. After formulating the hypothesis, the

researcher has to select a research design that includes the
subject of the study, the method of conducting the research, and
the specific techniques for collecting data. The research design is
a king of strategy or blueprint for an efficient and effective way of
carrying out the research.

Methods of social research may be classified as qualitative or

quantitative. The quantitative method makes use of statistics and
mathematics in studying social behavior. Experiments and social
surveys fall under this category. The qualitative method refers to
research techniques that are descriptive and enables one to
secure a subjective understanding, interpretation, and meaning of
social behavior (Curry, Jiobu, and Schwirian 1999:19). The goal is
to arrive at a deeper understanding of what people are doing, by
interpreting their behavior. Qualitative methods include participant
observation, field study, and historical method.
40
 During the 1960s, controversies raged on the merits and
drawbacks of the two methods. Proponents of quantitative
research called the qualitative researchers soft sociologists and
considered them poets instead of scientists. On the other hand,
proponents of qualitative research called the quantitative
researchers number crunchers and crass empiricists. The
controversy has cooled down since, and proponents of both sides
have come to a common understanding. Most sociologists agree
that each method can provide by the other hand (Ibid: 24).

These research methods overlap, and most sociological

researches today use aspects of both the quantitative and
qualitative methods. In fact, it is considered sensible to combine
these methods to enable one to gain a fuller picture of the subject
being studied 9Marsh 1996: 115). At present, non- conventional
research strategies are used to investigate societal problems.

4. Gather the data. In order to meet the fundamental aim of

sociological inquiry, a more immediate goal is to stimulate a
model that can be shown to correspond to certain principles, e.g.,
a sample of the total population to represent the whole as
accurately as possible. The researcher also chooses the
techniques to identify and record the data to be studied.

Data gathering is an important part in the research process. It is

time consuming but essential to gather information which .forms
the basis for the conclusion. The data gathered is usually
encoded into the computer.

5. Analyze the data. This involves testing the hypothesis or

answering questions or assumptions using the data gathered. At
41
 this stage, the problems of measurements arise. Measurements
are yard- sticks that sociologists create and endow with
meanings. Reliability and validity are major issues. Sociologists
have to ascertain that what is being measured is actually the
phenomenon in which they are interested. Test of the validity
refers to the accuracy by which the research measures at
different times and the same results are yielded, the measure is
deemed reliable. Reliability is the consistency in results yielded by
a study or research instrument.

6. Formulate the conclusion. After analyzing the data, the

researcher formulates the conclusion. The hypothesis is either
accepted, rejected, or modified. The researcher may link their
work to other bodies of knowledge and theories. A theory is
formulated. A theory is a statement of the logical relationships
between facts; it is a set of interconnected concepts and
propositions presenting a systematic view of phenomena, and
provides direction for research (Timasheff 1967:9-10). The theory
helps to explain and predict the social world in which we live. A
good theory is characterized by the following: a) The parts of the
theory are consistent with each other. b) It can be tested and
refuted by available evidence. c) It is valid and simply stated, i.e.,
it is consistent with the available evidence.

Researchers aim to affect their audience. Possibly, they will have

different audiences whom they want to interest, inform, and
convince. In general, researchers go over the outline of the topic
to be covered and carefully follow this in preparing the report.

42
 Readers should be treated with respect by providing them, in a
coherent fashion as can be possible, the major points they need
to grasp and evaluate,. The reports introduction summarizes all
the main findings expected, which are checked against the
originally stated hypothesis. Pictures, tables, charts, graphs can
be used as effective aids for easier understanding of the results.
Logic should be used for strength and soundness. Citation of
original sources in footnotes, bibliographic entries, and suggested
readings are useful guides for in- depth reading. The conclusion
may include the studys limitations and point out other areas for
further research.

7. Check or verify results. Further verification of findings is

necessary. Assess the results and make adjustments or
corrections, as needed.

8. Communicate the results to others. The research results

should not stay only with the researcher; they must be
communicated to others. The most common way to do this is to
have it published. In the Philippines, there is the Philippine
Sociological Review, the PSCC Social Science Information, and
other social science journals. The summarized results may also
be published in book form. It may also be presented in a
sociology or social science conference or in school fora.

Methodological Designs In Sociology

Experimental Method

An experiment best meets the requirement for scientific research to

accept or reject a hypothesis. It is a method for studying the relation
43
between two or more variables under highly controlled conditions. A
variable is a measurable dimension of a concept, which can vary or
change. Examples of variables are age, sex, educational attainment,
occupation, I.Q. or intelligence quotient, and socioeconomic level. The
independent variable is changed systematically and is expected to
bring about a change in the other variable. The dependent variable is
the behavior being observed and is dependent on the change in the
independent variable. Two sets of subjects- the experimental and the
control groups - are matched to resemble each other as closely as
possible. The experimental subjects are exposed to the experimental
conditions (variables), while the control subjects are not. One
experimental condition is varied at a time, while the others are kept
constant so that cause and effect and other types of relationships can
be determined. The result is observed to check if there is any difference
between the two groups. Precautions should be taken to ensure that
the experiment is carried out under controlled conditions.

For example, to know the effect of using Filipino instead of English in

the teaching of sociology on the students grades and developing
nationalism. The researcher can set up two classes and match them for
certain variables like age, sex, health conditions, socio- economic
status, and I.Q. In one class, the experimental group, Filipino is used,
while in the control group, English is used as the medium of instruction.
Every grading period, the researcher checks for differences in the
students grades and in the manifestations of nationalism.

In the natural sciences, experiment is commonly used. This is not

always the case in sociology because of limitations in using
experiments. First, it is difficult to control the independent variable and
keep the dependent variable stable. In contrast the laboratory
scientists, sociologists have no control over unexpected entries of
44
factors that may reduce or destroy the effectiveness of the changes
made. Second, there is the ethic al question of involving people without
their knowledge or consent. Some feel that this is alright as long as it
does not disrupt a persons daily schedule and the independent
variable does not harm them (Zanden 1993:22). Another problem is the
difficulty of duplicating experiments in the larger society. In the natural
sciences, the experiment is performed in a laboratory setting.
Sociologists usually want to maximize the natural setting of the group.
Thus, the experiment may be held in a factory, office, school, or prison.

Survey Research

This is a common research technique in social science. It involves a

systematic and large- scale collection of information from people and
about people through the use of a questionnaire. The questionnaire is
intended to determine peoples characteristics, opinions, values,
attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, motivations, and feelings. It is crucial to
phrase questions correctly so that bias or confusion will not arise.
Information may be obtained through face-to-face interviews, by
telephone, or by mail. In general, however, the mail does not ensure
high returns. Surveys are often done before elections to predetermine
the peoples choice of president, vice- president, and senators.
Sometimes, surveys are criticized as being manipulated and funded by
vested interest groups.

The sample survey method involves a sample that closely represents

the particular population from which it was chosen, e.g., the barrio,
province, housing project, university, or hospital. A statistician may be
consulted in setting up the sampling techniques and tools to be used so
that the margin of conclusions drawn will be valid for the whole
population, with a very small margin of error.
45
The two kinds of sampling techniques used in surveys are the random
sample or the stratified random sample. In the random sample,
everyone in the population has a n equal opportunity to be picked out.
In the stratified random sample, the population is divided into age, sex,
religion, socioeconomic status, and ethnic group. Generalizations are
made on the basis of the respondents answers. Researchers look out
for patterns of behavior in term s of sex, age, social class, or regional
grouping. The weakness of surveys is that results can sometimes be
superficial since the responses are short.

Field Research (Participant Observation)

As the name implies, the researcher goes to the field (usually a

community), lives with the people for some months, and participates in
their activities in order to know and feel their culture. This is a popular
strategy used by anthropologists in studying pre-literate groups or
indigenous peoples. Felipe L. Jocano, one of our foremost
anthropologists, made a study of a slum neighborhood in Sta. Ana,
Manila in 1973 by living with them and participating in their activities.
Through participant observation, sociologists get in-depth information
and intimate knowledge about the people.

Field research is, thus the study of the way of life of a group or people
in its natural setting. The researcher interviews ad observes people at
work and play, and acquires information and an understanding of the
various aspects of their life- economic, political, religious, and cultural.
In the daytime, the researcher converses and interacts with the old
people and the children, and in the evenings with the workers. After a
few weeks or months of research, the research hypothesis is organized
around specific themes. As the days roll on, the researcher acquires

46
deeper roots in the community, enabling him or her to have more
dialogues with the informants.

By being in the community where activities take place, the researcher

can describe and explain both the behavior and its contexts; these
become the basis for interpreting the social dynamics and deep
feelings that are part of group life. The researcher can also gain
insights into their problems and can get the meaning and significance
of their behavior and motives (Curry, Jiobu, and Schwirian 1999:21).
After collecting the data, the researcher starts to organize these. The
researcher may also have inner thoughts, feelings or emotional
reactions to the local peoples words and actions (Hicks and Gwynne
1994:33-36). The disadvantage of this method is the length of time
involved. It may take up to a year or more to effectively observe and
participate in the various activities of the people.

Participatory Research

A current trend in development programs is participatory research. This

method utilizes the people, who are the actual targets of development
projects, in the entire research process. The project is first presented to
the people who decide on the research objective, with help from the
researcher. According to Hollnsteiner (as cited by Abad 1984:21),
participatory research involves the peoples conscious reflections on
what action and goals they consider possible and desirable. Thus, the
research becomes meaningful to them and they more readily mobilize
their resources to attain their ends. Participatory research is an attempt
to develop a peoples science so that research becomes relevant not
only as a way of achieving socioeconomic development but also as a
learning process for the group being studied (Abad 1984:2). This is the
essence of people-centered development. According to Bautista
47
(1985:31), participatory research refers to the process by which the
people, together with the researcher, investigate their problem, analyze
the results within a broader structural context, and draw long-range and
short-term action plans. The people and the researcher are involved in
meaningful relationships. The respondents are not passive objects;
they are actively involved in the planning and investigation.

This methodology is gaining around in Sociology, especially at the

grassroots level, and has prompted ideas on concrete alternatives in
social action. This methodology has also been very useful in feminist
research. More women are now involved as subjects and participants in
research, as well as in actions aimed at changing womens situations
(Guerrero 1997:XI). This type of research can be used for the
accumulation of knowledge, as well as for social action, program
evaluation, and extension work.

Techniques and Tools in Sociological Inquiry

Techniques used in sociological inquiry may be qualitative or

quantitative. Qualitative techniques do not involve the intensive use of
universal values in the research process. They include the examination
of tools such as historical records, biographies, autobiographies,
diaries, speeches, editorials, and videotapes. However, the researcher
must exercise great care in checking the reliability of the sources and in
drawing generalizations from them.

Observation

Observation is the foundation of social research. One makes use of the

various senses in studying a social phenomenon or social behavior.
Observation can be open (overt) and Secret (covert). If done overtly,
48
the respondent is informed about it; if covertly, people are observed
without their knowledge. These highlight certain ethical issues about
not informing people that they are being observed. Sometimes, the
observation is detached, i.e., one simply notes what is going on in a
ritual, ceremony, or crowd behavior. Observation may be non-
participatory or participatory. In nonparticipant observation, the
researcher enters the situation as a third party and simply observes
and records what the subjects do or say. Tape recorders, cameras, and
other electronic devices may be used for recording behavior.

Interviews

The researcher also obtains data by interviewing people. If the

interview is non- structured, the researcher leaves it to the interviewee
(also referred to as the respondent or the informant) to guide the
conversation. In structured or directed interviews, the researcher
follows a more definite order of questions. The interview may be guided
by a set of written questions, and the interviewer records the answers
as these are given.

A questionnaire is another tool for securing answers to written

questions. It can either provide space for the respondents written
answer or allow them to choose their response from a list of answers.
Questions may be open- ended, but it is best for the researcher to
probe for more specific and detailed answers. The problem here is that
sometimes respondents are reticent about expressing their feelings or
may give answers that they feel the interviewer wants to hear.
Sometimes, respondents also have a tendency to overestimate the
frequency of exciting events in their lives.

49
Historical Research

This involves a continuous and systematic search for information and

knowledge about past events related to the life of a person, a group,
society, or the world. The researcher studies records like official
chronicles, letters, diaries, baptismal certificates, publications, or
information from sources who have witnessed a certain event. These
sources may provide broad explanations of ones origin and place in
history. Conducting historical research can be difficult because of
inaccuracies or incompleteness in the information obtained. For
example, there may be adequate records about prominent people, but
only scanty materials about the poor, the powerless, the minorities, and
about women.

Life History

This is the study of the personal life of a person through a series of

interviews, the researcher can probe into the decisive moments in their
life or the various influences on their life. Life history can provide a vivid
picture of the culture to which the respondent belongs and shed light on
the norms, values, concerns, and problems of their culture.

Case Study

Extensive examination of a specific group over a long period of time is

carried out in the case study method. It is necessary to carefully record
significant events and evaluate these against the original set of
hypotheses. Case studies aim to acquire in-depth information about an
individual, a group, or population at one point in time. This technique is
mostly descriptive. One can make a case study of a drug addict, a
prostitute, a professional, or a gang. By analyzing several cases of the
50
same nature, one can learn much about this particular social behavior.
Although case studies do not necessarily lead to conclusive
generalizations, they are rich sources of fresh and deep insights for
further research.

Content Analysis

This involves the analysis of how people communicate and the

messages people talk or write about. This is usually used to study the
contents of books and mass media and how they transmit messages.
For example, one can make a content analysis of textbooks to see how
women are treated compared to men. The researcher can determines
the number of times males and females are featured and whether the
things said about them are complimentary or biased.

Use of films and tape recorder

For field research, one can make use of photographs and films/ video
to record interesting events or records visual information about houses,
tools, occupations, clothing, events, rituals, and ceremonies. The use of
the tape recorder enables the researcher to preserve information more
accurately.

Data derived through qualitative techniques can be subjected to

statistical analysis, which deals with a mass of data and permit more
precise statements of their relationship. The techniques involve the
classification and enumeration of data, analyses of the quantitative
relationship involved, and assignment of numerical values to their
relationships. Tools that can be utilized are census and vital statistics;
local, national, and international reports; sampling measures of central
tendency; the mean, the median, and the mode; measures of variability
51
the negative or the positive, and tests of significance; the chi-square
and probable error.

Feminist Research

Dr. Sylvia H. Guerrero (1999), a prominent sociologist and former

director of the University of the Philippines Center of Womens Studies
and former president of the Philippines Sociological Society, states that
feminist research advocates the qualitative methods which permit
women to express their experiences fully and in their own termsoffer
a more human, less mechanical relationship between the researcher
and researched. Feminist research emerged from the womens
liberation movement of the 1960s. Feminist researchers levelled
criticisms against positivism, orthodox sociological methodologies, and
the processes by which sociological knowledge is formulated. They
conceive of knowledge as socially constructed and are the product of
social and cultural relations. Sociological knowledge has been primarily
andocentric or centered on man, such that sociological theories and
methods seem to be derived from the visions of the social world
afforded to men (Acker et al. 1983 as cited by Marsh 1996).

The focus of feminist research is on womens experience and womens

oppression. Its objectives are to understand, advocate for, transform,
and empower women. It aims to help not only women but also men to
improve their situation and the quality of their lives. The traditional
norms of objectivity and detachment are deemed inadequate. Instead,
feminist research stresses connectedness and partisanship with the
women being investigated and their needs, interest, and experience. A
friendly and egalitarian relationship between the researcher and the
researched comes to the fore. The dialogues are also occasions for
consciousness-raising and women empowerment actions. Feminist
52
research is guided by the principle that it must move beyond knowledge
for its own sake and that the knowledge generated must contribute to
womens liberation and emancipation.

The researcher becomes an advocate, wherein the knowledge

acquired contributes to the cause. Research designs employ
participatory action strategy. They also use naturalism, life stories, case
studies, and oral history, as well as traditional tools like surveys and
experiments combined with community validation and networking. All
these involve action and collaborative research. Feminist research of
the University of the Philippines Center for Womens Studies makes
use of research methods which are gender-sensitive, women-centered,
and integrative with policy, planning and programs on health,
population, and gender. It goes beyond knowledge generation and into
advocacy and action (Guerrero 1999).

Ethical Concerns in Sociological Research

There are certain considerations in researching on human beings. The

respondents must be informed of its object and objectives. Sociologist
must not obtain any information or data for any purpose except for its
research value. The people or groups studied are entitled to their
privacy, confidentiality, and full anonymity throughout the whole
process and when the results are reported (Appelbaum and Chambliss
1995:17). Care must also be taken to ensure that the subjects of the
research are not exposed to any physical or mental danger or
subjected to violations of human rights. Questions about the ethics of
using tapes, recording machines, and cameras should be resolved.
Thus, the researchers must be responsible and accountable for their
research procedures and findings.

53
Patterns of Behavior Required for Sociological Inquiry

To be performed well, sociological inquiry demands and consequently

enhances certain types of behavior. For instance, sociologist must
posses a good grasp of the basic premises of their field. They must
realize that sociological inquiry is more rigorous and more systematic
than common sense. They study peoples reactions to their social
environment and interactions in social groups, and look for repetitive
patterns of human behavior from a variety of social experiences.
Sociologists delve beyond the face value of an individuals claimed
relationships with others into the actual happenings, including the
unspoken, unexpected, and unintended results that occur (Merton
1968:3). They scrutinize the nature of change taking place within the
society.

Sociologists should be aware of two predominant traditional thoughts

regarding the treatment of their data. One is closely associated with
Max Weber who believed that objective measurements are not
sufficient and advocated the use of Verstehen. Subjective meanings
from the point of view of others must be included in order to fully
explain social phenomena. Another traditional thought is positivism,
expounded by Auguste Comte, which claims that the methods of the
physical and the biological (or natural) sciences can be applied study of
the human being. Because the natural and the social sciences have
basic similarities, both can be approached with scientific techniques
and tools such as experiments and statistical analysis in the study of
social phenomenon. However, scientific tools alone are inadequate for
studying the social sciences. Objectives knowledge can also be
accumulated from the social as well as natural environment.

54
Positivist scientists also try to observe objectivity, i.e., being unbiased
and free of personal opinions or prejudices. Popular opinion opposes
the possibility of the total objectivity in either the natural or social
sciences. The sincere desire to be objective does not necessarily result
in complete objectivity. The social scientist may be biased without
being aware of it. For instance, the whole process involved in working
on a sociological problem becomes largely a matter of personal
judgment on the part of researchers. Of great importance is the
researchers ability to keep their observations and conclusions
independent of their values and beliefs, and personal feelings from
influencing their findings.

Whether the sociologist should take a partisan outlook or a neutral

stance on social issues has also been a controversy. At the turn of the
20th century, sociologist focused their attention on resolving social
problems; after World War I, sociologist felt that their primary
responsibility was to build up scientific knowledge about society. This
ethical neutrality or value-free position was criticized by C. Wright Mills
in the 1950s and by Irving L. Horowitz in 1960s.

Some groups emphatically believe that sociologist should be deeply

involved in and committed to the resolution of social problems.
However, quite a number maintain that sociologists should not abandon
their value-free position if sociology is to develop as a science.
Sociologists must distinguish between, and keep separate, their roles
as a concerned citizen and as a scientific inquirer. This issue has to be
resolved by each student of sociology.

Reflective skepticism is also necessary for sociological inquiry. One

has to clarify an assertion or to ask questions before accepting it as
true. For example accepting it as fact, one has to ask for evidence to
55
support the statement and then look closely at the quality of the
evidences. Although researchers have to be open-minded about new
and unique ideas, they need to be sufficiently skeptical to reserve
conclusions about these ideas unless and until they derive tested
answers to fundamental questions about them.

Researchers must develop critical thinking. Critical thinking involves

reflective skepticism and skilful judgment in the pursuit of the truth. A
persistent critical spirit is important sociological inquiry is to go beyond
common sense or presumptive speculation. It should not be bound,
limited, or encapsulated by traditional wisdom or conventional
knowledge. Not only should researchers determine whether an idea is
interesting or pertinent, they should also weigh whether it is testable
and can be subjected to detailed analysis.

Scientific behavior requires operation, honesty, and liberalism. Each

researchers work is dependent on the activities of others. What
remains to be explained should be related to what is already known;
thus, every researchers findings need to be freely shared with others. If
sociological inquiry is to develop cumulative and self-correcting
knowledge, then the findings must be presented honestly, no matter
how unexpected the findings are. They should likewise be reported
regardless of the personal characteristics of the subjects who are
involved.

Social researchers must be sensitive to how people in the community

where they work feel about scientists and their work. Lay persons
generally conceive of scientists as weird and antisocial. They believe
that scientific work is performed only in laboratories amidst test tubes
and other equipment, and that its results have immediate application to
daily life problems. People are seldom aware that scientists are
56
dependent upon groups. Current research trends require them to work
alongside other scientists in order to reduce or remove the barriers of
communication that isolate varied scientific disciplines from each other.
Scientists are obligated to present findings in a manner that can be
understood by the ordinary person. Furthermore, people generally do
not realize that scientific studies result from generations of work
consisting of the required testing of theory with facts or fact with theory,
and that solutions to human problems may be drawn from scientifically
verified knowledge.

Science, as a way of life, is dependent on the extent to which society

institutionalizes the recognition and acceptance of scientific attitude and
behavior patterns ion the development of natural and human resources.
A researcher may be rewarded or penalized, depending on his or her
performance. The penalty for anyone who does not work according to
the standards of scientific inquiry could be ridicule by ones colleagues
or rejection of ones work. Reward for excellent research may include
citations, awards, medals, enviable consultative and academic
positions, and substantial monetary grants. Less tangible rewards
would be acceptance of ones work as having withstood testing and
checking against empirical observation by ones peers.

But whether the researcher performs well or not, a science-oriented

society provides incentive for exceptional persons or groups who use
their capabilities for common social ends, foster communication of
ideas, and encourage employers and employees and even the total
population to support rather than to suppress the use of scientific
knowledge and method. The history of humanity reveals certain periods
when the development of science was retarded because of restrictions
on these conditions. However, when society provided an atmosphere
that was conducive to the pursuit of knowledge, science progressed
57
rapidly. In general, modern society has become more favorable to
science.

Summary

Sociological inquiry is a scientific activity to acquire valid and precise

knowledge of our observable social world and to increase our
understanding of our social groups and ourselves. Its main focus is to
test or verify a hypothesis. It involves having a scientific and theoretical
perspective about the aspect of the social world the sociologist is
studying. The sociologist follows basic procedures such as defining the
research problem and reviewing related literature, formulating the
hypothesis, planning the research design, gathering the data, analyzing
the data, formulating the conclusion, checking and verifying the results,
and communicating the findings.

Social research entails either qualitative or quantitative methods.

Qualitative methods of research include participant observation, field
study, historical method, life history, and case study. Quantitative
methods, on the other hand, make use of the statistics and
mathematics in studying social behavior. Social surveys and
experiments fall under this category. A trend in research in the
Philippines is participatory research. There is also the feminist research
approach, which uses qualitative methods. Feminist researchers view
knowledge as socially constructed and the product of social and
cultural relations. Research also has ethical concerns: the researcher
must assume responsibility for their research procedures and findings.

Certain types of behavior patterns are required for sociological inquiry.

Among these are a good grasp of the basis of premises of their field,
objectivity, a critical spirit, skeptical receptivity, communality, and
58
liberalism. A question that has nagged sociologists is whether or not to
be directly involved in resolving social issues.

Study Guide

1. Concepts to master:

Concepts Qualitative techniques

Hypothesis Quantitative techniques
Theory Sample universe
Fact Observation
Positivism Critical spirit

2. What is sociological inquiry? What are its functions?

3. How does the social researcher conduct an inquiry on a research
problem?
4. Explain the patterns of behavior needed in sociological inquiry.
5. What is objectivity? Can social researchers be completely objective
in their inquiry? Why?
6. What are the research methods which social researchers use?
What are the techniques and tools used?
7. How can social researchers effectively communicate their findings to
the intended audience?

Critical Thinking Questions

1. How does sociological inquiry differ from research in the natural

sciences? In what ways are they similar?
2. How do sociologists select the research design for their studies?
3. What position should sociologists take regarding social issues?

59
 Chapter 3

CULTURE: ITS UNITY AND DIVERSITY

Among the Jews, a Kiddushin marriage ceremony requires

husband and wife to have an exclusive relationship and to be
sanctified to each other under the Law of Moses. Traditionally,
parents relied on the services of matchmaker to select a proper
spouse for their child. Today, dating is the common practice.

Engagement in Jewish law carries legal and social significance.

The official Jewish engagement takes place with the signing of te
naim, a mutual agreement between the brides and grooms
parents to discuss the date and financial arrangements of the
marriage. The te naim creates the status of being engaged and
is often read by a prominent rabbi or close friend. The mothers of
the bride and groom break a China plate to signify the completion
of the engagement agreement.

On the morning before the wedding, the groom is usually called to

read the Torah (Scriptures) in the synagogues; this serves to
announce the forthcoming marriage. The couple abstains from
seeing each other before the wedding day. On the wedding day,
they recite special prayers as a day of atonement and fast from
dawn until the chupah ceremony is completed. The bride and
groom traditionally wear white as sign of purity.

The marriage contract is signed and witnessed by close friends or

respected teachers. The groom is asked if he is prepared to fulfill
the obligations in the contract. Singing and dancing precede the
marriage ceremony.
60
 The ceremony is the combination of symbolism, tradition, and
religious binding acts. The central physical symbol is the chupah,
the marriage canopy supported by four poles. The chupah
represents the home that the couple will create together, with the
Divine Presence to bless them. The bride and groom are escorted
by their parents, with the groom preceding the bride. Nine
blessing are recited. Two witnesses are called to examine the
wedding bond. The groom places the ring on the brides index
finger. They are then declared married. The new couple is
secluded for a while. Then, they break the fast entering the
banquet room where they are greeted by joyous dancing and
singing. A reception follows. The bridal celebrations continue for
the entire week. Then, the couple settles down to normal life.

Ma. Patricia P. Stock, 2011

Do you detect similarities or differences with our marriage customs and

traditions from the above? Why do Jews behave this way?

As we go from place to place, we note differences in peoples beliefs

with regard to dressing, food and cooking, love and courtship, marriage
practices, ways of worshipping God, earning a living, leisure time
activities, etc. The Chinese, Japanese, Indians, Arab, Americans,
Russians- people in general- are brought up differently; thus, they
acquire different ways of behaving. The behavior patterns peculiar a
group of people compromise what sociologists and other social
scientists call culture.

61
The Concept of Culture

We often hear the expression that lady is highly cultured why? Is it

because she speaks English Spanish, or French; appreciate modern
art; listen to classical music of Beethoven, Mozart, and Bach or the
compositions of Buencamino, Santiago, and Kasilag; watches operas,
concerts, and plays; visit museums; reads class novels and
bestsellers? The popular view of culture is that of a state of refinement
of being well versed in the arts, philosophy and languages. To social
scientists, however, this is a limited view of culture; to them every
member of a society is cultured.

Culture can also refer to expressive culture, which includes plastic

and graphic arts, such as sculptures and painting, and language when
utilized as an artistic medium. These have aesthetic appeal for those
who arrange them and to others who appreciate and enjoy them (Hicks
and Gynne 1994:313). There is also the so- called popular culture,
which includes activities, products and services that are assumed to
appeal primarily to members of the middle and working classes. This
includes rock music, spectator sports, movies, and TV soap operas.

Sociologists and Anthropologists define culture in a broader context.

Culture refers to the total and distinctive way of life or designs for living
of any society. It encompasses learned behaviors, beliefs, attitudes,
values, and ideals characteristic of certain societies. Weinstein
(1996:82) defines culture as a human invention that has a fundamental
role in the populations adaptation to its environment. Its essential
features found in the peoples collective life include norms, values,
language, tools and other material object. The units of culture or traits
are combined and organized in a number of ways to create large
structures like artifacts, complexes, and culture patterns. These are
62
shared by the members of the society and passed on to others through
socialization.

Culture is the sum total of human creations- intellectual, technical,

artistic, physical and moral. It guides social life, the things generation
must follow and to which they may eventually add. Culture interprets
our surroundings, gives them meaning, and allows us to express our
selves. Language, religion, science, art, nations of right and wrong, and
explanations of the meaning of life are all part of culture. It also
includes the various materials and objects that people learn to use
(Stark 1998:64).

Culture is a peoples social heritage; it refers to the customary ways in

which groups organize their ways of behaving, thinking, and feeling. It
is transmitted from one generation to another through language and the
arts. It presents people with ways of relating to others and their
surroundings. Culture represents the designs or recipes for living, the
interrelated network of norms and roles. It encompasses modes of
thinking, acting, and feeling found in a society and includes everything
and individual has acquired as a member of a society. It tells one what
to do, what not to do, and how to do things.

Culture is the aspect of our existence which is familiar to some people

but different to others. It is the way of life common to a group of people
which enables them to share ideas and patterns of behavior that
distinguishes them from others. Hence, they are able to live in relative
harmony. Culture varies from one society to another. It is what makes
us Filipinos different from the Chinese, Vietnamese, Spanish, or
American. It is culture that identifies us as Filipinos.

63
Society and Culture

Sociologists define society as a group of people occupying a

geographical territory, with a common culture, and interacting with each
other. The members are united by social relationships, share a
common language and beliefs, and consume similar goods. The
society has social boundaries that set off members from all other
persons and groups. However, some Sociologists do not emphasize
the geographical territory. In this age of increasing communication,
migration, and globalization, people may share a common culture even
if they are geographically dispersed. For example, Filipino migrants all
over the globe continue to share common ways of doing thing with their
mother society.

Functionalists consider society a social system which has set of

components related to one another in a more or less stable fashion
through a period of time. Functionalists view the family, religion,
economy, education, and the state as the major social institutions. For
the society and work efficiently, there must be balance or equilibrium
among the various social institutions. Change in any of the social
institutions will affect other parts of society.

On the other hand, conflict theorists analyze society based on conflict

and power. While they also pay attention to social institutions and their
structural relations, they focus on conflict and power within society and
the process of change which disorganize and brings instability, if not
chaos. According to conflict theorists, wealth, power, and prestige are
scantly and dominated by the elite, resulting in conflict for scarce
resources. When the lower class feels their inferior status and become
aware that they are exploited, they rise against the upper class.

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Certain arrangements are possible in the face of conflicting interests.
One arrangement is for the group which enjoys sufficient power to
make and enforce rules and shape institutional life to serve its interests.
The government has this position to promulgate rules for its own
benefits. Another arrangement is for overlapping and divided interest
group to cooperate against outsiders (Zanden 1993; 56-57).

According to Zanden, the functionalist and the conflict theory

approaches complement each other. Functionalisms shortcoming is its
difficulty in explaining history and social change. On the other hand,
conflict theorists have difficulty dealing with aspects of consensus,
integration, and stability. While some proponents of the functional and
conflict schools have difficulty reconciling their differences, a number of
sociologists support the view that functionalists and conflict theorists
are simply studying two aspects of the same reality as consensus and
conflict are paramount features of social life.

Language and Culture

What distinguishes human beings from lower animals is the possession

of culture. While animals like dogs and chimpanzees can learn tricks or
imitate certain activities, they cannot transmit what they have learned to
their young and so they cannot accumulate things that have been
learned. Symbolic language is responsible for the existence and
development of culture. Language refers to the systematized usage of
speech and hearing to convey, communicate, or express feelings and
ideas (Eshelman and Cashion 1983;93). It is made up of a set of verbal
and written symbols used within a certain culture. A symbol is anything
that stands or represents something else and is not immediately
present to our senses. Meanings are conferred on them. The existence
of culture is made possible by the use of symbols as these enable
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people to share ideas. Symbols may be colors, emblems, gestures,
designs, marks, or words. The word chair connotes something to sit
on or a presiding officer of a committee. The cross is a symbol for
Christians or street crossings. After the assassination of Ninoy Aquino
on August 21, 1983, the L sign was used during mass actions or
rallies to designate Laban meaning fight and yellow flags symbolizes
support for Cory Aquino, widow of the assassinated senator.

Culture is inculcated orally and by writing through the medium of

language. Language is an abstraction and is made up of rules for
generating speech. Social and cultural factors influence its vocabulary.
The Eskimos have different words for different types of snow; fisher
folks in the Philippines have different words for various types of nets
and bancas; the Samals of Mindanao have different words for many
kinds of fish. Research shows that vocabulary maybe influenced by the
cultural, environmental, and physiological factors. For instance, not all
languages have the same number of words for color; some have just
few words while others have as many as eleven or twelve. The
increasing number of words for a certain item or object is attributed to
the increasing economic and technological complexity of a society
(Howard and Hattis 1992;339). Moreover, language helps determine
our cultural practices and how we organize our perception of the world.

Language is an integral part of culture, and human culture cannot exist

without it. All societies have languages. Even in simple societies where
people cannot write or read, they have a spoken language, through
language, wide vistas of reality have been opened. Our observations,
norms, value, and ideas exist because we have learned to identify or
experience these through language (Perucci and Knudsen 1984;64-
65), and share and transmit these from one generation to another
through the process of socialization.
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Language enables people to transcend time and space. Through
language, we recall what happened in the past and discuss what are
possibly forthcoming. Language enables us to communicate with
others, design complex plans and projects, develop abstract ideas
(Lindesmith and Strauss 1968;27-29)

There are over seventy languages and dialects in the Philippines.

Because of the multiplicity of languages and dialects, the American
educators introduced English as the medium of instruction when they
established the public school system. Likewise, English was used to
introduce democracy and other aspects of the American culture. During
the commonwealth period, Pres. Quezon advocated the national
language based on tagalong, but this was strongly opposed by the
other ethnic linguistic groups, especially the Cebuanos who constitute
the largest language speaking group. Filipino is used in everyday social
interactions as well as in the market space.

In 1974, the policy of bilingualism was introduced, purportedly to

develop competence in the use of both Filipino and English. It was to
be gradually implemented from grade I to the high school. In college, it
was implemented in the teaching of certain subjects, particularly the
social sciences. However, the problem of implementation depended on
the training of teachers and the preparation of materials.

The 1986 constitution provided for a national language of the

Philippines which would be developed and enriched on the basis of
other existing Philippine and other languages. For purposes of
communication and instruction the official languages of the Philippines
are Filipino and, unless otherwise provided by law, English. There is an
increasing perception that the Filipinos competence in the use of
English is deteriorating. Thus, there are proponents for the
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strengthening of the teaching in English. They claim that English is fast
becoming the global language, so proficiency in the use of English
gives Filipinos professional workers an advantage over Asians and
non-English speaking groups.

The characteristics of culture

Culture has qualities which are the same everywhere and through all
times. Among the universal characteristics of culture are:

1. Culture is learned. The norms, skills, values, and knowledge which

constitute ones culture are acquired during the course of ones life
and not transmitted genetically. While animals also learned behavior
patterns, the advantage of humans over them is the use of language
symbols. Humans also have the longest period of dependency so
there is a great dependence on learning. Culture is derived from the
family and other instruction, and mass communication.

2. Culture is transmitted. While all animals are capable of learning,

only humans can transmit their acquired habits and knowledge to
their offspring. Apes can be taught to operate machines, or dogs and
seals can learn certain knowledge on to their offspring. Humans are
able to convey their ideas to the next generations, which may add to
the accumulated behavior patterns and knowledge. Culture is
transmitted by conditioning children to acquire attitudes essential in
social life and training them in accordance with expected patterns of
behavior.

3. Culture is social, collective and learned. It is developed through

group interaction and results from the accumulation of knowledge
and group expectations. For a behavior pattern, belief or value to be
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 considered part of culture, it must be shared by groups of
individuals. Ideas, like children should respect their parents or
fiestas should be held to honor the patron saint, are part of the
culture shared by members of our society. We share cultural
characteristics with segments of our population based on ethnicity,
religion, or occupation. The group habits and knowledge are shared
by the group members and are kept relatively uniform by certain
social sanctions and pressures.

4. Culture is ideational. Within the culture are group habits

considered as ideal patterns of behavior which the members are
expected to follow. Humans assign meanings to their environment
and experiences symbolizing them. These are internalized by the
individual who perceives and responds to the world in accordance
with the culture of the group. This is what W.I Thomas calls the
definition of the situation.

5. Culture is gratifying. Culture has provisions to satisfy the biological

and sociological needs of people. It allows for the reasonably
efficient and spontaneous interaction in the group for the satisfaction
of these needs. There are some basic needs common to all
humankind which demand uniformly similar forms of gratification.
These are also referred to as universal culture patterns.

6. Culture is adaptive. All cultures are always changing and these

changes represent adjustment to the environment. As mentioned
earlier, culture plays a fundamental role in the peoples adaptation to
the environment. Culture adapts to meet specific sets of
circumstances such as climate, level of technology, population, and
geography. Culture enables people to adjust to their physical as well
as social environment. Culture enables the members of society to
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 develop ways of coping with the exigencies of nature, as well as
ways of harnessing the forces of their environment. People learn to
relate themselves with other in order to survive.

No culture is static. Cultures are in constant flux, but change at

different rates. Change occurs as a result of discoveries, inventions
and cultural borrowing. The acceptance of change depends on the
exposure of the members of society to new ideas and ways different
from their own and their opportunity to accept ideas and ways
through diffusion. Change may be a response to internal or
environmental factors or external influences such as trade,
migration, missionary activities, international relations and war.

7. Culture is an integrated whole. The various parts of the culture are

closely interrelated and integrated into a whole. Durkheim stressed
that culture is the product not of single individual but of a collective.
A collective consciousness exists beyond the individual.

The various elements should tend to fit each other for a better
adaptive process; this is what summer terms strain of consistency
such that friction among various elements are lessened, leading to
mutual support. However, these elements are not always in perfect
harmony because stresses and strain have unequal rates of
change. Society tries to work out balance between them.

Components of Culture

Culture is made up of many elements which are interrelated and unified

in order for all its aspects to function effectively. There is a network of
social relationships involving a complex series of reciprocal responses.
Modes of acting, thinking, and feeling in various social situations are
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defined by the members of the society who learn and share these.
According to Kendall (2000;4), our cultural toolbox has two major
aspects; the material and nonmaterial culture. Material culture refers to
the concrete and tangible objects that humans create, use, and share,
serving as buffers against the various elements in the environment.
Nonmaterial culture consists of knowledge, social norms, beliefs, and
sanctions which are abstract and intangible creations that influence
human behavior.

Knowledge

The total range of what has been learned or perceived as true is

knowledge. This body of information is accumulated through
experiences, study, or investigation. However, what is considered to be
the truth may change. What in the past was thought true may be
considered an error today. Scientific discoveries rectify supposed errors
of the past and produce new knowledge. People action the basis of
what they to be true.

Culture includes natural, supernatural, technical, and magical

knowledge (Richter 1987:149-50). Natural knowledge refers to the
accumulated facts about the natural world, including both the biologist
and physical aspects. Technological knowledge pertains to the
knowledge of nature which are useful in dealing with practical problems
like methods of acquiring food, dealing with diseases, means of
transportation, tools and implements, and weapons of war.
Supernatural knowledge refers to perceptions about the actions of
gods, demons, angels or spirits and natural beings like shamans,
witches or prophets who are held to possess supernatural powers.
Magical knowledge refers to perceptions about methods of influencing
supernatural events by maintaining certain laws of nature. In simple
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societies with a traditional way of life, supernatural and magical
knowledge influence social behavior. In contrast, modern societies rely
more on natural and technological knowledge.

Social norms

In norms ordinary everyday activities like reading, talking, dressing,

cooking, courtship, child rearing, working, spending leisure time, as well
as in special occasions like weddings, burials or Christmas, there are
certain prescription or standards of behavior called norms. Norms are
rules or group expectations of how one should behave or act in certain
situations. They define what behavior is required, acceptable, or
appropriate in particular situations. Stark (1998:84) states that, because
of our attachments to other people, we are prompted to conform to their
expectations of how we ought to behave. What we choose to do is
greatly influenced by what our friends want us to do.

A norm is an idea in the minds of members of a groups put into a

statement specifying what the members should do under certain
circumstances (Homans 1950:123). Any departure from the norm is
followed by some kind of punishment or sanction. Norms are usually in
the form of rules, standards, prescriptions, and socially shared
expectations. Some norms apply to everyone, like those revolving
around honesty, truthfulness, or loyalty to country. Other norms apply
to particular categories of people who assume certain roles.

Folkways

Folkways are commonly known as the customs, traditions and

conventions of society. They are general rules, customary and habitual
ways, and patterns of expected behavior within the society where they
72
are followed, without much thought given to the matter. Summer
(1906:IV) says:

Folkways are the habits of the individual and customs of the

society which arise from efforts to satisfy needs; they are
intertwined with the goblinism and demonism and primitive
nations of luck, and so they win traditional authority. These
eventually become regulative for succeeding generations and
take on the character of a social force. They arise no one knows
whence or how. They grow as if by the play of internal like energy.
They can be modified, but only to a limited extent, by the
purposeful efforts of humans. In time they lose power, decline and
die or are transformed.

These customary ways are accumulated and become repetitive

patterns of expected behavior which tend to be self-perpetuating.
Some evolve into the present form out of a slow but continuous process
of trial and experimentation. Some are rational, others are not; some
are explicit, but most are implicit. They are handed down from
generation to generation and gained the widespread support of public
opinion. They sometimes guide peoples sentiments and attitudes
toward given issues or topics. Some folkways change slowly while
others change as the culture changes.

Folkways includes innumerable group expectations like rules of eating,

drinking, dressing, dancing, and working, forms of greetings, rituals,
and polite behavior in institutional settings. There are a number of
folkways observed during Christmas, lent, and special occasions.

In the Tagalog rural areas, people eat three times a day with merienda
(snack) in the afternoon. They eat with their hands. They greet each
73
other with a smile, asking where the person has been or is going.
Children say po to elders. In courtship, a boy may seek the help of the
relative or a friend for an introduction to the girl. He may serenade her
(although this practice is now waning) or send love notes directly or
through an intermediary. Visiting the girl in the afternoon or early
evening is another folkway. Sumner (1906:5-6) sums up folkways as a
great mass of usage of all degrees of importance, covering all interests
in life, embodying a life philosophy and forming a character.

Mores

Mores are special folkways which are important to the welfare of the
people and their values. They are based on ethical and moral values
which are strongly held and emphasized. They are social norms
associated with strong feelings about what is right and what is true.
Having strong moral sanctions, they are the must and should of a
society. They are the expected behavior current in society which
individuals follow as they satisfy their needs and desires.

Mores are coercive in nature as they are considered important to

societal welfare. Observance of mores is compulsory. They embody
the codes of ethics and standards of morality in a society. Most of the
mores have been enacted into laws. Mores consist, in large, of taboos.
The Ten Commandments constitute an important source of mores. It
applies to sexual behavior, marriage and family relations, physical and
moral aggression against members of the in-group, betrayal of a group,
attitudes towards authority, religion or the unfortunates in society,
business deals, and other vital issues which involve group welfare.

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Laws

Laws are formulized norms, enacted by people who are vested with
government power and enforced by political and legal authorities
designed by the government. Laws are enforced by formal sanctions
like fines, imprisonment, or death. Some laws grew out of the folkways
and mores. They have the strong support of public opinion and tend to
reinforce folkways and mores. It is hand to enforce the laws when these
do not reflect folkways and mores. For example, the ban on smoking
and traffic regulations are not strictly followed. The antismoking
ordinance passed in Metro Manila in 1991 has been very difficult to
implement. It was also difficult to pass a law against smoking in
congress because of the strong and powerful tobacco lobby, lobby,
despite the fact that smoking is hazardous to health.

Some laws such as those contained in the constitution, the civil code,
and the declaration of human rights have strong public support. On the
other hand, people are divided in their opinion of whether some laws
are advantageous to them or not. Some laws are related to innovations
which bear little moral significance for the people concerned. Examples
of these are corporation laws, association laws, and government
agency laws, the meanings of which are variously interpreted in
subcultures of the larger society.

The needs for increasing formalization of laws become necessary with

the rapid social change and with the migration of people. This makes
the regulation of behavior according to divergent sets if folkways and
mores unsatisfactory.

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Collective Forms of Behavior

Fashions, fads, crazes, and other passing fancies operate primarily as

forces of social change, yet these may be considered short-lived social
norms. Some styles of dresses and decorative items which were
fashionable years ago appear funny or ridiculous today. The same is
true of styles of houses, furniture, cars and gadgets. Fashions or
vogues are powerful regulators of behavior in urban areas and
industrialized societies. The prestige and status of a person depend on
their use of these new styles. Those who do not keep up with fashions
or fads are subjected to ridicule or are called old-fashioned.

Sanctions

Despite the great influence of culture, not all members of society follow
its norms. This may be due to ignorance or lack of knowledge, the
tendency to follow the norms of ones subgroup, or personal reasons or
principles. To ensure that the norms are followed and expectations
obeyed, sanctions are used. Sanctions are a system of reward and
punishment. Rewards are positive sanctions for those who behave
properly, while punishments are negative sanctions for those who
behave improperly (Popenoe 1977:87).

Sanctions maybe formal or informal. Informal sanctions are gossip,

unfavorable public opinion, and giving or withdrawing love or friendship.
Lavishing children with love by kissing, coddling or verbal admiration
may be enough to make them follow what parents would like to do.
Formal sanctions are used for violations of norms in organizations or
associations.

76
When a person violates folkways, sanctions may come in the form of
ridicule or disapproval, being considered as funny or eccentric, and
being labelled as an odd ball. Violations of the folkways involve only
mild censure compared to violations of the mores. Violators of mores
are considered immoral, sinful, vicious or antisocial. They may be
ostracized, subjected to ridicule or mob violence, banished or exiled.
Sanctions for violators of laws are fines, imprisonment or death penalty.
Deviants, such as those who commit murder, rape, arson, or treason
are meted very severe sanctions.

Values

While norms are standards, patterns, rules, and guides of expected

behavior, values are abstract concepts of what is important and
worthwhile. These values are the basic of our judgment, of what we
consider good, desirable, and correct, as well as what is considered
bad, undesirable, and wrong. Frequently, we hear people label those
who have done wrong as having no sense of value. This remark is
made when a persons behavior is considered undesirable. We place a
high value on love of God, honesty, cleanliness, and love of country, so
when someones behavior belies these values, we are appalled. Values
are linked with actual events and are often emotionally charged. They
are the standards by which persons, individually or in groups, define
their goals, select alternatives, and judge others as good or bad. This
concept of values will be discussed further in another chapter.

Beliefs

When one hears the word belief, what often comes to mind are
superstitious beliefs- but these are just one form of beliefs. Beliefs
embody peoples perception of reality and may include the primitive
77
ideas of universe as well as the scientists empirical view of the world.
They result from ones experiences about the physical, biological, and
social world in which the individual lives. Beliefs, such as superstitious
and those that relate to philosophy, technology, art, and science, are
usually incorporated into the whole vast body of knowledge which has
been accumulated through time. Some of these ideas have not been
scientifically proven but are considered facts by those who told them.
For example, the Pinatubo Aetas idea that nature spirits help them in
times of danger or punish them when they are bad, or the idea held by
barrio folks that one has to ask the help of the Almighty God for a
bountiful harvest, are just as regulative as the idea held by modern
societies that one must follow the doctors advice when one is sick or
rely on the use of fertilizers, insecticides, and selected seeds of
bountiful harvest. Even with advances in science, superstitious beliefs
of the older folks prevail. People consider, consult, and depend on their
body of beliefs for certain courses of action. There are value-oriented
beliefs that lead to some form of collective behavior which seek to re-
evaluate the existing social structure and its fundamental values.

Material Culture and Technology

Through the use of technology, raw materials are converted into

objects that can be utilized by society. Aside from the nonmaterial
aspects of culture, which include language, social norms, values, and
beliefs, there are certain material techniques and products used by
societies. Technology refers to techniques and know-how in processing
raw materials to produce food, tools, shelter, clothing, means of
transportation, and weapons. Technology applies the principles of
science and mechanics to the solution of problems or to accomplish a
specific task. The material objects that are produced by technology are
called artifacts. The extent of the use of artifacts depends on the
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societys level of technological development. Simple societies have
stone tools, mortar and pestle, nipa huts, hand-woven clothes, or carts
as their artifacts. In agricultural societies, animals and simple machines
are used to accomplish work. As societies move toward
industrialization, more sophisticated tools and machines are used. With
post-industrialization, technology shifts toward cybernation where
machines make decisions where robots can be programmed to monitor
assembly lines (Mooney, Knox and Schacht 2000:367).

New technologies have advance in leaps and bounds since the 1960s.
There have been outer space explorations, automation, advances in
medicine, new transportation, and communication facilities. With the
onset of the twenty-first century, there have been considerable
advances in information technology. Information technology refers to
any technology that conveys information like photography, telegraphy,
rotary power printing, telephone, wireless telegraph, motion pictures,
magnetic tape recording, radio, television, and the internet (Mooney,
Knox and Schacht 2000:373). Media is the central arena in which
consent is won and maintained (Shaughnessy 1999:17).

Technology and media have enormous impact in society. Some people

have withdrawn from groups or organizations into the more private
sphere of home and family. There has been a decline in visiting and
socializing with the neighbors, as well as in membership of clubs and
organizations. It is said that television provides sufficient entertainment
so there is no need to go out of the house. In households with several
television sets, the family members do not even need to interact with
one another anymore. People can also now interact through cellphones
or the internet which involves less social presence. Many of the social
cues that guide the interactions between persons, such as facial

79
expressions, vocal intonation, or body gestures, are missing (Sullivan
2001:143-144).

Modern technology contributed immensely to the increasing material

culture, such as the use of automation and electronic communication
which have had a tremendous impact on the workplace. In its various
forms, technology has increased the speed by which aspects of culture
are transmitted and shared. The use of new technology, like
computers, has lessened the need for supervisors and facilitated
control of the employees. They make the workers more accountable by
gathering information about their performance. At the same time,
employees are now able to work even in their homes (Mooney, Knox,
and Schacht 2000:373).

According to Cortes (2002:2), with computers becoming more

affordable even to underdeveloped countries, computer networking can
connect schools, laboratories, and other sources for scholars or
researchers, thus making possible the instantaneous sharing of
information. With increasing research and development activities,
learning will be a lifelong process for everyone.

Communication technology can mobilize people more easily for popular

resistance. This was utilized in calling on people to assemble at the
EDSA Shrine on January 20, 2001, after the eleven senators voted
against the opening of the second envelope in the impeachment trial of
Pres. Estrada.

New technologies have changed the concept of society. Travel

between communities or countries have considerably eased. It takes a
matter of hours instead of days or months to travel between continents.
The use of e-mail, text messaging, fax and video conference have
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changed the conventional means of communication. The inter-
connections between societies have been strengthened, leading to the
development of a global society.

However, post modernism, an emerging worldview, maintains that

scientific and technological innovations do not necessarily provide the
truths. They were presumed to bring about a better, safer, and more
human world. But questions are raised by post-modernists about the
validity of the scientific enterprise and the negative consequences of
the resulting technologies. They point to the outcomes of technology
such as pollution and damage to world ecology, occupational and
social dislocations, threats to the privacy of the individual, and social
and psychological weakness (Mooney, Knox, Schacht 2000:367-369).

There are issues raised vis--vis the goals and consequences of the
high level of technology. What are its effects on happiness and family
life? Does a high level of technology necessarily bring about a healthy
and clean environment? Does it ensure the preservation of natural
resources or employment and security?

The Organization of Culture

The elements of culture - symbols, knowledge, norms, values, and

beliefs- are not accumulated in isolation from one another. Rather,
these are organized and patterned so that they fit each other and
integrate to compose a unifying theme for social behavior. Those
interested in the study and analysis of a particular culture can look at its
content and the way the parts are related.

In culture are small units called culture traits. A culture trait cannot be
broken down into smaller units. It is related to a particular need for a
81
particular situation. Each trait, whether material or nonmaterial, is a
product of social interaction and conveys some meaning.

Material and nonmaterial traits are closely associated with each other.
Material traits are concrete or tangible objects associated with an idea,
a social norm, or a technique, i.e. the use of a cup, a nail, bottle, doll, or
cross. Nonmaterial traits are abstract and include folkways, beliefs, or
values. Examples are shaking hands, making the sign of the cross, and
saying po to elders.

Culture traits do not operate singly but are related to other traits in
some kind of a meaningful relationship. They are generally clustered,
and each trait in the cluster derives meaning only in dynamic relation
with other traits. This cluster or combination of traits forms the culture
complex. The traits are functionally related to each other and revolve
around themes such as family, economy, religion, politics, education,
health, or leisure activities.

Not all members of a culture participate in all activities. Their degree of

participation varies according to age, sex, occupation, or the demands
of the culture. The levels of cultural participation are classified by Linton
(1936:272-273) into three, namely: 1) Culture universals, which are
the norms, values, beliefs, and conditioned emotional responses
common to members of the society. They are necessary for the
existence of a given society. Among these are language, norms, and
laws that define family relationship, government, economic, and
educational activities. 2) Specialties, which are the behavior
expectations confined to certain subgroups. These often require
unusual skill or training and reflect the division of labor and hierarchy of
statuses in a culture. These are not shared by the total population. For
example, occupational and work groups require particular skills and
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attitudes. 3) Alternatives are behavior expectations which permit a
certain range of choice in human behavior and specify the tolerable
variations in behavior. These are shared by some individuals but are
not common to all members of a society or even to all members of any
one group. There is a range of alternatives in activities such as
cooking, rearing children, spending ones leisure time, or worshipping
God.

Sub-culture

As a society becomes more complex and industrialized, there inevitably

arise smaller groups which develop distinct norms, values, beliefs,
special languages, and life-styles. These subgroups may be based on
age, social class, occupational, political, educational, or religious
interests or inclinations, regions, nationality, or ethnicity. The group
develops its distinctive set of cultural norms and beliefs which differ
significantly from the larger society. While members of a subculture
participate in the mainstream society, they tend to associate with one
another more personally than with the members of other groups (Stark
1998:39).

In the Philippines, there are subgroups which reflect regional or ethnic

differences, such as the Negritos, the Cordillera group, the Muslims,
Tagalogs, Visayans, Pampangos, and others. Even among the
Tagalogs, there are differences among the Batangas, Laguna, and
Quezon Tagalogs as well as those coming from Rizal and Bulacan.
There are subcultures which remain even in modern society, developed
around ethnic traditions, occupations or professions, regions, religious
beliefs, or common experiences. Some subcultures may find
themselves physically distinct from others, as in the case of slum

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dwellers or squatters in Metro Manila vis--vis the residents of
exclusive villages like Forbes Park, Dasmarias, and Ayala Alabang.

There is also the youth subculture. Youths develop their own patterns
of behavior as in eating, conversing, styles of dressing, sports, and
recreation. They evolve a specialized language which distinguishes
them from the wider society, so that outsiders like the elders cannot
understand what they are taking about. They are susceptible to fads
and crazes in entertainment and adornments. While these subcultures
have distinct cultural specialties unique to them, they still contain the
dominant values and norms of the broader society. This is what has
been called a culture within the culture.

Subcultures arise from individual needs to obtain assurance and

security from others or an inability to cope with the dominant culture.
Some subcultures have symbols or badges which enhance solidarity, a
feeling of esprit de corps, and a sense of belonging. The existence of
subcultures in a society gives rise to the concept of multi-culturalism,
which denotes a number of subcultures living together with tolerance
and respect for each other.

Some subcultures adhere to standards that come in conflict with and

oppose the conventional standards. Many of their norms and values
contradict those of the dominant culture. When the subculture
emphasizes conflict between a group and a larger society, as seen by
the presence of an inverse or counterculture, it is labeled contra-
culture. (Yinger 1960:625). Among these are the groups of juvenile
delinquents, drug addicts, prostitutes, racketeers, and kidnappers.
Their behavior is called deviant. What they do and what they believe in
are not shared by majority of the members of the society. It is a creative
outlet that poses an alternative to the majority culture. The existence of
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contra-cultures may open the possibilities for social conflict. As such,
these subgroups become a threat to the prevailing social values and
are considered a social problem.

The existence of subcultures is inevitable as society becomes more

complex. Specialization, as a requirement of industrialized society,
tends to increase them. Although society may be pulled apart by such
culture differences, there are also unifying factors, like the presence of
the government, a common language, and the mass media.

Ethnocentrism

There is a tendency for people who belong to the same cultural group
to define reality from their own point of view. One considers his or her
ways as right and normal, and those from other groups as wrong,
strange, or queer. The tendency to regard ones culture as the best and
better than those of others is called ethnocentrism. Literally,
ethnocentrism means a belief that ones group is at the center of
everything and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it
(Sumner 1906:13). Considering their group as superior, the members
sometimes look on outsiders with contempt. The group regards its
cultural norms as the basis for judging others. There is the attitude that
my culture is right and yours is wrong. It may take the form of extreme
allegiance to ones group and a feeling of superiority of ones culture
and the inferiority of others. This may develop negative derogatory
phrases for immigrants whose norms, beliefs, and values differ
markedly from their own.

For countless years, this has been the view of many cultural groups.
The Pharisees of Biblical times considered themselves righteous
compared to the other Jewish sects; the ancient Greeks looked with
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contempt at foreigners; the colonizers from the West considered the
societies they colonized in Africa, South America, and Asia as barbaric,
primitive, or uncivilized; the Americans consider themselves as the
most progressive nation in the world, a view also held by the Germans,
Japanese, English, Russians, and Chinese. The Filipinos take pride in
calling their country as the Pearl of the Orient, Gateway to the East,
or the show window of democracy in the Far East.

Even within society, there are subgroups who consider themselves as

superior to other groups. The Tagalogs think of themselves as superior
to other groups, a view similarly held by the Muslims, the Pampangos,
and others; ones religion is spoken of as the true religion in contrast to
that of the others; or a school may claim to have the highest education
standards. These are all manifestations of ethnocentrism, which is
produced by training and socialization. It is encouraged by the schools,
media, the church, and the government. In imbuing the individual with
the ideal of loyalty to ones country, the ideas of national commitment to
ones group are enhanced.

Ethnocentrism serves a society by developing greater feelings of group

unity and affirmation of loyalty to the ideals of the society. A shared
sense of oneness especially during times of unrest can help the group
to overlook internal differences and conflicts and instead encourage
ones appreciation and commitment to ones cultural group and develop
coordinated activities. On the other hand, extreme ethnocentrism
blocks ones understanding of other cultures and leads to intolerance
and prejudice. This can cause intergroup conflicts and problems; a
group that does not like to socialize with other people may become
isolated and eventually stagnate. Ethnocentrism can also prevent a
person from learning about and understanding other cultures and deny

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basic oneness. It develops enmity between groups and is a barrier to
unity.

Xenocentrism

When people reject their own group or some part of their culture, we
call this reverse ethnocentrism or xenocentrism. This is the idea that
what is foreign is best and that ones life-style, products, or ideas are
inferior to that of others (Eshleman and Cashion 1983:95). Those
coming from foreign lands and the exotic are particularly favored.
Xenocentrism is centered on a product, an idea, or a lifestyle.

In the Philippines, some people manifest a mania for imported goods

and western lifestyles. Some even prefer to live abroad and enjoy the
climate and lifestyle of the society there. A reason for this phenomenon
is our colonial past and the sociocultural imposition of the colonizers.
We call this attitude colonial mentality.

In the words of Santos-Cuyugan (1951:101-102):

The Filipino has not had a chance to pull together the shreds and
patches of his cultural traditions. He has been too busy keeping
up with the invading joneses from across the seas. As a result,
the Filipino in the 1960s have developed reverse ethnocentrism,
which is somewhat unusual the vast majority of known cultures
are ethnocentric.

The Filipino is more likely to use standards from outside his cultural
system, standards that contravene, even debase his own. The true,
good, and beautiful to the Filipino is what looks Greek, Semitic, or
generally Caucasian. Thus, many of the youth are focusing their goals
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on going abroad after graduation. They believe that it is more exciting
to live in foreign lands where they can easily earn more.

Doronila (1986:53-80) made a study to determine how successful the

public elementary school was in developing a sense of national identity,
which is one of the objectives of education in the Philippines. The
sample consisted of 207 Grades I-VI pupils enrolled in an urban public
elementary school. While this constituted only one case study and
therefore limits generalizations, it is interesting to note its findings vis--
vis national identity. The results showed that the pupils had not
developed national consciousness to a significant extent. When asked
about the preference for a mother country or where one would want to
be a citizen, only 4.83 percent of the 207 students preferred to remain
Filipino citizens. The author concluded that the orientation of students
to national community is one of neutrality with the Philippines coming in
third or second best in the students knowledge of its history and
culture, in their affective orientation towards the nation as a whole, and
in their evaluation of the importance of national traditions of the Filipino
people. The students attitudes were unfocused, and there was no
organization of attitudes which may be called a Filipino identity.

Culture Shock

The cultural values and norms of behavior are internalized in the

socialization process. Consequently, one behaves in accordance with
the expectations of their culture. But, what happens when an individual
goes to a different society? He or she loses the familiar signs and
symbols of social intercourse and experiences unpleasant sensations
or frustrations. What the individual undergoes is called culture shock.

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When people encounter another culture whose patterns of behavior are
different from their own, they may get disoriented or disorganized. The
inability to communicate with the new society. They find themselves
smothered and disgusted by the customs and beliefs they encounter.
When people go to societies which are regarded as primitive, they may
be shocked by the state of sanitation, the raw food being eaten, the
lack of such comforts as electricity or a soft bed, the premarital
relations between the sexes, or the practice of polygamy.

A conservative Filipino who migrates to the United States may

experience culture shock in the courtship practices, the open display of
love and emotions, the liberal ways children interact with their parents,
the frankness of conversation, and the practice of allowing ageing
parents to stay in old peoples homes. Even people from the provinces
who migrate to Metro Manila may experience culture shock with the city
lifestyle, the hustle and bustle in the streets, the lack of open space,
and the food. Culture shock is experienced by Filipino workers who go
to the Middle East where the culture, particularly the religion, is very
different from ours. An American who comes to the Philippines might
be repelled by some of the food, such as balut (cooked duck egg
embryo) and bagoong; the driving habits; the lack of punctuality; or use
of euphemisms and circumlocution; and the concept of utang na loob
(debt of gratitude).

Some people are never able to overcome the dismay, loneliness, and
ennui over the new culture and become disorganized. Others are able
to adjust and get to like the host culture. Even social scientists require
some effort to understand another culture.

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Cultural Relativism

When people first come in contact with another culture and observe
that its patterns are different from their own, they tend to judge the new
ways as strange, exotic, weird, or immoral. They may laugh or scoff at
the new norms and values. We hear people ask why do Aetas refuse to
eat canned foods? Why do Mangyans worship a hierarchy of spirits?
Why do European males kiss in greeting? Why do Americans leave
their parents in old peoples homes? These questions bring out the
realities of cultural diversity. Cultural practices and values which we
consider queer, funny, or immoral may be considered right,
appropriate, and moral in other cultures. The norms, beliefs, and ideas
of another society must be understood and viewed in terms of the
context of their culture.

Culture is relative, and no cultural practice is good or bad in itself. It is

good if it integrates smoothly with the rest of the culture. This is the
concept of cultural relativism which is an alternative perspective to
ethnocentrism. The concept of cultural relativism states that cultures
differ, so that a cultural trait, act, or idea has no meaning or function by
itself but has meaning only within its cultural setting. A trait is good or
bad only with reference to the culture in which it functions. (Horton and
Hunt 1985:56). There is no single standard to evaluate a particular
cultural trait. It should be judged within its cultural context. People
devise their own ways of dealing with various circumstances. Culture
traits and values cannot be studied unless the meaning and function
they stand for in that society are taken into account.

When doing field work, one has to use relativism as a research tool for
understanding or studying another culture. Even if the custom seems
inhuman or irrational by ones own values, the behavior must be
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studied objectively if one wishes to develop a scientific understanding
of human behavior (Crapo 1990:34). Because of cultural differences
within and between societies. The sole judge of a cultures values is the
people in the society themselves. Deeper insights into cultural diversity
can be deterrent to extreme ethnocentrism and can lead to greater and
fuller realization of peoples common humanity (Chinoy 1967:55).

Cultural Universals

At first glance, we immediately observe the differences in patterns of

behavior, beliefs, values, and ideas among different cultures and
societies. Yet as we look more closely, we note features and elements
common to all culture, called culture universals. These are similarities
in the general features of society, rather than the particular or specific
cultural traits. Murdock (1945:1240) listed about 88 of these, which
include age-grading, sports, body adornment, calendar, cleanliness,
community organization, cooking, cooperative labor, cosmology,
courtship, dancing, decorative art, division of labor, education, ethics,
ethno botany, etiquette, faith healing, family forecasting, folklore, food,
taboos, funeral rites, games, gestures, gift-giving, government,
greetings, hair styles, hospitality, housing, inheritance rules, joking, kin
groups, language, law, luck, superstitions, marriage, mealtimes,
medicine, modesty concerning natural functions, mourning, music,
numerals, obstetrics, penal sanctions, personal names, personal rights,
puberty customs, religious differentiation, surgery, tool making, trade,
wearing, and weather control. Other identifiable elements can be added
to this list.

Culture universals are accounted for by peoples biological similarities,

psychic unity, dependence on group life, individuality, and the limited
possibilities within ones physical and social environment. Another
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factor for the existence of cultural universals is that all societies are
confronted with more or less the same problems in sustaining social
life. For a society to survive, some social provisions must be provided.
Among these are the socialization of new members, production and
distribution of goods and services, ways of coping with the
supernatural, assignment of tasks, and accomplishment of work.
Patterns of behavior are instituted to meet these problems.

Diversity Of Culture

Cultural diversity refers to the wide range of differences in cultural

patterns, ideas, beliefs, knowledge, forms of social organization, and
practical responses to the environment. There is an enormous range of
cultural differences between societies and within the society. When two
societies meet, tremendous change may ensue. This happens
especially when the two societies differ greatly in economic and political
power. In some cases, a native population becomes extinct. There can
be subordination of one way of life by another. This may occur
peacefully, but it can be a shattering experience both psychologically
and culturally.

Factors that promote cultural diversity:

1. Presence of social categories. This refers to a collective of

persons who share common social characteristics like age, sex,
and religion. They share patterns of behavior which are different
from the others. For example, the behavior patterns of children
differ from that of the adolescents, adults, and the elderly. There
are also differences in behavior expectations of males and
females.

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 2. As mentioned earlier in the chapter, there also exist groups that
somewhat separate from the mainstream society. These
subgroups are called subcultures.
3. Cultures differ in ideas and practical responses to the
environment. How people harness the natural resources around
them differs from group to group, leading to differences in
occupation as well as technology.

The comparative characteristics of culture are deduced not only by

looking for similarities but also for variability, integration, and relativity.

Cultural variability. Cultures differ because of the great variety of

solutions evolved by people from different societies. Aldous Huxley (in
Farson 1965:69) points out that the intellectual capabilities of human
beings changed over the last twenty or thirty thousand years. Currently
available social science evidences indicate that cultural diversity is not
due to peoples inherent learning capabilities. Although comparative
testing is difficult to carry out, members of all human societies have
exhibited approximately the same level of intelligence.

Huxleys argument indicates that among the important factors which

give rise to cultural differences are the kind of environment within which
the society lives, the human and natural resources available within this
environment, the extent and intensity of exposure the society has to
other people from which they can borrow ideas, and their cultural
heritage.

While biology presents the basic preconditions for all cultures, it leaves
room for variations of meeting them. For instance, the staple crops
produced and the technologies used in producing these vary. Cultures
vary according to what and how people eat, drink, and provide for
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shelter. Some people like American Indians and Filipinos relish eating
seafood; others, like the Navaho and Apache of New Mexico and
Arizona, are repelled by the thought of this. Some are carnivorous;
others, herbivorous or vegetarian. Some eat dog meat; others cannot
imagine doing so. Eating beef is taboo among the Hindus; pork, among
the Muslims.

Sex differences are based on biological differences. However, the way

a man or a woman is expected to act is prescribed by society. Sex
roles differ in different societies. There are different patterns of behavior
for males and females.

The division of labor by sexes is universal, but task assignment

according to the sexes is a matter of cultural definition. Maleness and
femaleness are institutionalized as statuses and become the core of
their identities. Mead (1935) contends that the so-called masculine and
feminine characteristics are not based on fundamental sex differences
but reflected cultural conditioning by these societies. Among a number
of African societies and polygamous groups, the female status is
inferior to the male. In the Mexican-American and other Hispanic
families, the male role is influenced by the macho personality
characterized by male dominance, sexual powers, and physical
strength. In matriarchal societies, men are the baby tenders and
housekeepers. In Russia, the women perform heavy physical work and
are active in professions like medicine (Ruderman, in Epstein and
Goode 1971:51). In the Philippines, empirical studies by Gonzalez and
Hollnsteiner (1976) on male and roles that are unequal when compared
to those of the men, even if both husband and wife work outside of the
home.

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Diversity is also present in childbearing practices, like the length of time
for suckling the infant, the type and degree of affection to be
expressed, the introduction of new food, toilet training, play activity, and
discipline. A study of childbearing practices in six cultures (Kenya,
India, Okinawa, Mexico, Philippines, and the US) was undertaken by a
group of social scientists to explore cross-culturally the relation
between the diverse patterns of childbearing and differences in
personality (Whiting 1963).

Historical accidents, which personal and social experiences attributed

to Divine Providence, luck, chance, and destiny, are also deemed to
bring about variations in culture. Cultural variability also arises from
societys tendency to preserve cultural practices that were at one time
necessary and reasonable but which later became outdated or useless.
Traditional practices in community fiestas, mourning rites, religious
activities, and so on are illustrative of this

Cultural integration. Cultures vary significantly in the consistency of

their patterns of values, belief, and behavior. If the ideals to which
people commit themselves are consistent with what they believe in and
do as family members, teachers, or professionals, or when students are
consistent with what they believe in and do while engaging in
economic, political, and other activities, then their culture is one where
there are no outstanding contradictions between peoples beliefs and
their behavior. Within a society, one set of beliefs or actions can differ
from another, between institutional goals and means. To illustrate,
educational institutions do not. Banks emphasize thrift, frugality, and
savings, while commercial agencies stress buying and consumption.
This contradiction is also seen in the electorates perception that the
elected are engaged in lip service only.

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Cultural relativity. Differences in culture also arise from the relativity of
the standards that societies uphold and use for evaluating truth, right,
propriety, virtue, morality, legality, justice, and beauty and the means of
adhering to these. While there have been many attempts to establish
universal, absolute standards of right and wrong, they have never
been fully accepted by all people at the same historical period.
Standards of propriety, morality, legality, aesthetic, rationality, and
religious truth have been as varied and changeable as fashion,
hairstyles, and body ornaments. Standards of behavior must thus be
understood within the context of a societys culture. To impose ones
own standards on other societies which have contrasting cultural
standards, to assume that ones own is superior to all others,
exemplifies ethnocentrism. To regard ones own as inferior to others, to
despite ones local culture and admire other foreign cultures as superior
is xenocentrism.

Summary

All societies have culture, although their cultures may differ. Culture
refers to that complex hole which consists of all knowledge, beliefs,
arts, laws, morals, customs, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by an individual as a member of society. Culture is that
complex social heritage or general design for living within a society
which has been transmitted by human being interacting with one and
other.

Society is a group of people occupying a geographical territory with a

common culture and interacting with one another. Functionalists
emphasize the relationships of the societys component parts and the
resultant equilibrium. Conflict theorists emphasize the power structure

96
and the conflict among the various social classes, resulting into
disorder and instability.

Culture enables people to adapt to their physical environment and cope

with its changes. Culture determines our behavior. Various elements
comprise culture, namely: knowledge, norms, beliefs, values,
technology, and material things. Knowledge is the body of facts and
learning accumulated through experience, study, or investigation and
includes natural, supernal, magical, and technical information. Norms
are standards of propriety, morality, ethics, of legality and are made up
of folkways, mores, and laws. Values are abstract concepts of what are
considered as good, desirable, beautiful, and correct, as well as what
are bad, undesirable, ugly, and wrong. Beliefs are the embodiment of
peoples perception of reality, ranging from the ideas of the primitive
societies to the empirical findings of the scientists. Material objects are
the products of technology that reflect the nonmaterial culture.

As society becomes more complex, subgroups are formed on the basis

of age, sex, social class, occupation, religion, or ethnicity. These
subgroups develop certain cultural specialties and become subcultures
or small cultures within culture.

Ethnocentrism or the feeling that ones culture is the best may develop
among members of a group in the process of socialization. This imbues
loyalty and a feeling of solidarity in the group. Reverse ethnocentrism is
xenocentrism, which is the rejection of ones own group or some part of
it. The opposite view of ethnocentrism is the principle of cultural
relativity. The essence of cultural relativity is that there is no single
universal standard of behavior to be used to judge any culture.

97
All cultures are similar to as well as different from each other. Unity and
diversity of cultures can be studied through the use of the comparative
approach.

Study Help

1. Concepts for study:

Culture Values
Society Subcultures
Folkways
Ethnocentrism/Xenocentrism
Mores Cultural relativity
Laws Cultural universals
Beliefs Cultural diversity

2. How does the lay persons view of culture differ from that of the
sociologists?
3. Discuss Wilsons theory of culture.
4. How does the functionalists view of society differ from that of the
conflict theorists?
5. Explain the relationship between language and culture.
6. Discuss the various elements of culture. Give examples of each in
your community.
7. Enumerate the culture patterns in your community. Break these
culture patterns into culture traits.
8. What were some of your unpleasant experiences when you came to
Manila or when you stayed in remote barrio?
9. Contrast the concepts of ethnocentrism and cultural relativity. To
which view do you subscribe? Why?
10. Why are there similarities and differences in cultures?

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Critical Thinking Questions

1. How has culture affected the daily lives of people and society as a
whole?
2. How does Wilsons theory of behavior differ from the theory of
culture held by sociologists and anthropologists? Which one do you
subscribe to?

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 Chapter 4

PHILIPPINE VALUES

Pakidala and Pasalubong

Why do Filipinos love to send food and consumer goods to

relatives and friends halfway around the world? From the
Philippines, people package everything from shirts, jeans,
halayang ube, pastillas de leche to send to relatives in California.
Somebody should tell them that everything that is in the Philippine
groceries are available to buy in Asia areas in US. At Ranch
supermarket I went to in Las Vegas, I counted 11 brands of patis
from Vietnam, Burma, Philippines, Korea, etc. There are shelves
and shelves of bagoong, Asian noodles, bins of mangoes, tilapia,
sinkamas, gabi, boneless bangus, kangkong. Even inch-long
dulong fish is available in Asian supermarkets. Now, going the
other way. Designer jogging shoesare cheaper in Manila than in
America. So why would anyone buy these in US to send to
Manila? Any type of clothing suitable for the Philippines can be
bought for a few pesos more in the Philippine malls. The same
with clothes and food- chocolates, candies, cereals are all in
supermarkets in the Philippines.

A family in the Philippines was puzzled when the coffin their

deceased mother arrived from the US sent by the sister. The tiny
corpse was jammed so tightly into the box that their mothers face
was flattered against the glass lid. When the family opened the
coffin they found a letter pinned to their mothers chest. Dearest
brothers and sisters:
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I am sending you our mothers remains for burial there. Sorry I
could not come along as the expenses were so high.

You will find under mamas body 12 cans of Libbys corned beef,
and 12 cans spam. Just divide these among yourselves. On
mamas feet is a brand new pair of reeboks(size 8 for junior).
There are four pairs of reeboks under mamas head for Miloys
sons. Mama is wearing six Ralph Lauren T-shirts, one for Manong
Roy and the rest for my nephews. Mama is wearing one dozen
wonder bras and two dozen Victorias secret panties to be
distributed among my nieces and cousins. Mama is also wearing
eight pairs of Dockers pants. Kuya, Diko, please take one each
and give the rest to your boys. The Swiss watch Ate asked for is
on mamas left wrist. Auntie Sol, Mama is wearing the earrings,
ring and necklace you asked for. The six pairs of Chanel
stockings that mama is also wearing are for the teen age girls. I
hope they like the color. Your loving sister, Nene.

(Dahli Aspillera,
Malaya, 7 May 2002:5)

What values operate in these cases?

What are Values?

Sociologists define customs as the values, beliefs, behavior and

material objects that constitute a peoples way of life (Maciones
1997:62). Values are defined culturally as standards by which
people assess desirability, goodness, and beauty. Some are good

101
guidelines for social living. Values are statements about what
ought to be. (Maciones 1997:70)

Values also express the goals or purposes of social action

(Inkeles 1964:74). According to Parsons, the concept of shared
values refers to a consensus of morals, principles, and standard
of behavior. They are societys moral imperatives that deal with
what ought to be and therefore considered desirable and
important by the members of society. In contrast to social norms,
values are general in nature (Popenoe 1974).

Values influence a persons behavior towards a large class of

objects or persons although they are not related to that specific
object, person, or group (Banks and Cleg 1973:445-446). They
are standards for determining whether something is good and
desirable or not and serves as the criteria by which norms
themselves are judged (Williams 1974:442). Material goods may
refer to food, money or housing.

Values also include truth, honesty and justice. Truth, as a value,

commands in us as an inner commitment that in turn translates
itself into our daily speech and action. Truth is good and
desirable; therefore it influences our attitude and behavior. (DECS
1987 Values Education Framework).

Human behavior is judged by the standards of good and bad.

Members of a society tend to pattern and standardize their
behavior in accordance with values. Those who fail to do so or
violate accepted behavioral patterns face the prospect of being
ostracized or censured by other members of society.

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The values of a given society can be deducted from ordinary
conversations and from works of travellers, missionaries,
folklorists, novelists, journalists, social scientists, and social
engineers, such as educators, social workers and community
development workers. From Loarca and Morga (1600) through
Jaime Bulatao, S. J. Horacio de la Costa, Gelia T. Castillo,
Richard W. Coller, Onofre Corpuz, Frank Lynch, D.J. Marry
Hollnsteiner, Chester Hunt, Leopoldo Yabes, Felipe L. Jocano,
Marcelino Foronda, Leonardo Mercado, and Virgilio Enriquez, -
whose works present insights into the basic values of the Filipino,
we are given an understanding of the forces that have shaped
these values.

Film heroes, like those in Ang Panday, Darna, and Captain

Marvel, have been portrayed as an individualistic persons relying
on personal skills and prowess. When people applaud these
characters, the action is an expression of judgment, or values.
Values are culturally defined standards by which people assess
desirability, goodness and beauty. All these serve as guidelines
for social living. These are statements about what ought to be.

Values are broad principles which hold to be good and true. They
color our perceptions of our surroundings which form the core of
our personalities.

The Study of Values

Sociologists are interested in examining values. However, these

cannot be readily identified since they are abstractions from
reality. One has to deduce these values from social action.
Sociologists derive meaning from what people do, think, or feel.
103
They study what lies behind or motivates specific actions of
people. Thus, they observe the way people behave listen to what
they say, and note the comments and insights made by others
who observe these actions.

To identify the values operating in a given society, one may apply

the fourfold test of Robin Williams (1970:448). These are:
extensiveness, duration, intensity and prestige of its carrier.

Extensiveness refers to the extent the value is recognized by a

representative number of people within the society; duration is
when the value has been shared and practiced in common for
some time; intensity is if the value involves the emotions and is
taken seriously and sought after by many; and prestige of its
carrier refers to when the value provides ready-made means for
judging the social worth of persons or groups who share or
practice it.

Individuals who do the right things or those who conform to the

values of a given society are therefore given the feeling of merited
esteem (Fichter 1957:302). In this way, values act as means of
social control and pressure.

Forces that Shape Contemporary Values

The Filipinos of the last quarter of the twentieth century are the
sum total of the social strains and cultural influences of the Aeta,
Indonesian, Malaysian, Hindu, Arabian, Chinese, Spanish, and
American people. This one reason is why Filipinos are
cosmopolitan; they are both oriental and occidental, so they are

104
familiar and adjust easily with the ways of different peoples and
countries.

The Aeta, Indonesia, Malaysian, Hindu, Arabian, and Chinese

elements are the foundation of the Filipinos oriental culture- the
core of their moral and social conscience and cultural identity.
The oriental side of the Filipino evolved from the early trade and
commerce and intermarriages between our Filipino ancestors and
the Chinese and Hindu merchants, as well as the wave of
settlements from other Asian neighbors into the country.
Interpersonal and social relationships revolved around blood ties,
marriage, and ritual kinship.

Spanish and American cultures compose the Filipinos occidental

ways. Through centuries of Spanish colonial rule, Influences
found its way into our religious, political, economic and
educational life, As well as into our language, dress, and diet.
Spain reduced Roman Catholicism, the encomienda, galleon
trade, fiesta, parochial school, municipal building, village plaza,
and the compadre system. Through the Roman Catholic church,
Spain emphasized the spiritual aspects of life and the
preparations for life after death. This set the foundation the
foundation for the contemporary Filipino attitude towards divorce,
birth control, fiesta and ceremony, and gambling, along with
involvement in charitable activities and the faithful attendance of
mass (Manis 1964:20). The compadre system initiated the Filipino
into the practice of extended families. This has served to
strengthen the notorious practice of nepotism and favoritism in the
social spheres. The oppressive policies of the Spanish colonizers,
such as forced labor to build their ships and churches, developed
in the Filipino a hatred for manual labor.
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The Americanization of the Filipino consisted mainly of the
introduction of a democratic system of government. The
Americans also popularized education as the most essential
channel for social mobility and imposed the use of the English
language as the medium of instruction in the school systems that
they established in the Philippines. This reinforced the Filipinos
preference for the academic white- collar occupations and
encourages the use of honorific titles. The English language and
the diploma system served to further the stratification of Philippine
society because the initial and primary beneficiaries of American-
Sponsored Education were the Filipino elite. The Americans
infused new ideals pertaining to the family, economy,
government, education, religion, recreation, and health and
welfare. The Americans also introduced into the Filipino way of
life the values of materialism and consumerism.

Other western influences include the secular orientation of the

French Enlightenment from which many Filipino revolutionary
thinkers and heroes against the Spanish regime at the turn of the
20th century drew inspiration from, and the romanticism of the
literary, musical, and other arts (Yabes 1965:5). The years of the
Japanese occupation in 1941-1945 deeply impressed upon the
Filipino a rugged materialistic outlook. However, the impact of the
Japanese in the Filipino way of life was weak because of the
widespread resistance to Japanese rule and the short period of
the occupation. The plans of the Japanese-Sponsored
government to introduce a new social order did not materialize.

In recent years, the Filipino has been exposed to a wide variety of

and often conflicting cultural elements from education, mass
media, educational exchange programs, economic and diplomatic
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exchange missions, religious pilgrimages and missionary work,
socioeconomic developmental programs, multinational business
and industrial establishments, and increased overseas
employment.

In all those situations, Filipinos have displayed remarkable

adaptability, resulting in a many-sided cultural heritage.
Whatever elements in Filipino culture were borrowed had been
filipinized and in the process had become distinctly Filipino
(Corpuz 1965:5-6). This also resulted in a dichotomous outlook-
oriental and occidental. While adhere to the predominantly
gemeinschaft nature of their society, they are pressed by other
forces to incorporate gesselschaft aspects into it. Thus, they are
caught in a web of conflicting values and engage in a strain for
consistency among different value orientations.

Values: Inconsistency and Conflict

Cultural values can be inconsistent and contradictory (Lloyd

1967;Ballach et al 1985), like the pull of an individualistic attitude
against the need to belong and contribute to a larger community.
Value inconsistency reflects he cultural diversity of society. This
leads to a strained or abnormal balancing act of how we view the
world.

Values are not called full values unless they go through the
cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes.

1. Cognitive. Something that ones values should be chosen

freely from alternatives after careful thought. After
considering all choices and carefully thinking about these
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 choices a person makes a decision without any outside
pressure. For example, a woman who decides to marry
must have a good reason in doing so. It should not be
because her father wants her to marry nor because the man
she is to marry is her only suitor. She will marry the man
because she loves him.
2. Affective. A persons choice is prized and cherished, and
the person publicly affirms it. One who decides to buy an
expensive dress after considering its style, price and her
other priorities, takes care of it and uses it; ones chosen
career must be valued, loved, and affirmed- one must let
people know about it (but not by, for example, saying,
teacher lang po ako).
3. Behavioral. If one values something, he or she knows this
is in his or her actions, acts positively about it, and does it
habitually. One who values honesty does not cheat because
it is the right thing to do and not because somebody is
watching or there is the risk of being caught. Furthermore,
one must do it consistently, because a value is not a value
unless it is acted in this context.

FILIPINO VALUES

Four Basic Filipino Values

Based on the studies of Jaime Bulatao:

1. Emotional closeness and security in a family. It is in this

value where the family, including the extended family like
uncles, aunts, ninong, ninang, give support to members of

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 the family. In return, Filipino children are loving to their
parents.

However, closeness in the family has its weakness. It tends

to make the Filipinos a nation of independent people. We
have to think on our own. One reason why products are
copied in the Philippines is the fact that many Filipinos have
no independence to make original ones.

2. Approval from authority and of society. This value brings

about the Filipino image as amiable, personable, and the
like. Filipinos have the desire to please and be accepted by
the authority.

3. Economic and social betterment. This refers to the

Filipino value of uplifting ones state in life. This can be
considered a positive value, but negates itself if one goes to
the extent of selling oneself and sacrificing other values.
For example: a Filipina who leaves her family to work for a
better paying job abroad and give her kinfolks a chance of
living in dignity can be viewed as with a positive value. This
gives people resiliency in hard work. However, if she sells
her body so that she could earn double and thereby
sacrificing her morality, then the original value is lost.

4. Patience, endurance, and suffering. This value shows the

matiisin attitude among the Filipinos. It enables us to bounce
back easily when tragedy strikes. However, it can also be
the representation of a battered wife saying Mahal ko kasi
siya eh. When asked why she still prefers to live with her
cruel husband.
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Basic values are universal. They have strengths and
weaknesses. Values could be influenced by others, but it should
only be towards the good.

Conflicting values and norms are reality. One may face a conflict
between the value of abiding by the law and the value of
maintaining ethnic solidarity. People have to make decisions
about their behavior in the face of equally compelling values.
Individuals are exposed to the influence of momentary needs and
mass examples (Popenoe 1974:535).

Conflicting values are the results of rapid social change or the

introduction of foreign culture. This happens, for example, when a
young individual from the rural area moves to the city and is
confronted with the different values prevailing in the cities.

Many times, Filipinos are caught in a web of conflicting values

and engaged in a strain for consistency among different value
orientations. But, generally, we have displayed remarkable
adaptability.

Values adapted in Philippine Culture

Sociologist Robin Williams (1970) identifies ten values which are

central to the American culture. Since the US controlled the
Philippines as a colony and thus influenced its culture, these
values were adapted in Philippine culture.

1. Equal opportunity. Which means that society should

provide everyone with the opportunity to be successful.
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2. Achievement and success. Are encouraged by
competition so that a persons rewards reflect his or her
personal trait.
3. Material comfort. Refers to making money. Once we have
this, our first impulse is to buy symbols of wealth, such as a
house and lot, automobiles, jewelry, and others.
4. Activity and work. We tend to prefer action to reflection
and try to accept hard work than accept our fate.
5. Practicality and efficiency. When what is preferred as
practical and not theoretical. Today, our educational goals
have tended to focus on the practical course, which means
those that bring in money, such as nursing, computer
programming, etc., over that of medicine, engineering, and
law.
6. Progress. The preference for products which are identified
as the latest therefore the best. This is emphasized in
commercial aids.
7. Science. The recognition of the works of science experts as
the source of knowledge; at the same time giving less
attention to emotions and intuition.
8. Democracy and free enterprise. Reflected during
elections, when we emphasize our needs and choices.
9. Freedom. The belief that individuals should be free to
pursue ones personal goals with little or no interference
from anyone else. Taking this in dogmatic sense, in Metro
Manila, drivers stop and park anywhere they prefer backed
up by the notion that no interference should be given to their
being able to pursue their earning capabilities.
10. Racism and group superiority. Individuals rate
others according to sex, race, ethnicity, and social class.

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Key values that dominate in Philippine way of life

The key values that dominate in the Philippine way of life are the
following:

1. Non-rationalism-Rationalism.

The philosophy implied in non-rationalism is the idea that people

have to adapt themselves to nature and the forces outside
themselves. Non-rationalism involves an uncritical acceptance,
reverence, and the protection of traditions and rituals. There is a
resistance to scientific methods, an unswerving loyalty to the
group, and unquestioning obedience to authority.

Rationalism is the belief that one can actively control and

manipulate his or her destiny by systematic planning, studying
and training. A person is thus greatly responsible for determining
his or her success or failure. The rational person is future-
oriented rather than present or past-oriented. His or her thoughts
and actions are scientifically oriented and continuously guided by
curiosity, observation, and experimentation. He or she gives high
priority to el-expression and creativity over group conformity and
security.

Filipinos have been influenced by western rationalism, although

they are still fundamentally non-rational. They view the world as
one over which they have little or no control; laying success or
failure largely dependent upon supernatural beings or spirits.
This is reflected in the expression bahala na. This fatalistic
outlook rests on the strong dependence on the spirits to take
care of everything for everybody. Filipinos often say this
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expression when about to perform a particular task that is difficult
to accomplish, although this attitude also prevails when
undertaking any task- from the simplest traditional manner of
performing household chores, planting and harvesting crops,
using and maintaining water and forest resources, up to the more
complicated setting up of a business enterprises.

Bahala na mentality has led to a lack of foresight, contentment

with the past, indolence, and a lack of initiative, self-reliance, or
pioneering spirit. Because of this attitude, people may become
segurista, meaning, they demand a demonstration of assured
success before any undertaking.

The bahala na mentality has also led to the lack of punctuality,

vulnerability to awa, dependence to the espiritista, the
mangkukulam, or witch. However, the bahala na expression
also underlies the Filipinos determination, courage, fortitude, and
willingness to face danger. It is the reason for their readiness to
accept and bear the consequences of difficulties in life- the
source of their patience or tiyaga. It involves a deep abiding faith
that the supernatural spirits will, in the long run, reward with good
fortune ones struggle against difficulties.

Other Filipino expressions of this orientalism are in phrases such

as, itinalaga ng diyos, iginuhit ng tadhana, gulong ng palad
(life has its ups and downs, or life is like a wheel of fortune),
malas (bad luck), napasubo (forced into something).

Filipinos are also inclined to status-oriented behavior, hiya

(shame), utang na loob (dept of gratitude), amor propio (self-
esteem), and SIR or the desire for smooth interpersonal
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relationships. All of these interwave with one another and add up
to an accentuation of authoritarianism in the Filipino (Lynch
1962:82-89).

The studies by Felipe Landa Jocano (1965:32-56) and Robert

Fox (1956) reveal that child-rearing practices emphasize
obedience to elders. While Fr. Bulatao (1962:32-44) states that
the Filipino is an authoritarian, even dictatorial, when given
power and flaunts to everyone the fact that he or she is the boss.
This stifles initiative, self-reliance, and sharing of ideas among
subordinates or followers. Ruben Santos Cuyugan ( 1961:9-13)
points to the prevalence of paternalism in formal organizations,
especially in business organizations where greater consideration
is given to status. This encourages subjectivity or emotionalism,
which leads to demoralization and inefficiency. If greater
consideration is attached to function, objectivity is maximized in
the use of standardized criteria, like in the areas of recruitment,
training, evaluation of performance, and promotion of personnel.
Coller points out that the Filipino leans more towards status-
oriented rather than to function-oriented behavior.

Filipinos are shame-oriented, meaning their major concern is

social approval, acceptance by a group, and belonging to a
group. Their behavior is generally dependent on what others will
thin, say, or do. Their desires and ambitions depend on what
pleases or displeases others. Hiya still controls much of the
Filipinos behavior.

Amor propio is high self-esteem and is shown in the sensitivity of

a person to hurt feelings and insults, real or imagined. This is the
manifested in hiya, utang na loob, and SIR. Utang na loob refers
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to a debt of gratitude for a favor or help extended to a person that
is impossible to quantify. Failure to discharge partial payment in
the form of gifts or services will cause hiya. Filipinos resort to SIR
patterns, such as the use of polite language, soft voice, gentle
manner, and indirect approaches like employing intermediaries
and euphemisms and biguous expressions, to avoid directness
and frankness.

The Filipino finds it difficult to say no to a request or an

invitation and instead use expressions like kuwan, marahil, tila
nga, and pipilitin ko. Pakikisama means good public relations or
the avoidance of open disagreement or conflict with others.

Forms of amor propio are behavioral patterns, such as hele-hele

bago quiere or pakipot, which requires that a person initially
refuse, be prodded on, before accepting an offer; and
delicadesa, which means conformity with the ethnical practices or
expectations of the group.

Filipinos are observed to be imitative ( gaya-gaya), and such

imitativeness gives rise to the penchant for faade, palabas,
pakitang-tao, and pagyayabang (Roces 1964:4). This has led
Filipinos to be escapists and shut their eyes to problems and
postpone to some indefinite future time the performance of tasks
that can very well be done in the present.

For the Filipino female, the training in the family stresses patient
suffering. This results in a double standard of morality and the
consensus that it is only the woman who has the duty to attend to
the home (Bulatao 1962:32-44).

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2. Personalism and Impersonalism.

Personalism attaches major importance to personal factors which

guarantees intimacy, warmth and security of kinship, and
friendship in getting things done. Impersonalism refers to the
tendency to eliminate the influence of friendship or kinship in
working situations. Behavior is depersonalized, standardized, or
institutionalized. Thus, the function of a position, and not of the
person occupying it, sets the pattern of behavior in the group.

Many Filipinos remain personalistic inspite of the rise of

impersonalism in the urban areas. This is evident in the frequent
charges of nepotism, favoritism, and particularism hurled against
public officials. Graft and corruption have been analyzed as
products of kinship reciprocity relations (Santos Cuyugan
1961:124-125).

Personalism has a deterring effect on the economic, social, and

political growth of the Philippine society. The Filipino way of doing
things is centered too much on personalities. The inability to
dissociate personalities from function and positions makes it
extremely difficult for them to be really objective in making
judgments. Filipinos persist in settling matters in a roundabout
way. They resort to pakiusap, areglo, and lakad, which weaken
the merit system specially in employment (Bulatao 1975).

3. Particularism Universalism

When a persons concern is centered on subgroups or made up

of relatives, friends, colleagues, associates, religious affiliates or
members of his or her ethnical regional group, that individual is
116
called particularistic. When ones main concern is the
advancement of the collective national good, he or she is said to
be universalistic.

In the Philippines, ethnical rules stress particularistic interests,

while legal rules are universalistic, meaning, these were
formulated in consideration of the whole societys general welfare.
The Filipinos concept of tayo-tayo strongly denotes particularism
(Jocano 1964). The kinship group is enlarged through ritual
kinship such as marriage, baptismal, and confirmation rites.
These extend the group of relatives to the compadres, ninong,
bayaw, inaanak, and so on. Often, Filipinos are regionalistic and
generally think of themselves, first and above all, as members of
their local region and only secondarily as Filipino.

4. Filipino Nationalism

Nationalism is the advocacy of making ones own nation distinct

and separate from others in the intellectual, social, cultural,
economic, political, and moral matters. It is the feeling of oneness
among the nationals who seek to establish the identity and the
good of the nation in these matters. More than just a sentiment of
love or affection or feeling of patriotism for ones country,
nationalism is a philosophy or a doctrine of what a country is,
what its goals are, and how it is to achieve these goals.

Nationalism can be a factor for either evil or good. If carried to its

extreme, it may take the form of ethnocentrism, racism, or
xenophobia. Nationalism is constructive when it encourages
analytic self-knowledge of the weak and strong points of the
country and supports the universalistic values.
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As a sentiment, nationalism has neither strongly swept nor deeply
penetrated the entire Philippine nation. Some observers note that
Filipinos suffer from national amnesia and colonial mentality.
Filipinos have a strong preference for imported goods and easily
adapt themselves to foreign ideas and ways. Many attribute this
to our lack of national integration. However, schools, peoples
organizations, groups and individuals are now exploring more
about their cultural roots and searching for a national identity. This
may eventually lead to a stronger sense of nationalism.

The increase in social and technological inventions has made it

more difficult for any society to isolate itself from the rest of the
world. Awareness and understanding of contemporary values in
society will put us in a better position to determine what we gain
or lose in a predominantly gemeinschaft society characterized by
intimate, informal, reciprocal, and warm social interpersonal
relations stemming from non-rationalism, personalism, and
particularism; or in a predominantly gesselschaft society
characterized by anonymity, formality, contractualism, and
coldness arising from rationalism, impersonalism and
universalism.

Summary

Every culture has its core a basic set of values. These values
consist of ultimate ends, goals or purposes of social action. Value
orientation represents the social conscience internalized and
integrated within individual members of society and the ethos
which gives culture its unity, form, and identity at any given time
and place. Varied forces operate in shaping peoples value
orientation.
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Contemporary Philippine values manifest a strain for
consistency among values in a gemeinschaft society and those
in a gesselschaft society. Present-day Filipinos are confronted
with contradicting values with varying degrees of non-
universalism as they search for a national identity. But whatever
the present orientation, Filipino values are seen to be moving
toward rationalism, nationalism, and universalism.

Study Guide

1. Define the following key values:

Personalism Impersonalism
Non-rationalism Particularism
Rationalism Universalism
Bahala na Nationalism
Utang na loob
2. Why do sociologists study values?
3. How are values studied scientifically?
4. What are the positive and negative implications of the value
orientations of Filipino on national development goals?
5. Summarize the works of social scientists regarding Philippine
value orientation.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Study the value orientations prevailing in the campus,

factory, professional associations, and your barangay. How
do they differ in content? Why?
2. What is the value content of mass media products, such as
in television, movies, radio programs, newspapers, comics,
and others?
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3. What values have a deterring effect on the economic, social,
and political growth of Philippine society?

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 Chapter 5

THE PROCESS OF SOCIALIZATION

My first playmates were my brother, since I had no sister. I tried

to join their games, which were, of course, boys games such as
tug-of-war. I enjoyed the challenge, but at the end of the day
would go home crying because Id gotten wounded in the
skirmish. Father would then scold the boys for being
inconsiderate towards me, a girl; mother would tell me that I was
not supposed to play their games because I was a girl. On my
birthday, my mother gave me a huge box containing toys for
playing house. She tried to impress upon me the virtues and
behavior expect of girls, like modesty, helpfulness, and neatness.
Such was my first distinction between feminine and masculine
roles.

Excerpt from a students term paper

The story above illustrates a girls experience in the socialization

process. The girl is exposed to boys games but constrained by
the behavior patterns expected of her. She is introduced to the
distinction between masculine and feminine roles.

Human Development

How does newly born baby become a human or social being? We

are all born helpless and dependent on other people, like on the
family, kin, and friends, for survival. We are taught societys ways
of behavior, thinking, and feeling. We learn how to walk, talk, eat,
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and relate to others and other patterns of behavior from our family
or friends. Even the manner of expressing grief is learned.

In the human infants development, there are two important

factors at work heredity and the sociocultural environment. How
much our personality is determined by our biological inheritance
(nature) and how much is determined by social-cultural
environment (nurture) is hard to ascertain, although most
scientists agree that both heredity and the social environment,
interacting in complex ways, influence personality development.
As mentioned in the chapter on Culture, sociobiologists believe
that many social traits are genetically determined, although they
have not identified which genetic potentials would be developed
as a result of restrictions on a given physical, social, and cultural
environment.

The biological traits transferred from parents to offspring though

genes in the chromosomes of the sex cells are composed of the
biological structures, psychological process, reflexes, urges,
capacity, intelligence, and other physical traits such as
pigmentation and stature. These provide the raw materials from
which personality is formed. These affect socialization because
the way we define ourselves is, to a certain extent, determined by
the other people react to our appearance and capacities.

Cultural definitions also affect socialization. Some biological traits,

for example, are regarded as more socially desirable than others.
A physically fit individual can easily qualify for sports activities;
physical fitness is a requirement in the work force. A beautiful
face is an asset for jobs like those in the entertainment industry. A
high I.Q. enables one to enter professions like physics,
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engineering, or medicine and gain scholarship grants and
recognition in professional fields.

These genetically determined qualities set limits on the range of

things a person can do, but the extent to which these traits can be
developed depends on the sociocultural environment. The basic
biological capacity for some type of skill or aptitude, like singing or
painting, is an important determinant for achievement, but it
cannot be used to its fullest advantage if there are no
opportunities for its development. The sociocultural environment
influences ones action patterns and motivational skills, factual
knowledge, values, and tastes. Society has role prescriptions for
age and sex, which markedly shape our social identities.
However, biological inheritance is also significant in human
development for it enables the person to learn or, inversely, sets
limits to learning. Heredity involves passing the genetic traits from
parents to offspring that provide the basic materials for human
development.

The cultural and social environments are distinct but interrelated.

The cultural environment refers to the learned ways of living and
norms of behaviors folkways, mores, laws, values, ideas, and
patterned ways of group. Cultural norms are present once the
child is born and these are constantly impinged on him or her.
Culture determines what a child will learn as a member of society
and of specific social groups. The culture also regulates the type
of behavior which is considered appropriate to the individual of a
particular age, sex, and line of work. Through some normative
pressures and sanctions, one acts as the culture approves,
although one is also offered situations for personal expression
and satisfaction. Studies of cultural anthropologists have shown
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the relationship between child-rearing practices in a particular
culture and the traits developed among its members as well as on
personality formation.

The influence of a cultural environment is not limited to child-

rearing techniques. Culture continues to shape a persons
personality throughout life by providing them with models (Linton
1936:143-144). Thus, personality is shaped according to and
depending on ones culture and subculture. Personality refers to
the sum total of all the physical, mental, emotional, social, and
behavioral characteristics of the individual (Landis 1998:47).

Social environment, on the other hand, refers to the various

groups and social interactions going on in the groups of which
one is a member. Membership in a group implies exposure to a
social environment. The social environment provides a crucial role
in the development of human infant. The literature of American
sociology cites cases of extreme social isolation where early
social interaction is absent; there is no training and inculcation of
social values, norms, attitudes and beliefs, no warmth, comfort,
and love in relation to the infant.

From birth onwards, a child normally joins various groups, and

each group imposes certain norms and a set of expectations on
each member. From the structure and size of the social group and
the kind of social relations and interactions, the childs personality
is formed. The family structure determines the nature of the
childs interpersonal experience, which in turn is affected by the
wider society. Through parental training, the child is prepared for
effective adaptation to a changing social order. The size of the
social group and the position or status one has in a group also
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affect ones social experiences. An only childs experiences will
be different from the child of a large family. The oldest child will
have different experiences from those of the middle child or the
youngest in the same family. The individual is exposed to varying
social experiences in the various groups that he or she joins;
these affect his or her attitudes and values. Likewise, the
restraints which these social groups impose on the person serve
as a means of social control (Parson 1961:686). Thus, the kind of
social groups and the social experiences on has, exert a great
influence on ones personality.

How do the determinants of personality combine? While biological

inheritance provides the raw materials for personality formation,
the sociocultural factors determine the extent of the development
and expression of the biological potentialities. A child with
average intelligence placed in a high standard school can surpass
one with above average intelligence studying in a low-quality
school. Inherited potentials establish the range of socialization,
but the sociocultural environment greatly affects the extent to
which the inherited potential can be realized (Light and Keller
1982:117).

Behavior as biologically based

While sociologists and anthropologists hold that culture

determines our behavior, sociobiologists have formulated a new
theory of behavior. Sociobiologists are biologists by training, and
hold that behavior is biologically based. Edwards Wilson, an
entomologist from Harvard University and a proponent of this
view, formulated a new theory of behavior in his book, Sociology:
The New Synthesis. He suggested that social behavior is
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determined by inborn genetic traits similar to the influence of
genetic traits on lower animals.

Wilsons theory is based on Charles Darwins principle of natural

selection. Wilson held that genetic traits are transmitted from
generation to generation through heredity. Biological variations
take place through mutation or change in genetic composition.
The process of natural selection acts on this mutation and
becomes the principal factor in the origin of the new species, as
well as in new patterns of behavior. Social groups adapt to their
environment through the evolution of genetic traits or be genetic
mutation and natural selection. Human culture and social
behavior evolve through natural selection and natural
transmission. Behavior like aggression, love, greed, or spite can
be explained in terms of genetically based transmission. Wilson
held that both altruistic and warlike behaviors are thus biologically
based. Culture and symbolic language and meaning attached to
social behavior are essentially products of natural selection and
are the result of millions of years of evolution (Time
1977:35ff.;Shepard 1984:75-77).

Wilson observed certain social traits found in all cultures which,

upon close examination, are as diagnostic of humankind as are
the distinguishing marks of other animal species. These behavior
patterns are called culture universals which indicate that much of
culture is biologically inherited rather than learned.

Wilsons theory has stirred both interest and criticism. Some

anthropologists point out that because there are tremendous
variations and diversity of human behavior and cultural elements,
the theory that social traits are biologically determines is
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unacceptable. Sociologists maintain that behavior varies from
culture to culture. For example, the expression of sexual behavior
varies from society to society. It has also been noted that altruism
and warlike behavior are not found in many societies.

Some sociologists point out that sociology underrates the

emergence of the human brain, consciousness, and culture. They
believe that genetic heritage and culture influence human
behavior, but genetically inherited reflexes and drives. One is
taught how to eat, when and how to cry, when and how to share
things with others, and other forms of behavior.

Theories of Personality Development and the Social Self

Various theories have been formulated explaining the

development of personality. However, we shall limit our
discussion to just three theories: the Freudian Theory, the cultural
determinism of cultural anthropologists, and the symbolic
interactionism held by some sociologists and social psychologists.

Freuds Theory of Socialization

Sigmund Freud, foremost Viennese psychologist, formulated the

first comprehensive theory of personality, which had a great
impact not only on the social sciences but also in art, literature,
and philosophy. Freuds theory is a form of biological determinism
which holds that socialization is a process characterized by the
internal struggle between the biological components and the
social-cultural environment. Freud proposed that personality
consisted of three major systems, namely: the id, ego, and
superego.
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The id is the biological component which is the source of a
number of drives and urges. It centers around the satisfaction of
basic needs like food and sex, and operates on the pleasure
principle. The ego is the mediator between the needs of the
individual and the real world, and strives to delay tension until the
suitable environment exists. The cognitive and intellectual
processes are controlled by the ego. The moral arm of
personality, representing the traditional rules, values, and ideals
of society, is the superego. The id, which represents the
biological drives, and the superego, which stands for the values
and morals of society, is continually in conflict, while the ego
mediates between them. The first five years of the childs
development plays a decisive role in personality development, as
this is the period when the basic personality structure is formed.
Personality development undergoes different stages, which show
the unfolding of the sex instinct. This psychological development
is fraught with tensions (Hall and Lindzy 1978:36-38)

The various stages of development are as follows (Giddens

1989:70-71, Crain 2000:240-246):

1. Oral stage- from birth to one year old.in this stage, eating is
the major source of satisfaction. Sucking the mothers breast
is the most important thing for the baby, as it provides
nourishment and gives pleasure. In the first six months, the
baby has no concept of people or things. Even if the mother
comforts and nourishes the bay, the latter does not
recognize the person as such. Freud described this stage as
one of primary narcissism or self-love. Sleep is the basic
narcissistic state where the baby feels content and lost to
the outside world. After six months, the baby develops a
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 concept of the mother as a separate, necessary person.
Frustration or overindulgence at this stage can lead to
overeating or alcoholism in later adulthood.
2. Anal stage- from ages one to three years. The anal zone
becomes the center of the childs sexual interest. The
influencing factor at this stage is toilet training. People who
are fixated at this stage are grasping and stingy.
3. Phallic stage- between the ages of three to six years. At
this time, the greatest source of pleasure comes from the
sex organs. This is when the child desires the parent of the
opposite sex, so that boys desire their mothers and girls
desire their fathers. The first is termed as Oedipus complex,
and the second is called the Electra complex. Eventually,
the child feels erotic desire toward the parent of the opposite
sex and hostility for the parent of the same sex, but
identifies with the parent of the same sex. The boy resolves
the Oedipal desires towards the mother by relegating his
sexual feeling into his unconscious. He overcomes his
rivalry with his father by repressing his hostile feelings and
identifying with him. To overcome the oedipal crisis, the boy
internalizes a superego by following his parents moral
prohibitions. On the other hand, by the age of five the girl
becomes disappointed with the mother as the latter does not
give her the constant love and care she used to show. She
develops the Electra complex and gradually settles the crisis
because she fears the loss of parental love.
4. Latency Stage- from ages six to eleven years or early
adolescence. The child enters this period with strong
defenses against the oedipal feelings. In this stage, children
turn their attention to people outside their families, like
teachers and friends; the erotic impulses are dormant. Their
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 energies are redirected into concrete, socially acceptable
pursuits such as sports, games, and intellectual activities.
The child possesses new composure and self-control.
5. Genital Stage (Puberty) - starts at about age 11 for girls
and age 13 for boys. During the adolescent years, the
oedipal feelings reoccur, and the child develops contempt
for parents. The child tries to avoid all physical pleasures,
like sumptuous food, attractive clothes, dancing, and other
kinds of fun, and instead adheres to asceticism. They may
also adhere to intellectualism and delve into abstract,
intellectual projects. Eventually, they focus on the opposite
sex, look around for a potential love partner, and prepare for
marriage and adult responsibilities.

Freuds theories encountered a lot of criticism. His stress on the

sex instinct and his attribution of biological drives for human
behavior were widely criticized. Critics pointed out that his ideas
were vague and hard to define and that many portions of his
theories did not have any empirical basis and thus were difficult to
check empirically. However, his theories continue to exert a great
influence on the social sciences and have been the basis of
further theorizing among the so-called Neo Freudians.

Culture and Personality

Cultural determinism, the personality development theory held by

anthropologists, views the cultural environment as the main factor
for determining human behavior. Franz Boas, an American
anthropologist. Together with Margaret Mead, Ruth Benedict,
Ralph Linton, Cora Du Bois, and Edward Sapir, were the
proponents of this theory. Boass view is that personality
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development results from learning what is found in the culture,
and that significant differences in personality are learned. Boas
believed that regardless of how a given culture comes into being,
the behavior of all persons socialized within it is determined by
cultural forces (Stark 1987:148).

Ruth Benedict maintained that individual personalities of

members of a society are tiny replicas of their overall culture, with
the culture as a summing-up of their personalities. Because of the
tremendous influence of culture on members behavior, including
their world views, anthropologists talk of the formation of a
national character, a modal personality or basic personality which
manifests similar personality characteristics and patterns of
behavior of the members socialized in a given society.

Culture presents uniform and patterned ways that influence

behavior, so that the members of society tend to share many
elements that differentiate them from members of other societies.
Likewise, members of a society are subjected to similar childhood
experiences, producing similarities in personality. Cultural
determinants of personalities range from matters of social graces
and rules of etiquette to attitudes toward society and the universe.
The cluster of behavior patterns, attitudes, and values shown by
members of a society may be termed as the societys basic
personality.

Anthropologists believe that culture leaves deep and permanent

effects on the individual during early childhood. Practices
revolving around feeding (whether a baby is breast-fed or bottle-
fed), toilet training, and weaning (whether the child is weaned

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early or later in childhood) affect the formation of the basic
personality.

In the Philippines, studies on the relationship between child-

rearing practices and personality development have been made.
Lagmay investigated the socialization process, characteristics of
the early emotional relationship between parents and child, and
the social relationships in late childhood and adolescence to the
transformation to adulthood. The study revealed that child-rearing
practices had influenced the development of values such as
nonaggression, obedience, respect, sociability, and achievement
orientation. However, critics point out that the anthropologists
observations were based on small simple societies where
similarities in behavior and values are likely to result. In large,
technologically advanced modern societies, there would be more
variations in behavior, and general descriptions of society cannot
be made. Lindesmith and Strauss (1956:540) wrote:

The dangers inherent in general descriptions of societies

and in the postulation of common national characters are
great. Any social scientist who seeks to characterize a
modern nation has to handle a host of detailed problems
and meet a number of exacting requirements. These have to
do with sampling, regional differences, migration, ethnic
differences, social classes, diverse group affiliation and
standards, cultural conflicts, and enormous bodies of
literature and historical materials.

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Symbolic Interactionism

The theory of symbolic interactionism is based primarily on the

works and ideas of George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton
Cooley, and later expounded by other social psychologists. This
theory poses that self-identity is developed through the social
interaction with others, mediated by language in the process of
socialization. Human behavior differs from animals because
humans use symbols with meaning attached to them. The
distinctive attributes of human behavior grow from peoples
participation in varying types of social structures which, in turn,
depend on the existence of language behavior.

Language is crucial in the development of the social self. The

symbols that constitute a language represent concepts by which
the person engaged in cooperative activity acquires the attitudes
of others involved in that activity (Mead 1934:135). For the
proponents of symbolic interactionism, the development of the
social self and the generalized others are important.

Cooley and the Looking-Glass Self

The ability of children to visualize themselves through the eyes of

others, to imagine how they appear to others, is what Cooley calls
the looking glass self or the social self. In childhood, the family,
friends, the teachers, classmates, and peer group exert a great
influence in forming a childs self-concept. They constitute his or
her primary group or form a part of what is called significant
others. These significant others become models for the child who
usually identifies with them and patterns his or her behavior after
them. In later life, colleagues or co-employees, the boss, the
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sweetheart, and eventually the spouse contribute to the process.
The individual imagines how he or she looks to others and
compares ideas about himself or herself with the social norms of
the group. Cooley (1922:184) thus wrote about the social self:

As we see our face, figure and dress in the glass and are
interested in them because they are ours, and pleased or
otherwise with them according as they do or do not answer
to what we should like them to be; so in imagination, we
perceive in anothers mind some thought of our appearance,
manners, aims, deeds, character, friends, and so on, and
are variously affected by it.

According to Cooley, the looking-glass self has three elements: 1)

the imagination of how we appear to other persons, 2) the
imagination of the judgment of that appearance, and 3) a sort of
self-feeling, such as pride or mortification. This means that the
self is seen through the eyes of other people and how they
evaluate our appearance. This self-development is a lifelong
process, and personality is thus not fixed.

The emergence of the self goes along with other social

processes: the development of self-preferences and an
awareness of role-playing (Kuhn and McPartland 1954:68-76).
This conception of the self or the ability to visualize oneself
through the responses of others is an important factor in an
individuals behavior. How one reacts to various social situations
will be dependent on how satisfactorily or unsatisfactorily the
image is formed of the self.

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Mead and the Development of the Self

George Herbert Mead expanded Cooleys idea of the social self

by relating the idea of the self-concept to role taking. He believed
that the behavior and perception held by individuals are
influenced by the social groups of which they are members.

The human infant is born helpless and without a sense of self.

According to Mead (1934), the self emerges in the process of
socialization mediated by language. This starts at birth, when
parents hold their baby and attend to his or her needs. In the
interaction between parent or yaya (nurse or caretaker of the
baby) and the child, the baby begins to realize that he or she
depends on other people for comfort. Gradually, the baby
acquires some significant others and learns that certain actions
like crying, smiling, screaming, and reaching out will elicit
responses from the people around. In learning to communicate
symbolically, children begin to think about themselves and their
behavior by reacting to how others respond to them.

Children acquire a kind of crude self-awareness around the age of

two or three years. Important in the development of the self is
having a name and labeled as a distinct object. As children learn
a language, they become aware of themselves and talk in terms
of I, a sign of self-consciousness. Through contact with mother,
father, brother, or sister, they gradually see themselves as an
object. In this relationship, the parents apply certain cultural
expectations or standards which children have to internalize as
they mature. They learn that the attitudes of others are often in
conflict with their own and that they must take these into account.

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Children are taught how to pray, eat properly, keep their clothes
clean, and respect others. Children engage in play and learn to
take the role of the others, like those of father, mother, teacher,
doctor, policeman, etc. through make-believe verbal play, they
develop the ability to look at themselves from the standpoint of
others. They internalize the supposed opinions and attitude of
others, which eventually regulate their behavior. They acquire a
sense of self when they develop the me or self-consciousness by
seeing themselves through the responses of others. This is what
Mead called the play stage the period during which children
take on the roles of other individuals or significant others, one at a
time.

Then, the child enters the game stage. Children are able to
consider the roles of other people at the same time and what are
expected of all the others at the same time. Children are also able
to respond to a number of individuals in the group and integrate
the various norms of the group. This takes place in what Mead
(1934:151-152) calls the period of the generalized others.
Around the age of eight or nine, children engage in games where
they are able to take the attitudes and responses of others in
social activity and know that these roles have a definite
relationship with each other. They visualize their own action as a
part of a whole pattern of group activity. This is similar to being
engaged in a game like basketball where a player must see his or
her relationship with the roles played by others.

To play the game of life, the individual must know his or her role
in relation to others and be aware of their values. In the process,
the individual assumes the organized social attitudes and moral
ideas of the social group or communities to which one belongs.
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These exert an influence on a persons attitudes toward different
projects and cooperative activities, as well as social problems
which the group faces, and can direct his or her own behavior
accordingly (Mead 1934:208). These become the individuals
orientation toward the world and his or her frame of reference as
new situations arise. The individual thinks, feels, and sees things
from a perspective characteristic of the group of which he or she
is a member. We develop a self-image and an identity, a
conception of who we are, and become meaningful in relation to
others self, such that we may be one thing to one person and
another to others. This is the ability to take the role of the others
and so with the wider community (Marsch 1996:72)

Erving Goffman and the dramaturgical approach

Erving Goffman made use of the dramaturgical approach with his

expression, All the world is a stage. He said that individuals are
performing and acting for their audience in everyday life. He
illustrated the interactionist approach and said that our behavior
continually follows intricate patterns as we follow a set of implicit
instructions that influence their role behavior (Marsch 1996:73).

Erving Goffman elaborated the idea of role and role performance.

Role refers to acting in accordance with the expected norms
attached to a particular position, while role performance is the
actual conduct of the role in accordance with the position. In his
book, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959), he tried to
show how certain processes modify the presentation of self and
the impact of role expectations on the behavior of an individual.
Our presentation of self to others involves impression
management, which is the manipulation of scenery,
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communicative devices, external props, and costumes, which
propel our behavior to negotiate new social situations and convey
a particular role image to others.

Goffman compared the behavior of people in a society to acting

on stage. People play out a script vis--vis societys expectations
and in order to improve their chances of presenting a good
performance. To impress the audience, they develop certain
dramatic skills. As an individual performs a role, he or she has to
see to it that the impression conveyed to others (the audience) is
in accordance with the role or appropriate personal qualities
ascribed to it. For example, a teacher is expected to be patient,
knowledgeable, and firm; a vendor to be affable, understanding,
and courteous; a priest or nun to be pious, humble and
compassionate.

To Goffman, everyone is consciously playing a role. When

persons present themselves to others in everyday interaction,
they organize their overt behavior in such a way as to guide and
control the impressions others form of them and to elicit the
desired role-taking response. Like the actor on stage, they
endeavor to give good performance. In the presentation of the
self, they give information about themselves. The management of
this role-taking may be completely sincere or coldly manipulative,
deliberately done or unintentional.

When trying to be calculating, one may intentionally and

consciously express himself or herself in a particular way or in
accordance with the traditions or social expectations of the group
who, in turn, may be suitably impressed by what was conveyed.
The individual in this case has effectively projected a given
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definition of the situation and has promoted the understanding of
that situation. At other times, a misunderstanding of the situation
may arise, and other comes to conclusions that are guaranteed
neither by the individuals intent nor by the facts. At times, the
impression is unintentional, such as those transmitted by gestures
or by the type of clothes worn for an occasion. When interacting
with others, most people make use of gestures, language, dress,
etc. to influence the impression on their behavior and make a
good and desirable interpretation of their behavior. Teachers,
doctors, judges, policemen, executives, and others try to guide
the impression others make of them. In interacting with others, the
individual will try as much as possible to discover about the
situation set for meeting other people. In playing roles, one
displays great skills in creating and managing impression (Marsh
1966:75).

The Process of Socialization

How an infant develops into a functioning social being and

emerges with a self-identity, a social self, and a personality is
called socialization. To become a social being, one has to learn
the expectations, habits, values, beliefs, and other requirements
necessary for effective participation in social groups. Socialization
enables us to develop our human potentials and learn the ways of
thinking, talking, and acting that are necessary for social living
and are essential for the individuals survival and human
development. The child must be socialized to function effectively
in society. How one eats, walks, talks, raises children, makes
love, and dies are functions of the culture in which one is raised
(Kendall 2000:72).

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Socialization is a lifelong process which begins at birth and ends
at death. Through this lifelong process, one takes specific points
of view. Views on religion, politics, family life, sports, commission
of crime, and raising children are all learned through the social
process.

Human beings are born without any concept of self. They do not
know the parts of their body, what to eat, what to do, what to
believe in, and how to communicate. But they are born into a
social world with its ready-made culture. The people around them
instruct them on what to do, what to believe in, how to behave,
and even how to eel through a system of reward and punishment.

Symbols and ways of classifying experiences are taught to

children through the medium of language so that they begin to
interact with others and share in the cultures common stock of
symbols, norms, and values. Socialization is the process whereby
children become participating and functioning members of
society. Children learn to conform to the norms of the group,
acquire status, play a role, and emerge with a personality.
Teaching and learning the culture enable the child to become part
of society, to interact smoothly with others, to share in the
cultures common standards of symbols, norms, and knowledge.

As Broom and Selznick (1977:86) said, socialization is the

process of fitting into an organized way of life and established
cultural tradition and includes the complementary process of
transmission of the culture and social heritage and the
development of personality. Through socialization, the helpless
infant is transformed into a mature adult. Medina (1991:47)
enumerates some functions of socialization: 1) an agent in the
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transmittal of values, customs, and beliefs from one generation to
another; 2) enables the individual to grow and develop into a
socially functioning person; 3) a means of social control by which
members are encouraged to conform to the ways of the group by
internalizing the groups norms and values.

Socialization is directed at the problem of continuity, which occurs

when children became productive adult members (Wright, Weiss,
and Unkowic 1975:136). This is realized in the child-rearing
process. However, socialization should not be thought of as
simply molding an individual according to a standardized social
pattern. Social pressures are applied to make members conform,
but they may react differently. Some societies provide a range of
leeway for ones actions. This accounts for similarities as well as
diversity in behavior. The individual being socialized is not a
passive object. While he or she generally conforms to the
standards and values, there are times when one deviates. Such
resistance may partly be due to biological characteristics. In some
instances, the culture provides certain motivations for pulling
away from conformity, such as desires for material wealth or
needs, sensual satisfaction, and power (Wrong 1968:131).
Members in a society can, thus, be active agents in creating,
maintaining, and occasionally changing their interpersonal
environment and culture.

Landis (1998:44-45) states two levels of socialization, namely,

primary and secondary. According to him, citing Berger and
Luckman, primary socialization occurs in childhood through which
one becomes a member society. It takes place in the family where
the child usually has no choice but to accept and internalize the
familys view of the world. The child learns the ways of behaving,
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the values, attitudes, and beliefs which lay the foundation or basic
structure for further socialization. Secondary socialization occurs
when the individual moves into and internalizes knowledge and
attitudes of new sectors of life. This occurs when one pursues a
line of work or career, decides to get married, and start a family.
The secondary level of socialization is not as emotionally charged
as in primary socialization. One can also be more objective in
secondary socialization. Secondary socialization is usually
gradual and changes that take place are usually minor.

Socialization is a continuous, lifelong process of learning and

learning. As people move from one stage of life to another, such
as from childhood to adolescence, from adulthood to old age, or
from one group to another, they discard old ways of behaving and
learn new patterns of behavior. This can be noted when one gets
married, joins an occupational group, enters the military service,
enters the priesthood, or becomes a religious. One has to adapt
to the norms or requirements of the group if one is to be a
functioning member of that group and drop the unsuitable old
patterns. In some cases, the individual undergoes a probationary
or training period, followed by formal initiation rites or celebration
where established members receive newly qualified members into
their fold.

The process of socialization goes on as a person enters new

situations, adopts new roles, and drops others. Even in
retirement, one has to be reoriented to the exigencies of the
situation. The loss of the previous status and the disturbance of
social relationships can be upsetting to the retiree. Some persons
even have to learn how to cope with death.

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Now and then, there may be re-socialization or modifications or
reconstruction in the life-style behavior pattern and modes of
thinking of an individual. When people join the military, they are
re-socialized Trainees are subjected to rigorous patterns of
behavior, like going to bed early and waking up early, eating fast,
cleaning the barracks, and unquestioning obedience to authority.
When one joins a religious cult or religious order, a rehabilitation
center, or when one is sent to prison, the individual concerned
experiences re-socialization.

Socialization for Roles

Socialization is a lifelong process where individuals develop a

self-concept and prepare for roles, which in turn shape
personality. The responds to categories called social statues
(Clark and Robboy 1986:65). The child must learn the categories
or statuses by which to identify or define himself or herself, like
being a daughter, friend, student, Catholic lay evangelist,
secretary of the Book Lovers Club, etc. social status refers to the
position an individual occupies in society and implies an array of
rights and duties (Linton 1936:113). Associated with the status is
a social role, which involves the pattern of expected behavior in a
social relationship with one or more persons occupying other
statuses. Implied in the role is the execution of the rights and
duties. For example, the role of a father in our culture is obliged to
support, protect, educate, guide, discipline, and love his children.

Societies have developed two types of statuses: the ascribed and

the achieved (Linton 1936:113). Ascribed statuses are those
assigned to the individual from birth and which involve little
personal choice, like age and sex. These characteristics are fixed
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at birth by biological characteristics over which the individual has
little control. An ascribed status carries with it certain expectations
of behavior. Females are expected to fulfill the roles of wife,
mother, and homemaker. Age is another reference point as
individuals pass through the cycle of growth and maturation. An
individual is labeled a child, an adolescent, an adult, and an old
person. Ascription may also be based on class, caste, ethnicity,
and racial groupings, which are always entirely determined by
cultural definitions.

The achieved status is acquired by choice or through merit and

individual effort and is made possible through special abilities or
talents, performance, or opportunity. The choice in occupation, of
whether or not to get married, of whether to join a political party or
a religious organization all illustrate achieved status.

Each individual continually learns new roles starting with his or

her primary groups and, later, in a social group where one
undergoes specialized role training according to expected
behavior patterns. The essentials in role-playing are (Lindersmith,
Strauss, and Denzin 1975:400): 1) A definition of the role and an
identification of self; 2) Behavior in given situations appropriate to
the role; 3) A background of related acts by others (counter roles)
which serve as cues to guide specific performance; 4) An
evaluation by the individual and by others of the performance of
the role.

Agencies of Socialization

Various groups or institutions play a significant role in the

socialization of an individual and in shaping that persons
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personality. Foremost among them is the family. But as the child
grows older, he or she is influenced by other socializing agencies
like friends, school, church, and mass media.

The Family

The family plays an important role and has special responsibility

in the socialization of a child. It is usually the most influential
group in the childs life. The formative years and the development
of the self and personality are undertaken by the family. The
family gives care, emotional support, shelter, medical attention,
and educational training. The family influences the child in
choosing a vocation, career, or profession. Among impoverished
families in rural areas, children are sent to work in farms and
mines or to help in fishing. In urban areas, children are made to
sell cigarettes, leis of sampaguita, or to beg. Some girls are even
forced to be prostitutes. Ones specific position in society depends
on the familys social class. However, there are instances of
people who strove to change their social status and succeeded in
becoming professionals and executives.

The parents are the significant others of the child. Parents give
moral guidance and discipline to the children. The cultural
heritage of a society is transmitted by parents to the children. The
child gets affection, love, and a sense of belonging which are
important in the development of ones self-identity. In case the
mother is working, there are surrogates, like the grandparents,
aunts, cousins, siblings, or yayas in the urban areas. The family
plays a unique role in personality development and is the main
link between the child and society. Here, the child gains his or her
first experiences in love, affection, kindness, sympathy, courtesy,
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and other traits. The older members generally set examples to the
child, who learns the habits, attitudes, and values of the group
through some system of reward and punishment. The child either
conforms to the rules or rebels against them. Performance of
socially accepted behavior is rewarded, while socially undesirable
ones are punished.

The Child and Youth Welfare Code (1976:14) provides that the
parents have the primary right and obligation to provide for the
upbringing of their children and to discipline them as may be
necessary for the formation of their good character. In the family,
children learn to cooperate, compete, and accommodate. These
kinds of interaction may eventually determine their relationship
with others. The family is, thus, and ever-pervasive influence on
the individuals behavior, particularly in simple and agricultural
societies.

The Peer Group

As the child grows older, the familys role in socialization is

gradually replaced or supplemented by the peer group. The
informal grouping of two or more members, more or less of the
same age, neighborhood, or school is called peer group, friends,
clique, gang, or barkada. Membership in a peer group continues u
to adulthood or even old age, peaking during adolescence when
persons tend to form some kind of subculture. Among adults, peer
groups are formed in places of work, in the practice of ones
profession, in politics, and in religious groups.

Children can learn a number of things in the peer group, like

engaging in competitive, conflicting, and cooperative relationships
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with others; making decisions; engaging in activities involving self-
expression; and experimenting with new ways of thinking, feeling,
and behaving. Eventually, they develop self-sufficiency and learn
to be flexible and to get along with others in changing world
(Schaefer 2001:104). With the decline of parental authority, the
peer group serves as the role model and source of values and
attitudes for the young (Medina 1991:248-249). Released from
the dominating pressures of parents, children gain some freedom
as they join playgroups. Should there be a conflict, they settle it
with equals. Moreover, they learn to develop self-sufficiency and
perspectives different from those of their parents.

Among adolescents or teenagers, the peer group becomes an

important reference group. Their life-style, consumption needs,
leisure, recreation, and other activities are influenced by the peer
group and aided by media. Members of a peer group are
pressured to follow the expectations of the group. Some members
of cause-oriented groups dedicate themselves to working for
certain ideals, like human rights, social justice, upliftment of the
poor, and doing volunteer work in the provinces. On the other
hand, deviant behavior groups encourage stealing, shoplifting, or
vandalism.

When parental guidance, affection, and attention are lacking, the

peer groups become more influential. In his study of Looban, a
slum neighborhood in Sta. Ana, Manila, Jocano (1975) observed
that street gangs were a prominent feature of slum life. These
gangs were groups of young people aged 15 to 35. Most
members had records of previous arrests for antisocial activities,
ranging from theft to murder. Most came from broken homes.
They had no definite set of goals except companionship. Among
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the values observed were utang na loob, pakikisama, and damay
or concern over the difficulties or misfortunes of another. Young
people are attracted to gangs because it gives them social
support, protection, and recreational activities. In this set up, the
gangs replace the family and school as socializing agencies.

The Church

For the 80% of Filipinos who are Roman Catholics, the church is
a significant agent of socialization. Children are brought to church
by their parents as early as infancy and are initiated early into
saying their prayers and forming a notion of God. In many cases,
they are brought to church on Sundays or other days of obligation
to hear mass. The church provides for the spiritual and moral
needs of the child. Children learn the norms of conduct and codes
of behavior set forth by the church. What is right and wrong are
delineated, and prescriptions of rewards and punishments
established. Expectations of what would result from doing good,
fear of sin, a concept of life hereafter, and the concepts of heaven
and hell motivate individuals to do what is good in order to be at
peace with their Maker.

Some parishes offer catechism classes and send catechists to

public schools. The basic principle and tenets of the Christian
religion centering on God and His love for His people are taught
to the children. Likewise the practical applications of these
principles on their daily lives are inculcated. Children are taught to
pray and lessons in fostering loving and harmonious relations with
others in the family, neighborhood, school, and the wider
community are given.

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Socialization continues as the individual joins church-based
organizations or ministries. Parishioners get involved in Bible
study sessions and apostolic activities which broaden their social
relationships.

In the Philippines, rural folks are usually oriented toward local

traditions and pre-Christian beliefs in spirits, and people adapt
their behavior to what they consider the demands of the
supernatural. Observed also are rituals and ceremonies
connected with the life cycle of birth, baptism, confirmation,
marriage, and death. A number of church organizations have
been established to develop spirituality and give opportunities of
apostolate work. Involvement in such organizations influences the
individuals outlook and attitudes.

The School

A child is brought to school at the age of seven. Recent years saw

the emergence of nursery and kindergarten schools. Nursery
schools accept children from the ages of two to three years old.
These schools help the child to get along with other kids, develop
readiness for social skills, and develop them physically, socially,
emotionally, and intellectually. Some children aged four to six are
brought to kindergarten schools to prepare them for elementary
education. The potentials of child are developed, and he or she
learns to relate with others. Self-expression and creativity,
cooperation, and respect for others are also developed. The child
is gradually weaned from the parents, and then proceeds to
elementary school.

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The school is a formal agency for weaning children from home
and introducing them into the society. In school, children get their
formal instruction in the 5Rs- reading, writing, arithmetic, rational
thinking and right conduct- and in citizenship. It is in school where
their emotional and intellectual growth is forged. They are
prepared to take on their various roles in society. The culture of
the group is also transmitted in schools, so that children are
afforded a glance into their cultural heritage. Children learn the
history, geography, and politics of their country and are socialized
into the norms, beliefs, values, and customs of the larger society.
The schools are responsible for inculcating knowledge and skills,
which prepare them for adulthood and become productive and
effective citizens of the country. With advancing technology and
scientific knowledge, colleges and universities offer specialized
courses which can be applicable to work experiences outside the
school. However, many children from poor families cannot afford
higher education.

Our Constitution provides that all educational institutions shall aim

to inculcate love of country, teach the duties of citizenship, and
develop moral character, personal discipline, and scientific,
technological, and vocational efficiency. Doronila (1986:53-80)
studied the effectiveness of the public school system in
developing their students sense of national identity. Her subjects
were 207 Grades 1 to 6 students studying in an urban public
elementary school. While her study involved only one school,
which therefore limits making generalizations, the findings are
interesting. In the study, national identity is defined as an
attachment, a loyalty, or a sense of belonging to a political
community and attitudes toward other political events,
personalities, policies, and programs. The significant findings
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were an orientation on nationalism, acceptance of the
membership of the other ethnic groups in the Philippine political
community, and a little headway in the objective of developing
national consciousness and solidarity among the students.

Regarding preference for a mother country or where one would

want to be a citizen, only 4.83% preferred to remain Filipino
citizens. The author thus concluded that the orientation of the
students to a national community was one of neutrality, with the
Philippines coming in third or, at best, second in the students
knowledge of history and culture, in their effective orientation
towards the nation as a whole, and in their evaluation of the
importance of national traditions to the Filipino people. The
students attitudes remained unfocused, and there was no
organization of attitudes which may be called a Filipino identity.
The possible reasons for the failure of the school to effect
changes are: (a) little or no modification in the process of
knowledge transmission by teachers, regardless of their personal
beliefs or opinions; and (b) the inadequate orientation towards
national identity in textbook contents which serves to reinforce
prevailing orientations of parents and teachers. As a result,
students are socialized into the existing and prevailing neutral
attitude toward the national community.

Mass Media

In modern societies, mass media is another socializing agency.

Its functions are primarily to inform, entertain, and educate. Radio
and television programs transmit music and other forms of
entertainment to the viewers. To children, television is very
appealing and has, to a certain extent, become a substitute for
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activities like reading and playing. Parents find it convenient to let
their children view TV programs while they do their household
chores or other activities. Children are usually fascinated by
cartoons and educational programs, like Sine Escuela, Match-
tinic, 5 and UP, and Eskuwela ng Bayan; or creative programs
which develop skills in language, math, and science.

Mendez et. al. (1984, XXI) decry how children, through television,
radio, and the movies, are exposed to the adult world of
advertisements and soap operas. The childrens world becomes
entangled with models of behavior that adults condemn as
socially undesirable, like aberrant sexual practices and violence.
By watching distorted images and behavior patterns of the West,
children may imitate values which emphasize wealth, success, or
good looks.

On the positive side, experiments of Cater and Strickland (1979)

revealed that sharing, cooperation, and self-discipline are
encouraged when children watch programs depicting these types
of social behavior. In her study, Doronila (1986:63) found that
children developed and appreciations for cultural products like
language, arts, and literature through watching television. This
positive influence is a result of guidelines the industry has set for
locally produced television shows as well as parental guidance.

The Workplace

The socialization process of an individual continues in the

workplace. When an individual joins the workplace, there is the
realization that he or she passes from adolescence into
adulthood. There are mixed feelings of adventure and anxiety
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over how one will fare out at work. There is also the excitement of
getting a salary to spend for ones needs and comfort, or to
support the family. At the least, there is the joy of the anticipation
of having ones own spending money.

In rural communities, fisherfolks, farmers, and artisans live close

to their place of work, and so their work is usually tied up with
their other activities in the home or community. In urban areas,
the work activity is usually distinct from their other activities.
Employees are socialized according to their role expectations.
Some workplaces provide formal training in the form of
apprenticeships, orientation sessions, and training seminars. Or,
one learns the ropes, so to say, and gets socialized to a
companys norms and values.

There are times when one feels bored or harassed but gradually
one may learn the skills, knowledge, and techniques needed in
the job. As the employee interacts with co-employees and the
boss, they are oriented into the organization its values and
perspectives, its vision and mission. There is enthusiastic
acceptance of pleasurable duties which comes with the
recognition of the positive tasks of an occupation. Eventually,
there is commitment wherein the work becomes a part of the
persons self-identity. At this point, the person avoids violating
rules and regulations and becomes loyal to the organization. The
person also joins professional associations, unions, or other
groups. Should they find the workplace dull and oppressive or
unrewarding; the employee can always leave and look for another
job.

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Gender Socialization

From infancy onward, a person is socialized according to age-sex

role scripts related to the institutionalized statuses of males and
females. At this point, a distinction should be made between sex
and gender. Sex refers to the biological or anatomical differences
between males and females, while gender connotes the
psychological, social, and cultural differences between males and
females. It refers to the complex social meanings that are
attached to biological sex. Certain behavior patterns, attitudes,
and motivations are considered appropriate for males and
females of a particular culture (Thompson 1994:162)

Opinions vary on whether the difference between males and

females is biologically based or results from socialization. While
biological factors contribute to the differences between males and
females, the ways the members in a society behave are culturally
defined. Sex differences are a function of the cultural patterns
which prescribe differential expectations and norm for males and
females.

Gender socialization is an interaction with the family and other

agencies of socialization. Parents play an important role in
differentiating patterns of behavior for males and females. In the
process of socialization, which starts from birth, social ascription
and the corresponding norms are learned by the child. The sex of
the child is reflected in the ways infants are handled, as well as in
differences in outfits and hairstyles. Different colors are assigned
to the sexes- blue for boys and pink for girls. Baby girls ears are
pierced; baby boys are usually circumcised. While boys and girls
may both wear jeans, pants, or shirts, the clothes assigned to the
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girls usually have ribbons and frills. Parents describe their baby
girls as pretty, dainty, and beautiful, and the baby boys as
malikot (always active), guapo (handsome), and matalino
(intelligent). In the Philippines, particularly in rural areas, girls are
trained to be modest, reserved, demure, and helpful while boys
are trained to be aggressive, brave, dominant, and independent.

The delineation in expectations between boys and girls is shown

with the different toys which are for girls- like dolls, cooking
utensils, furniture, baskets, or power puff girls; and for boys- like
guns, cars, boxing gloves, or archery target. In rural families, girls
are expected to be restrained in their behavior and to engage in
more sedate games like bahay-bahayan (playing house), samba-
simbahan going to church), tinda-tindahan tending to a store);
piko (hopscotch) and luksong tinik (jumping over sticks). The boys
are allowed more freedom and can engage in rough-and-tumble
games like baril-barilan (playing with guns), boxing, basketball, or
war games. Neutral games are taguan (hide and seek) and
habulan (running after one another). The boys are allowed more
freedom to go to places distant from home or staying out later
than the girls. Girls are made to understand that they are for the
home and expected to serve their siblings and parents. Boys are
expected to be brave and strong, but not to be quarrelsome.

In rural areas, children are generally trained for work appropriate

to their sex. Boys are trained to follow their fathers work, run
errands, gather firewood, do gardening, fetch water, collect hog
feed from neighbors, feed the animals, and take care of the
livestock. The girls help their mother in cooking, washing,
cleaning the house, and taking care of the younger siblings. In
urban areas, some families train boys and girls for common
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chores like cooking, cleaning the house, and driving the car.
However, boys are encouraged to be assertive, courageous,
strong, and aggressive. On the other hand, girls have to be
modest, compassionate, and gentle, if not submissive. Children
are thus channeled into different roles, and with these come a
whole set of expectations about masculinity and femininity.

The males are expected to be macho, meaning showing sexual

prowess and being dominant, virile, strong, courageous, and
daring. They are expected to be good providers and
breadwinners, to become the head and guardian of the family.
With the onset of adolescence, there are other normative
elements regarding sex roles (Jocano, 1998:120-124). In rural
areas, the adolescent boy is made to work in the fields, go to the
poblacion to bet for the father in the cockpit or take his place in
card games. He serves as the fathers apprentice. Since he does
part of the fathers work, male dominance is emphasized within
the sibling group. The male also takes more responsibilities, like
sitting in the village council. There are less restrictions in his
movements. He is allowed to smoke, drink, and join the older
boys in visiting the girls, but he gets restricted to go out when he
comes home drunk. He shares in the family responsibility to
support the family.

The adolescent girl is assigned the feminine or domestic tasks.

She is expected to stay at home with mother. They cook the
meals for the family, help wash, iron and mend clothes, work in
the fields during the planting and harvesting seasons. Domestic
training among adolescent girls is given particular attention, and
they learn the skills of a good housewife. When an adolescent girl
is clumsy in her work, she is admonished by her mother to know
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her responsibilities as preparation for marriage. The girl is taught
proper behavior and is discouraged from giggling and showing
sexual aggressiveness. She is warned about being careful in her
relationships with boys and is not allowed to go out
unchaperoned, as chastity is a prized virtue. There are more
restrictions with girls than with the boys. They are often warned to
be careful about sex experimentation as they may become
pregnant. These norms are changing as more and more girls
seek jobs in urban places or overseas.

In Dr. Zelda Zablans Young Adult Fertility and Sexuality Study of

1,100 respondents, male and female aged 15-24, an
overwhelming number (91.5%) considered virginity as important
before marriage. The 7.6% of the females and 18% of the males
who approved of premarital sex were the older respondents who
had lived away from their parents, attended nonsectarian schools,
rarely attended religious services, frequented discos, massage
parlors, night clubs, and beer houses, who had used drugs, had
brothers and sisters who came from poor families, and whose
parents had unstable marriages (Torrevillas 1995:9).

The school complements the rest of society in assigning role

training for males and females. Through the curriculum and
textbooks, role differentiation is reinforced. In the public school,
the duties of girls are to clean the room and yard and to plant
flowers; boys take up shop and practical arts, while girls take up
home economics. Some division superintendents have taken
steps to give home economics also to boys. Boys are engaged in
strenuous games and become varsity players, while girls are the
cheerleaders.

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Through their books, children learn what is expected of them
when they become adults. A review of books used in the
elementary level shows that the texts stress old-fashioned roles.
Furthermore, most stories and pictures focus on the males. There
is now a move to revise textbooks and do away with those
stereotyped roles.

In college, there are distinctions between courses for males and

females. Education, nursing, home economics, home services,
caregivers, social work, nutrition, secretarial education, and the
like are regarded as womens courses; while mathematics, natural
science, engineering, aviation, medicine, and law are regarded as
more fitting for men. Even in medicine, specialization for male and
female doctors is usually differentiated. However, there are now
more women who have invaded the courses supposedly defined
for males and are exceling in their work. Eviota (1978:155) points
out that the education men and women receive reflects sex role
biases and that despite the large proportion of female to male
students, there is no equality on account of the concentration of
females in certain disciplines.

The UNICEF and Ateneo Wellness Survey (1999:56) points out

that there are no significant differences in literacy rates, as well as
innate cognitive abilities between boys and girls. However, citing
Ventura (1994), it disclosed that males related to more analytic,
impersonalistic task-oriented and field-independent ways of
thinking. Girls scored higher than boys in domestic competencies,
like household chores and caring for bodily needs. Boys earned
better marks for competency in outdoor chores. These differences
in capabilities reflect the different responsibilities given to children
in household chores.
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Women are usually engaged in laundering, washing, cooking,
teaching, or secretarial work. Women are into occupations related
to education, although there is a higher percentage of a woman in
professional and technical work, in sales, services, sports, and
upper professionals. According to Layo (1977), women tend to
cluster in sales and the upper professionals. These groups may
be considered as feminized occupations. Men tend to join
masculinized occupations which include administrative work,
farm labor, highly skilled occupations, transport, and fishing.

Summary

A newly-born baby becomes human or a social being through the

process of socialization two important factors, heredity and the
sociocultural environment; interact in complex ways to influence
the development of the social self and personality. How much of
the social self and personality. How much of the social self and
personality is developed due to heredity or sociocultural
environment is hard to ascertain. Heredity furnishes the raw
materials, but the sociocultural environment determines how the
individual will learn and be developed. Personality may be viewed
as an organization of forces within the individual and is made up
of attitudes, values, and modes of perception which account in
part for the consistency of behavior. The social self is the ability to
visualize oneself through the eyes of the others and imagine how
one appears to them. It is the ability to visualize oneself through
the eyes of the others and imagine how one appears to them. It is
the ability to take the roles of the others and of the wider
community.

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Various theories have been formulated to explain the
development of personality. Foremost is the Freudian theory
whose central theme is biological determinism. It considers the
first five years of the childs development as decisive in
personality development. Anthropology hold that society and
culture, including its worldview, influence the individuals behavior
and show the links between childbearing and adult personality
traits. Symbolic interactionism, espoused by some sociologists,
asserts that personality arises as a result of the individuals
socialization mediated by symbols and, in particular, language.

Mead suggests that the self emerges in the process of

socialization or the process of social interaction mediated by
language. The self consists of two parts, the I, which is active
and idiosyncratic, and the Me, or the self-consciousness. Cooley
calls the social self as the looking-glass self or the ability to
visualize oneself through the attitudes and responses of others.
He or she also acquires a generalized others, which represent the
organized responses of all the members of the group and their
acknowledged attitudes and values.

Socialization is the process by which children become

participating and functioning members of society and fit into an
organized way of life as mature adults. Through socialization, the
culture of the group is transmitted, the individual develops into a
socially functioning person, and the members of the group are
encouraged to conform to the norms of the group. Socialization is
realized when children become productive as adult members.
However, socialization is not simply molding an individual
according to a standardized social pattern, as he or she is
afforded some leeway in his or her action.
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There are various agencies of socialization. The family serves as
the main link between the child and society and is the first, the
closest, and most influential social group in the childs life. In the
peer group, the individual is more or less in cooperative
interaction with persons of the same age group and is influenced
by its norms, interests, and values. The church and religious
organizations provide spiritual guidance, norms of conduct, and
rules of behavior. The school is the formal agency for weaning the
child from home and introducing him or her into the society. Mass
media is also an agency of socialization. It informs, educates, and
entertains. It affects the audiences behavior and attitudes,
positively or negatively. In the workplace, the individual gets
socialized to its norms and values and finds his or her place in its
hierarchy of statuses.

From infancy to adulthood, an individual is socialized according to

gender role expectations related to the institutionalized statuses
of males and females. While biological factors contribute to the
differences between males and females, the culture defines how
males and females are to behave. Sex differences are a function
of the cultural patterns, which prescribe differential expectations
and norms for boys and girls.

Study Guide

1. Explain the factors that determine human development.

2. Assess the Freudian theory, the culture and personality
theory, and symbolic interactionism in explaining personality
development.
3. How does Goffman explain the expression All the world is a
stage?
161
 4. Describe the process of socialization and the emergence of
the social self.
5. What roles do the family, the peer group, the school, the
church, mass media, and the work place play in the process
of socialization?
6. What differentiates sex from gender? What do you mean by
socialization for gender roles?

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Which factor plays a more important role in the development

of personality: heredity or the sociocultural environment?
Support your answer.
2. In your experience, which agencies of socialization the
family, peer group, the school, the church, mass media, and
the workplace play a crucial role in the development of
your social self?
3. How do biological inheritance and socialization account for
sex differences?

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 Chapter 6

DEVIANT BEHAVIOR

The homosexual who is married with children but hides a secret

lover somewhere; the screaming, screeching hairdresser who has
no qualms about his sexual preference; the effeminate but
dignified artist who carefully select s the social circles he moves
around in; the scared teenager who would rather die than let his
parent s and friends know how he daydreams of the handsome
basketball players rather than the pretty cheerleader; the macho
dancer who has hide into the homosexual life-style by virtue of his
occupation all these are examples of different stages and types
of homosexuality. There is a great debate on the cause of this
condition. Do the elevated levels of certain hormones cause
homosexual activities among men, or do the homosexual
activities cause the levels of these hormones to rise? To what
extent do a dominant mother and/or an absentee or ineffective
father play a role in the shaping of the homosexual personality?
Does one traumatic homosexual experience predispose a person
to future same- sex experiences? Is homosexuality hereditary or
purely environmental? All these issues arise because
homosexuality appears to be one of the most commonly observed
and most openly accepted deviant behaviors.

Ma. Teresa C. Panopio, 1990

The introductory quotation in an excerpt from an essay on

homosexuality, a condition which is considered as different or
deviating from conventional behavior.

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What is Deviant Behavior?

Despite the general tendency of the socialization process

mechanisms of social control to enforce conformity, there are
instance of variations, disregard for, defiance of, nonconformity or
flaunting of the social norms or established standards of the
group. Such types of behavior are considered deviant because
they stray from the accepted norms, beliefs, or values of the
group. The expression of radical or unusual politics or religious
beliefs are considered as deviant. To sociologists, deviance is a
function of the pigment of particular group who observed the
behavior (Sullivan, 2001: 155). Aside from studying conventional
and deviant behavior, sociologists also study the mechanisms of
social control that groups and society use to bring deviants into
line. When sociologists study deviant behavior, they do not judge
such behavior as being good or bad. They attempt to
determine what types of behavior are defined as deviant and
study how society deals with deviants.

Deviance is relative, what is deviant for one group maybe

acceptable to another group. Abortion premarital sex, polygamy,
and divorce do not constitute deviance in some societies, but are
strongly disapproved for or punished by Christians in the
Philippines. What is considered deviant may vary in time and
place? In history we see some persons who were called radicals
and fanatics during their lifetime, but who were lauded and
appreciated by the succeeding generations. Inventors,
formulators of new theories, or discoverers like Galileo, Darwin,
and Freud were held in contempt by their contemporaries and
were censured or ridiculed, but were later hailed as intellectual
giants. Claro M. Recto, who espoused nationalism, was labelled
164
as communist in his time, but is now considered as a real
nationalist. Deviations from orthodox political and religious
thinking and approved sexual or certain legal codes may
encounter strong disapproved sexual or certain legal codes may
encounter strong disapproval (Clinard and Meir 1979:12).

However, rules can also be broken without disapproval when the

deviance can be justified by pointing to a higher cause (Popenoe
1977:12). This was shown, for example, in the assumption to the
formal declaration of approval by the Batasang Pambansa, but
rather on the basis of peoples power after an almost bloodless
revolution and the extension of recognition by the various nations
in the world.

Deviant behavior may be tolerated, approved, or disapproved.

Modern societies encourage some amount of deviation, which
moves in the direction of the ideal pattern of behavior. The
positively overt and upwardly deviant person or group varies from
the common place patterns, as may be found in the extraordinary
person, the saint, the hero, and one with exemplary conduct.

In our society, outstanding scholars, professionals, leaders in

government, science, arts, education, mass media, labor,
agriculture and the law, the national beauty, and inventor are
culturally approved deviants. The fearless and daring priests,
nuns, and lay persons who defied death by trying to stop tanks
from attacking the mass of people at Camp Crame and Camp
Aguinaldo on February 22-25, 1986 are all kinds of deviants
widely lauded not only by Filipinos but by many people all over
the world.

165
Aside from being a variation from the normative behavior, deviant
behavior can be viewed as pathological phenomenon, as in the
case of mental illness or psychological disorder. Deviance
involves behavior that is seen as going beyond the expectations
of approved behavior. Deviance is thus the judgment by members
of society that an individual is departing from social norms. What
is considered deviant depends on how those who have socially
significant power and influence define the act.

All societies, from the simple sacred society with a homogenous

culture to the large modernize societies with their heterogeneous
culture, face the problem of deviant behavior. The degree of
deviation depends on its variations from the norms and the value
placed on the norm. Infractions of the sex code and laws on life,
liberty, and property are considered serious compared to
breaches of etiquette or good taste in dressing, and violators are
punished accordingly.

Highly industrialized, urbanized, and modern societies experience

rapid technological changes and higher levels of education and
individualism. Such conditions encourage personal freedom and
self- expression. Modern society also encourages the weakening
control of the family, and the state to sanction and limit individual
behavior (Bradshaw, Healey, and Smith 2001: 144)

Likewise, societies have diverse groups, each with its own set of
norms and role expectations. It is possible that as people conform
to the norms and their group and perform its prescriptions, they
go contrary to the norms of bigger society. Such is the case of an
adolescent member of a juvenile gang. Deviant behavior
disapproved of by society, whether committed by an individual or
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a group, may become an addict and reject the norms of the group
and become an individual deviant. Deviations that are considered
serious social problems include drug addiction, crime and juvenile
delinquency, alcoholism, prostitution, homosexuality, mental
aberrations, abortion, aberrant sexual behavior, and marital and
family maladjustment. Some types of deviant behavior are highly
organized, such as drug pushing, smuggling, pick pocketing, car
napping, begging, kidnapping, and other forms of criminality, and
the deviants develop levels of professionalism similar to those
found among integrated occupational groups.

Explanations for Deviant Behavior

Various theories on deviance have been formulated to explain its

occurrence. We shall focus on some sociological theories which
examine it against the socio-cultural processes and structural
organization of the society.

The biological explanation states that deviant behavior stems

from ones physical or biological makeup. Cesare Lambroso
(1911), an Italian doctor and criminologist, held that some people
are born criminals and have abnormally large jaws, high
cheekbones, good eyesight, and insensibility to pain. The chief
criticism hurled against this view is that the sample studied was
limited to criminals in prison. Some biologists hold that deviant
behavior is a result of aberrant genetic traits, as in cases such as
homosexuality, criminality, and mental illness. Again, these
studies are criticized on the basis of unrepresentative samples. In
answer to some studies which claim that biology is a contributing
factor, but not the only cause of the aberration (Sullivan, 2001:
157).
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The psychological approach stresses that deviant behavior is a
result of personality disorder or maladjustment that develops
during childhood (Ibid., 157), brought about by inner conflicts or
by the inability to control ones inner impulses or failure to
structure ones behavior in an orderly way. That lack of means to
defer gratification in the present for some future benefits causes
behavior as a form of aggression against others or against society
because of frustration. Sociologists accept the role of personality
and psychological processes as causing deviance, but they also
stress the role of culture, social structures, and social interaction
in causing deviant behavior.

Sociological Approaches to Deviance

Functionalist Perspective

The functionalist stresses the normative social structure and the

interrelatedness of parts. The rapid social changes in norms,
values, and life-style increase the opportunities for deviant
behavior like drug use, crime, and mental illness.

Emile Durkheim holds that deviance is a natural part of all

societies and serves important functions. Rules are strengthened
as deviant behavior is punished and clarifies their meaning.
Deviance unites the members of a group as they stand together
to oppose deviant behavior. Deviance may also promote social
change. Norms may be changed when they are violated. Protest
may be instituted to correct unjust actions (Kendall 2000: 158).

Durkheim (1897) holds that there is a desirable normative

structure, but in times of rapid social change, a variety of
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conflicting norms give rise to a condition which he calls anomie or
a state of normlessness. This comes about not as a result of the
absence of norms but because of the existence of many sets of
norms, none of which is closely binding upon everybody. It
connotes a condition which the person becomes normless and
has no strong sense of belonging. Norms and values are
ambiguous, resulting in social strain and inconsistencies. For
some persons in this condition, life becomes meaningless,
uncertain, or fraught with conflicts. This makes them drift and
resort to other types of behavior not acceptable to society.

Robert K. Merton (1968) explains deviance as a result of anomie

in contemporary modern society like United States. According to
him, the inconsistencies and differences or even contradictions
result into deviant behavior. The acquisition of material success in
the form of wealth and education are the accepted status goals in
modern society, but the institutional means or norms for achieving
these legitimately are limited. When people are unable to achieve
such goals on account of hindrances, they resort to deviant ways.
Most people are conformists, accepting the culturally approved
goals like4 using education, their prowess, intelligence, and
legitimate occupational careers to achieve their goals. Some
disadvantaged groups with limited access and opportunities for
doing so become confused, and anomie results. These groups
thus make illegitimate adaptations to achieve the culturally
achieved goals.

Mertons theory questions on whether different groups within a

society aspire toward the same cultural goals. It doesnt follow
that all people in a society aspire for success. The theory does

169
not also explain the reason behind differences in peoples
response to anomie (Sullivan 2001: 160).

The control theory raises developed by Walter Reckless (1967)

explains the occurrence of deviance but is largely applicable to
delinquency, youth crime, and suicide (Clinard and Meier
1979:88- 91). The theory asserts that deviance and conformity
are both learned in the same process of socialization whereby
one acquires norms, social roles, and self-concept. Participation
in subcultures and counter-culture is significant in the socialization
process becoming a deviant. Deviance is caused not so much by
a force that motivates persons to deviate as it is by the fact that
deviance is not prevented. Social control is crucial in preventing
deviance, the most important of which is the bond between an
individual and society.

Conflict Theory

The conflict theory (Horton and Hunt 1985: 176- 177) focuses on
the heterogeneous nature of society and the differential
distribution of political and social power. A struggle occurs
between social classes and between the powerful advocate the
rules and laws that serve their vested interests and power
advocate rules and laws that serve their own interests.

For instance, laws against crimes are legislated to maintain order

because crime conflicts with the interests of the powerful
segments of society. Criminal control and administration of
criminal laws through such agents as the police and court are
enhanced. Strong sanctions against suicide, prostitution,
pornography, abortion, and drunkenness come from church
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groups. All these work against the interests of the powerless. The
conflict between the powerful and the weak affects the creation of
deviance and societys response to it. The dominance of one
class over another is characteristic of capitalist society, and this
can only be corrected with socialist principles.

This theory does little to inform us about the process whereby a

person becomes deviant. What it explains is the formation and
enforcement of certain rules to enhance the power of some
powerful or elitist groups. The conflict perspective also states that
what is criminal and what is not are defined by those in power;
their definitions reflect the ruling class. The laws formulated by
those in power favor them. On the whole, those who benefit most
are the ruling class.

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism focuses on the importance of definitions,

labels, and the social meanings associated with the deviant act. If
the experience is defined as pleasurable by the actor, the deviant
act is repeated until the person eventually earns the deviant label.
The child socialized in the subculture of juvenile delinquents will
learn and internalize the norms, attitudes, and values of that
group. Cultural transmission and differential association theories
explain deviant behavior vis--vis the social interactionism
approach.

Edwin Sutherland reinforced the notion of cultural transmission

theory and used the concept of differential association. He
affirmed the idea that the deviant behavior, like conventional
behavior, is learned through interaction with others in small
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intimate groups. As persons interact with deviants, they also
acquire the techniques, motives, drives, and attitudes appropriate
for such behavior. They become a deviant as they learn and
internalize the unfavorable definitions, which eventually exert
impact on their behavior. These theories of cultural transmission
and differential association explain the formation of urban youth
gangs (Curry 1999: 82-83).

Another social interactionist theory explaining deviant behavior is

labelling theory. This theory focuses on how crime and deviance
become defined and labelled by official agencies and by other
persons because of their deviant behavior, and the impact of both
social definitions and the social sanctions which exert pressure on
individuals to engage in some deviant acts (Clinard and Meier
1977: 73). Becker, in his book The Outsiders (1963: 9), considers
deviance as the result of the application of rules and sanctions by
others to those who stay away from the norms. The deviant
behavior is the behavior so labelled. Once people are labelled as
deviant, they are thrust into a deviant role and are reacted to by
others as deviants.

After the commission of a deviant act and being labelled as such,

the individual is stigmatized. Their label leads to further deviant
behavior as they are denied occasions for engaging in
conventional behavior. Moreover, the labelled persons internalize
the label which becomes their self-concept, and thus act
accordingly (Money, Knox, and Schacht 2000: 104). The gang
provides social support, group identity, protection, and a sense of
identity. It becomes the important group for the individual,
replacing the family and school.

172
Feminist Approach to Deviance

Kendall (2000: 171- 172) points out that there is no single feminist
perspective on deviance. There are three schools of thought on
the issue, namely, the liberal, the radical, and the socialist
approaches. The liberal approach avers that deviance is a rational
response to gender discrimination experienced in marriage, the
workplace, and interpersonal relations. It is also ascribed to the
lack of educational and job opportunities and the stereotyped
expectations on womens roles in society. Radical feminist
attribute deviance to patriarchy, defined as male dominance over
women. The double standard of morality is lopsided. This is
evident for example in prostitution, where it is acceptable for a
man to pay for sex, but it is improper for a woman to do so.
Socialist feminism holds that in capitalistic and patriarchal
societys women receive low wages, if at all. They have few
economic resources so they resort to prostitution or shoplifting to
earn a higher income or acquire a product they desire.

While it is generally believed that social deviation is bad by

nature, this is not always so. Social deviation also performs some
positive functions (Clinard and Meier 1979: 23): 1). Social
deviance makes people aware of the possible dangers emanating
from such deviation. They may develop a common interest in
conforming to group norms as they acquire a common sense of
morality. They tend to unite in common defense against criminals
rapists, hold-uppers, or drug addicts and conduct incessant
campaigns against them. The recognition of deviance makes the
group aware of the limits of tolerance for some standards or
norms. A certain amount of deviance may ensure the safety of
some persons and minimize the strain on society. Deviation may
173
serve as a warning device for some imperfections or faults in the
society, which may cause discontent and unrest and lead to
changes that intensify morale and efficiency.

Drug Abuse

Drug abuse is a deviant behavior which has aroused a sense of

awareness among people of the danger of such deviance and has
developed a common sense of morality. This are also considered
as a social problem.

Drug abuse has become so widespread. Despite the

governments intensified campaigns, the drug is any substance
that brings about physical, emotional, behavioral, or social
impairment; there is violation of the acceptable social standards of
drug use. This leads to disastrous physical, physiological, or
psychological changes and drug dependency. Drug addiction is a
state of physical or psychological need of a drug which stems
from its continued use. Physical dependence ids manifested in
withdrawal symptoms (i.e. vomiting and muscular tremors) which
happen when that person stops using the drug. Psychological
dependence exists when a drug becomes necessary for the
persons well being. In such a state, the person loses that power
of self- control, thus endangering themselves and others.

The most commonly abused drugs listed by the dangerous drugs

board in the Philippines are:

Sedatives, which exert calming effects on the nervous

system; they reduce anxiety and excitement. However, an
overdose may so depress the brains respiratory control as
174
 to lead to the cessation of breathing and eventual death.
Examples are barbiturates, tranquilizers, and alcohol.

Stimulants, sometimes called pep pills, which increase

alertness and physical disposition they hide fatigue and
create exhilaration and states of euphoria. Excessive use
may lead to insomnia and, later, exhaustion and deep
depression. Examples are amphetamines, cocaine, and
caffeine.

Hallucinogens, also called psychedelic, which affect

sensation, thinking, self-awareness, and emotion. Taking
are leads to changes in perception of time and space,
delusion, or false beliefs. Examples are LSD, mescaline,
and marijuana.

Narcotics, which relieve pain, make one drowsy and

relaxed, and induce sleep. they are taken by injection,
subcutaneously, intravenously. Continuous use leads to
physiological and psychological dependence, which makes
addiction a serious problem both or the person concerned
and for society.

Among the favorite drugs used is marijuana or canabis sativa,

often called grass, pot, or weed. It remains to be the most heavily
trafficked drug in the world (world drug report 1997). In the 1970s,
marijuana was cultivated in only nine provinces in the Philippines.
By 2002, 98 plantation sites were found in different regions.
Marijuana acts as a sedative or hallucinogen and contains a mind
altering psychoactive ingredient. The drugs is sourced from the
flowering tops and leaves of an Indian hemp plant, canabis sativa.
175
The leaves and flower are dried, crushed into small pieces, and
rolled into short cigarettes taking marijuana is often the first step
to other more potent drugs like cocaine or heroin.

Shabu, or methamphetamine hydrochloride, comes in the form of

large crystals, similar to chucks of ice, shards of broken glass, or
rock candy. It costs about P1, 960 per gram (Philippines national
police, 2002). Shabu is smuggled into the country from China,
India, and Pakistan. It is processed in laboratories and sold in
powder form to users. Shabu continues to be smuggled into the
Philippines through the international airports, seaports, and mail
and parcel services.

Shabu, also called ice, crack, or chalk, is extremely addictive. It is

used by both affluent families as well as slum dwellers. Shabu
can be brought anywherenear school campuses, burger joints,
in the streets, or even in police camps it can be taken orally,
snorted (transnasal), or intravenously. It gives the user a feeling
of euphoria, alertness, paranoia, decreased appetite, and
increased physical activity.

Ecstasy or MDMA refers to a group of design drugs closely

related to the amphetamine family of illicit drugs. This drug comes
from Western Europe, shipped to Asia, and smuggled into the
country through the same path as shabu. It is a synthetic
psychoactive drug with stimulant and hallucinogenic properties,
commonly used by scions of rich families and habitus of chic
bars, club hoppers, and teenagers in big cities (Calica, 2002). A
tablet costs from P2, 000 to P2,750 (2002).

176
Also used as mood altering drugs are pharmaceutical drugs, like:
cough syrups, like corex-D, Mentholez, Barbitrin, and Hycoden;
tranquilizers and depressant, like valium, rivotril, mogado;
injectables, like morphine; and inhalants, which include rugby
solvents and other volatile substances.

The Nature and Extent of Drug Use

Statistics show that the drug menace has worsened through the
years and searched series proportions. In 1972, there were about
20,000 drug users, confined only in metro manila. Marijuana,
then, was the drug of choice. By 2003, there are an estimate
3.4million drug users nationwide, majority of them age 15-29
(Philippine drug enforcement agency, 2003).

In a study of drug use among college students in the University of

the Philippines, college of arts and sciences in 1971-1972, Zarco
found certain social and personality variables related to marijuana
use, among the findings are:

The regular use of marijuana (once a week or more) among

freshmen and sophomores; it was used experimentally (less
frequent) among the juniors. Data implied that a number of
regular users do not continue schooling in the university. Male
students had higher participation rate in marijuana use than
female students (table 6.1).

Premarital sex practice was highly associated with marijuana use.

Homosexuality and marijuana use were closely associated.
Scholastic performance as measured by grades was inversely
correlated with marijuana use.
177
Good parent-child relations and communication were also
inversely related to marijuana use. A slightly higher incidence of
marijuana use was found among students who live with those
living in dormitories or families not their own. Drugs use was
highest among members of campus geek letter fraternities and
sororities compared to other organizations. The number of drug
patients in the government residential centers increased from
1,466 in 1974 to 5,806 in 2000 (Philippine national police 2003)
(table 6.1).

The Cost of Drug Abuse

Drug abuse comes with an immense cost to the user, the family,
and the country. The cost of drug abuse to the family is
incalculable. Drug users divert funds reserved for necessities to
purchase the drugs. Drug use also leads to quarrels, battered
spouses, and even the breakup of the family.

The effects of drug use on health are tremendous. Shabu can

cause heart failure or stroke, blood clots, and respiratory
disorders, chronic depression, hallucination, hyperthenia,
convulsions, and irreversible damage to blood vessels in the
brain. It can cause kidney and lung disorders, chronic depression,
hallucination and hypertension. It can also lead to violent and
aggressive behavior, malnutrition, and disturbed personality
development (Salazar, 2001: B15). Drug abuse can also lead to
depression and antisocial activities.

Drug offenses do not inherently involve fraud or the use of force

and are not classified as crimes (stark 1993:210). But there a link
between drugs and crime, as the psychological effects of drugs
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often stimulate violent reactions. The drug problem has worsened
and assumed alarming proportions, to the point of posing a threat
to the countrys national security. The drug commonly used and
peddled is shabu, which over the years has developed into a
multibillion transnational community. The use of dirty money by
drugs syndicates has dire consequence on the countrys national
security. The through the evils of narco-politics, narco-justice and
narco- terrorism (coronel 2002:22); as money amassed by drug
lords can be used to bride government, police and military
officials, who in turn will protect these syndicates. Drug money
can also be used to bride and corrupt members of the judicial
system.

Treatment and rehabilitation of drug addicts.

Studies on the treatment of drug addict show that addicts show

that addiction is one of the most difficult forms of deviant behavior
to treat effectively. The rate of relapse or re-addiction is high. Re-
addiction, according to Lindesmith (as cited in Clinard 1979:334),
is a result of long experience with the drug, a self-concept of one
as an addict, peer group pressure, and the recognition of the
importance of the drug in relation to withdrawal symptoms.

Montanos survey (1983) of drug rehabilitation centers reveals

that: 1) Drug patients come from all social classes, 2) Majority of
the patients are between the ages of 15 and 24:3) One-half of the
patients are high school students or graduates; 4) Frequently
used drugs are marijuana, cough syrup, and tranquilizers; 5)
Majority of the patients claim that they were drawn to drugs by
peer pressure. About one-fifth said curiosity made theme try the

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drug. About one-tenth said that they had family or personal
problems.

Rehabilitation involves the process by which the drug dependents

remaining capabilities for a healthy life his or her physical,
emotional, psychological, spiritual, vocational, and occupational
potential-are developed to the optimum. But, as the saying goes,
it is better to ensure prevention rather than subject the addict to
treatment. Here is where the family, the school, the church, and
the community can join hands to prevent drug addiction. Loving
protection and guidance in the family, supplemented by proper
education programs, the churchs spiritual as recreational and
livelihood activities can go a long way to prevent drug addiction.

To increase public awareness on the adverse effects of drug

abuse, the Dangerous Drugs Board and NGOs have embarked
on preventive education, training, and information programs. A
Comprehensive School-based Drug Abuse Prevention Program
has been undertaken by the Department of Education, Culture,
and Sports. Community-based programs have been organized
and the Philippine Information Agency has assisted by producing
anti-drug infomercials for television and radio.

Government Countermeasures

The Dangerous Drugs Act was enacted in 1972 by then Pres.

Ferdinand Marcos. The dangerous Drugs Board was created as
the policy-making body drug for abuse. However, implementation
of measures to prevent and control illegal drugs leave much to be
desired due to organizational rivalry (Coronel 2002; 22). Thus, the
Drug Law Enforcement and Prevention Coordinating Center was
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created to consolidate the effort of all government agencies, local
governments units, and NGOs in an effective antidrug campaign.
In 2003, the government intensified the drive against illegal drugs
and ordered the establishment of more government rehabilitation
centers.

Crime and its Etiology

What is crime? Crime is a violation of a norm which is codified

into a law and backed by the power and authority of the state.

Crime injures both the victim and the society, and there for
criminals are punished through the imposition of fines,
imprisonment, or the death penalty. Functionalists hold that crime
tends to increase as a society becomes more urbanized and
industrialized. Social bonds in the family church and the
community become week. Members of society tend to pursue
their own activities and set up their own goals without consulting
the family. This weakening of social constraints results into some
degree of social disorganization. When the social bonds are
reduced, a certain degree of deviance such as crime may follow.

In his paper, The International Context of Crime and

Punishment Dr. Cicero Campos (1995) discusses the role of the
family, education, the community, and the mass media in the
etiology of crime.

1. The family exerts a great impact on the behavior, values,

and attitudes of its member. In the process of
socioeconomic and technological development, the strength
of the family as a socializing agency has been eroded,
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 leading to so-called dysfunctional family. The result is either
excessive strictness or and indifference toward the child,
slackness in parental care and control, and lack of harmony
in interpersonal relationships. Traumatic experiences
resulting from this setup my push the child in to social
deviance such as criminal behavior or drug abuse.

2. The school plays a crucial role in integrated development,

social maturation and the preparation of the juvenile to
become a well adjusted, law-abiding, and productive
member of society. However, the failure of the schools to
meet young peoples psychological, social, and emotional
needs and to adjust to the changing social milieu may lead
to unrest, discontent, and disruptive activities. This situation
becomes a breeding ground for juvenile delinquency or
drug abuse.

3. The peer ground exerts a strong influence on children.

Negative peer group influence can drive the child to truancy,
vagrancy, and gang membership. Such gangs often indulge
in some forms of the vandalism, streets fighting, collective
aggression, violent acts, sex-related offences, and
organized criminality.

4. The community offers a wide range of services of young

as a supplement to the efforts of the family, the school, and
the state. However, disorganizing forces in the community
and its institutions can offer structure for inter- generation
communications and check crime and juvenile delinquency,
Volunteer organization can provide crime prevention

182
 measures by way o9f awareness-building, preventive
education, guide counseling, treatment, and rehabilitation.

In one way or another, mass media influences the development

as well as the deterioration of the character of individuals. Media
has a big role to play in making or unmaking a society.

The crime situation in the Philippines

Frequently bannered in the print and broadcast media are

heinous crimes like murder, hostage taking, rape, kidnapping, or
bank robberies. There are also sensational stories about
transnational crimes. These reports give people a feeling or
insecurity and anxiety over the peace and order situation. These
create the perception that crime is on the increase and that one is
not safe even inside ones own place. What is the crime situation
in the country?

Tables 6.2 and 6.3 give us a picture of the volume of the index
and non-index crime as over a span of five years. Index crimes-
are committed every 15 minutes. One crime against a person is
committed every 23 minutes, with one murder committed every
hour and 33 minutes, one homicide every 2 hours and 9 minutes,
one physical injury every 48 minutes, and one rape case every 3
hour and 19 minutes (Mendoza 2001:5).

The tables show that, with the exception of rape, there was a
steady decline in crime. Nevertheless, The total number of crimes
increased from 71,080 in 1997 to 83,538 in 1999; but decreased
again to 80,108 in 2000. The total crime volume went down from
1999 to 2000. The average monthly crime rate (AMCR) went
183
down from 19.14 in 1990 to 9.14 in 2000. The crime solution
efficiency increased from recorded the highest crime volume with
6,223 incidents, representing 20% of crimes nationwide.

According to Mendoza (2001:6-7), other sensational crimes are:

1. Kidnap for Ransom-In 2001, the public perception is that

kidnap for ransom incidents have been on the rise.
However, in many incidents reported by media, there was
no ransom demand; some were mere abduction or cases of
missing persons. The police solved 47% of the cases
nationwide, with 7 of the cases in the NCR. In 2003,
kidnapping cases surged, with a record 156 cases from
January to November.
2. Illegal drug trafficking remains a major concern, despite the
relative success posted in drug law enforcement.
3. Bank robberies increased from 25 incidents in 1998 to 36 in
1999, but this went down to 32 in 2999. From January to
June 2001, a total of ten robberies nationwide were
recorded.
4. Illegal gambling, includes jueteng, masiso, video karera
illegal bookies, and sakla. Despite anti-illegal gambling
operations throughout the country, the problem persists.
5. Carnapping incidents have decrease since 1998 by 14%. In
2001,752 vehicles were carnapped nationwide, with a 29 %
recovery efficiency.

Police personnel have been arrested and charge bin courts

nationwide for bribery. In 1001, 24 kotong cops (those who take
bribes) were arrested, with the NCR topping the list at 14.

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Table 6.2 Index Crimes 1990-1995.
Index Crimes 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Murder 9,291 8,707 8,293 7,758 6,339 6,096
Homicide 8,986 8,069 7,912 7,123 6,338 5,546
Physical injury 25,389 21,862 20,462 18,722 17,883 14,682
Rape 1,814 2,026 2,149 2,285 2,494 2,346
Robbery 15,545 13,817 11,164 9,856 9,169 7,042
Theft 29,977 22,780 17,374 12,940 12,240 8,781
Non Index
Crime 50,390 49,065 37,365 38,002 38,856 34,755
Total Crime
Volume 37,578 119,300 102,570 94,401 93,317 79,248
AMCR 19.14 16.26 13.70 12.35 11.63 9.62
Crime Solution
Efficiency (%) 76.93 87.10

Sources: Philippine National Police, 2001.

Table 6.3 Index Crimes 1996-2000

Index Crimes 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Murder 6,141 5,776 5,913 5,703 5,735
Homicide 5,167 4,540 4,467 3,920 4,079
Physical Injury 13,600 12,686 11,716 11,366 10,954
Rape 2,505 2,913 3,031 3,177 3,145
Robbery 6,428 5,795 5,519 5,740 5,884
Theft 8,539 7,078 6,859 7,584 7,457
Non-Index
Crime 34,535 32,302 34,070 7,584 7,457
Total Crime
Volume 76,915 71,080 71,575 82,538 80,108
AMCR 9.08 8.11 8.17 9.42 9.14
Crime Solution
Efficiency 89.34 90.59 91.27 91.36 92.34

Sources: Philippine National Police, 2001

7. Petty crimes include cell-phone snatching and pick-

pocketing. From January to May 2001, there were 522
incidents of cell phones snatching, whit 49% of the total
incidents occurring in Manila Cases were filed in court, and
snatchers or put under investigation.
8. Others forms of robbery include 36 akyat-bahay incidents,
171 highway robberies, and 73 robberies on commercial
establishment recorder in NCR from January to May 2001.

185
 Relentless police operations have been conducted to avert
these incidents.

Crime Victimization Statistics

In March 2001, the SWS conducted a survey on public safety,

poverty, and governance. On public safety, the survey ask about
common crimes like burglarization of the home, pickpocketing or
robbery outside the home, carnapping or loss of a motor vehicle,
and injury from physical violence. Respondents said they did not
report some crimes to the police due to cost, too much bother,
futility, and perceived risk to theme for reporting the crime. The
survey result (1,200 house-holds as respondents) 3.2%, homes
broken into; 2.6%, lost motor vehicles; 10.7%, victims of crimes
against property; and 2% had a family member who got physically
hurt in a crime. The SWS survey concurs with government
findings that crime victimization since 1989 had declined on the
average, although it fluctuates up or down (Mangas 2001:12).

Trends in Murder and Rape Incidents in the Philippines and

Metro Manila, 1980-1994. Zarco, Gutirrrez, and Dulnuan
(1980:45-48) studied trends in murder and rape in the Philippines
from 1980-1994. Murder was selected as the main indicator of
social violence, murder being the most heinous crime in our penal
code, and its frequency and widespread occurrence. The murder
volume situation is presented the using the murder volume based
on the incidents investigated, discovered, and filed by
enforcement agencies. About 75% of the murders reported are
disputed-related. The rest are due to financial or material profit
motives, or related to other crimes. Few cases are committed for
fun, curiosity, or to impress ones gangmates with ones boldness.
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From 1983-1988, national murder volume during a crime wave
was 9,000 to 12,3000 incidents for year. The murder rate ranged
from 17.9 to 21.4 per 100,000 population; 10% of the crimes
occurred within Metro Manila. In Manila, many crimes were
property-related such are car theft, robbery, theft, and estafa;
interestingly, the murder rate in Metro Manila was 30-40% lower
than the national statistics.

Since 1988, murder rates were on the decline every year until
after 1994. Metro Manila, the decline began in 1990 and the same
trend continued to the end of the period of inquiry in 1994.
However, the media continued to highlight gruesome massacres,
rape-slays, robbery, and homicide cases. The possible factors
responsible for the downtrend in murder cases are the gradual
decline of communist insurgency, military operations, political
conflicts, and between organized labor and management.

Rape is one of the most publicized crimes; under Philippine law, it

is a crime exclusively against women. It is easier for a prosecutor
to gather good evidence and witness (as the victim herself stands
as witness) for a conviction in rape cases than for murder. The
offenders are men whose averages age is 32 years, while the
victims averages age is 16. Rape is a crime which carries a
heavy stigma on the victims (Zarco, Gutierrez and Dinluan
1995:49).

Rape perpetrators are usually members of the victims

households. A frequent pattern is the father-daughter rape. Rape
slays, sexual attacks usually performed by a gang which result in
murder, are infrequent. 90% are committed by men who are
known to the victims, while 10% are committed by strangers. Most
187
stranger rapes are reported right way. Existing statistics on rape
do not represent the actual number of rapes.

Reports show that the rate and the volume per 100,000 from 980
to 1994 were on the rise, both in Metro Manila and in nearby
provinces. A possible reason is the number of cases reported is
the relative in-crease in womens empowerment, and with their
growing consciousness of their rights comes and increased ability
to report abuses against them. This is particularly true in the
cases of domestic crimes since women have acquired economic
strength. Another reasons is the creation of the womens Desks in
the police service, which makes it easier for women to report rape
cases (Ibid. :51-52). Relentless police operations are conducted
to avert crimes.

The Womens Crisis Center gives service to women survivors of

violence. Their research on rape cases show that: seven of ten
victims were raped by men known to them; six of ten were victims
of premarital rape to force them into marriage whit their current
husband; eight of ten reported reproductive tract infections; eight
often have sleeping disorders like insomnia, nightmares,
nightmares, and oversleeping.

Globalization and Crime

With the world becoming a global community, there is a free flow

of goods, services, funds, ideas, and information. But, while
globalization has brought benefits among nations, it also has dire
consequence. Crime, like the other aspects of social life, has also
been transformed.

188
The UN Crime congress pointed out that the modern methods of
transport, communications, and money transfer have utilized
developments in science and technology to collaborate across
national frontiers and used global strategies that no government
can counteract alone (cited by Campos 1995:87). The rich and
the powerful again dominate the transnational criminal
organization whose vested interests determine the way things are
operated and transacted.

Crimes have created significant impact on the political, economic,

environmental, social, and cultural stability of the country. Due to
the archipelagic nature of the country, it becomes easy for foreign
fugitives and criminals to enter the Philippines and to move from
one place to another. Domestic crimes that spill to another
country and are beyond the jurisdiction of domestic law
enforcement are referred to as transnational crimes
(Calagan2001:2). Example of transnational crimes are piracy,
terrorism, human and drug trafficking, arms smuggling, money
laundering, and cyber crimes; these are adverse effects on the
security of nation states. Globalization enhances the proliferation
of transnational corporations (Calagan 2001:30).

Under the auspices of the United Nations, the international

community has devised plans for regional cooperation and action
offset the threats posted by transnational crimes Countries in the
Asia-pacific region are pooling resources against transnational
crime, there are plans to develop a standard information reporting
system, including the framework for strategic researches, studies,
analysis, and assessments. Police agencies give assistance to
other countries; and international agreements provide for
personnel exchanges and extraditions treaties. What is foremost
189
is the institutionalization of these technical aspects for regional
and global cooperation (Callaghan 2001:31-35).

Social Control Mechanisms

Many considered the breakdown of social control as important

causes of crime and deviant behavior. Increasing urbanization,
industrialization, modernization, higher levels of education and
individualism have brought about intense social and cultural
changes. Modern society encourages self-expression and
personal freedom. The ability of the family, school, church state to
sanction and limit individual behavior becomes weak (Bradshaw,
smith 2001:344).

In order to prevent deviant behavior, effective means of social

control are used in the socialization is to insure conformity to the
norms and the values of the group so that the members behavior
is within the range of societal and group norms. Social control
refers to the measures and pressures designed to ensure
conformity to the approved standards of behavior of a group or
society (Horton and Hunt 1984:156).

There are two basic control processes: 1) the internalization of

group norms which result from the socialization process. Persons
are made aware of what is expected of them by the group and
they develop the desire to conform to the norms as their own and
to the internalized theme so that they behave accordingly. They
are taught to conform regardless and independent of any
anticipated reactions from others, like harsh opinions or being the
object of gossip.

190
There are two types of social control- the informal and the formal.
Informal social control may be observed in small groups or remote
rural areas were one knows everyone else and is in continued
face to face contact with others. This may be observed in specific
mechanisms such as approval and praising, bestowal of affection,
disapproval, reprimand, denial of affection, expression of opinion,
and gossip. Hollnsteiner (1963:185-188) cites some device and
mechanism which reinforce the system of social control in the
Philippines:

1. Pakikisama or concession. A person inclined to go alone

with the wishes of the even when he or she has a conflicting
duty, so as to win social approval.
2. Gossip. The fear of wagging tongues may discourage an
individual from deviating from norms.
3. The leveling technique, which Fr. Franck lynch S.J. calls
the sociostat. Any individual who publicly takes credit for an
act or claims any kind of superiority in the group is cut down
to size.
4. Curbing of antisocial attitudes by disallowing privacy or
by ascribing undesirable statuses to deviants.

Formal social control are mechanisms which involve organized

systems of specialized agencies to set up rules, codes, standards
of expected behavior, and formal secondary groups and
urbanized, industrialized communities. These are enacted by the
formal organization and administered by persons who occupy
positions authorized by the organization to serve as the agents of
social control within these organizations. The state enacts
criminal laws, and judges. In the form of promotion, bonuses,
certificates of merits, citations or award; conversely, the individual
191
maybe suspended or expelled from the group. In the church, the
priests, pastors, minister, or rabbis are the agents of social
control, and they usually promises of salvation or future states of
euphoria. Penance, withholding of religious services at death, or
ex-communication are their sanctions. They may also give scrolls
or certificates for exemplary service and commitment.

Summary

Society exerts pressure on its member to conform; nevertheless,

there are cases of nonconformity or defiance of groups of norm
and values. Behavior that violates norms is called deviant
behavior and his socially defined as such. Deviant behavior may
be approved or disapproved. The definition of deviant behavior
varies in different cultures or a given culture over a period of time.
Sociologists have various explanations for deviant behavior.

The functionalists stress the normative society and the

interrelatedness of its parts. Rapid social change disrupt the
smooth interrelation or the parts. Change in norms increase the
commission of deviant behavior. Durkheim and Merton assert that
deviant behavior is consequence of anomie of formlessness
which results from the existence of diverse sets of norms, with
none of them closely binding upon everybody.

The control theory asserts that deviance, like, conformity, is

learned. Participation in subcultures and counter-cultures is part
of the socialization process of becoming a deviant.

The conflict theory holds that the heterogeneous nature of

sociality and the differences in the distribution of social power
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lead to a struggle between social classes. The conflict between
the powerful and the week effect the creations of deviance and
society response to is. Those in power decide the definition of
what is criminal and laws favorable to them.

Symbolic interactions focuses on the importance of the definitions

and labelling of a social act. The cultural transmission theorists
point out that as people interact with a deviant, they acquire the
techniques, motives, drive, and attitudes appropriate to such
behavior. This is how a person learns the deviant behavior.
Labelling theory focuses on how crime and deviance become
defined and labelled and the affect on a person being so labelled,
especially by official and other persons.

Two serious forms of deviant behavior, which are considered as

social problems in the country, are drug abuse and crime. Drugs
abuse refers to the use of drugs, lawful or unlawful, which results
in physical, emotional, social, or behavioral impairment. Crime is
a violation of a norm codified in to law and carries punishment for
it. The result of crime is injury to both the individual and the
society.

Social control refers to the measure and pressures designed to

ensure conformity to the approved standards of behavior in a
group or society. These are enforced in the process of
socialization. There are two types of social control: informal and
formal.

Study Guide

1. What is deviant behavior?

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 2. Explain the various theories that account for deviant
behavior. What are the limitations of these theories?
3. What are the functions of deviant behavior?
a. Differentiate drug abuse from drug addiction.
b. What are the most commonly abused drugs in the
Philippines?
c. What is the social cost of drug abuse?
d. What are the social and personality variables related to
marijuana use as found by Zarco?
e. What is the profile of a drug user?
f. How are drug user treated?
4. What is crime?
5. Discuss the etiology of crime.
6. Describe the crime situation in the Philippines. What is the
trend in the crime and rape incidents in the Philippines?
7. How does globalization affect crime?

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Evaluate the labeling theory as an explanation of crime.

2. Are you in favor of the death sentence or the dictum of an
eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth in the punishment of
criminals? Why or why not?

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 Chapter 7

SOCIAL GROUPS AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS

In what might be described as its elementary form, the Filipino is

composed of the father, the mother, and their unmarried child or
children, naturally born to them or adopted The Filipino concept
of the family, commonly referred to as mag-anak, includes
members who reside or sojourn elsewhere, provided they are not
married.

In its elementary or nuclear form, the Filipino family includes all

kindred outside of the conjugal, parental, and affinal relations.
However, it includes them in its extended form. These relatives
may either live with the family or occupy the next door in a family
compound or in apartment. This recognition of the bilateral
extension of kinship includes moral obligations to support those
kindred economically if they are jobless or too young themselves
at the time of residence with the family.

Philippine social organization as a whole may be described as

familial in nature in that almost all social activities in the
community center of the family. Within the neighborhood, it is the
entire family, not its individual members, that decides on
important matters. The interest of the family is primarily focused
on the individuals comprising it. The karangalan or honor of the
family is also at stake when a member or members commit
crimes involving morality.
F. Landa Jocano 1998:62-63

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This is an illustration of a social group, that of the Filipino family
and a description of the Filipino social organization.

What is a Social Group?

No man is an island, said John Donne. A person is a sociable

being, born into a group, and living in a group. Even the so-called
loners or the monks of the Middle Ages associated and
participated with the fellow monks.

Social groups are essential to persons existence. One is born to

a family, is raised to a family, plays in the neighborhood, goes to
schools, worship with others and join other groups and other
associations. From the group, acquire personal habits, values,
attitudes, and ambitions. From the group, one acquires a social
identity and depends on it for his or her physical, psychological,
emotional, and spiritual needs.

The concept of group is one important concerns of sociological

inquiry. In studying social behavior, one has to examine the most
common and most familiar of social units which is the group
(Homans 1950:2). What is a group? Sociologists gives a range of
definition of the term social group, but the popular view is that
consist of two or more persons who are in a social interaction,
who are guided by social norms, values, and expectations, and
who maintain a stable pattern of relations over a period of time
(Homans 1950, Stark 1998, Kendall 2000.) Sociologists observe
regularity and uniformities in a group and analyze hoe the
behavior of individuals is affected by the patterned ways of group.
Sociologists are interested in all kinds of group, whether they are
small or large, temporary or permanent and organized.
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Guided by the norms of the group, members interact recurrently
and take each other to into account. Overtime, their interactions
become patterned. Once the pattern has been established, it
becomes the guide and controlling element of their behavior. The
pattern and recurrent form of behavior are sustained and may
persist even as members come and go. The members of the
group are held together and set apart from others by virtue of their
interaction. The members of the group tend to identify with the
group and develop a sense of purpose.

The Concept of Society

Sociology is the science of society and the social interactions

taking place. The concept of society was formulated during the
16th and 17th centuries to represent the whole organization as
distinct from the state. Society includes the totality of social
organizations and the complex network of interconnected,
interdependent, and overlapping social relationships. Kendall
(2000:3) defines society as a large social grouping whose
members shares the same geographical territory and is subject to
the political authority and dominant cultural expectations.

It symbolizes the group within which human beings can live a total
common life the peer groups; social organizations like the family
and kinship groups; economic, political, religious and educational
groups; and communities. The members have meaningful
interactions and interrelationships and guided by a system of
rewards and punishments which ensure the maintenance and
stability of society.

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Perucci and Knudsen (1983:9) point out two aspects of society;
1) Society is external to the individual. The norms, beliefs, values,
and culture of the society precede the individual who are born into
it or joint it. 2) The members perceive society and experiences as
a constraint upon their lives.

A society represents a geographical aggregate and has

boundaries, a similar government, and a common culture. The
society exists in natural environment to which its members must
adapt if it is to survive. It satisfies the basic needs for food,
shelter, security, and eventually, the need for stable sociable
order. The society imposes on the group members and shapes
their personalities. In turn, members try to shape and change
patterned forms of interaction and social relationships. The
members develop new norms and think of themselves as a social
unit, although conflict among them may also occur.

Every society has its own distinct and unique culture. Culture and
society are interdependent. All members of the society share a
common culture, although, subculture exists. For example, the
Maranaos of Mindanao are members of Filipino society, but they
have distinct life-style and a set of religious beliefs that set them
apart from the mainstream of Filipino society.

Usually, society is used synonymously with nation-state. Some

societies are cultural autonomous but transcend political
boundaries, like the Polar Eskimos who migrated to and from
Canada and the Soviet Union. A few nation-states are composed
of more than one culturally autonomous society like the Soviet
Union, before Latvia, Lithuania, Bosnia and others declared their
independence in 1991. Then, there are some areas in Africa
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where nation-states have been formed without regard for cultural
and national boundaries (McGee. Et al. 1977:92-153).

There are human clusters which do not form social groups but
may be transferred into one. There also considered important by
sociologists who study them. These are called the aggregate, the
social category, and the collectivity.

Aggregates

Sometimes, a number of persons cluster but do not interact with

each other, like in the case of people standing in a street corner
waiting for jeepney, people lining up to pay for their purchases in
a supermarket, or people sharing an elevator ride. Occasionally,
they may look at each other and heave a sigh of complaint, but
they are not concerned with the feelings and attitudes of the
others. This is referred as aggregate, and it is important
characteristic is their physical space.

Social Category

There are groups whose members may never have met and do
not interact socially, but posses common identifying status
characteristics. These are so called social category. When
referring to males and females, infants, children, youths, adults,
and the aged, the distinctions are on the basis of age, sex or race.
Other criteria may income or social class, occupation, religion,
political beliefs, and ethnicity. These social categories frequently
contribute to the formation of the groups. For instance, woman
who observes that females are discriminated against in hiring or
promotion and in a disadvantaged position in society may form a
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Womens Movement to redress the inequalities. The studies of
social categories make possible the intelligent understanding of
the qualities and behavior of people who are similar (Fichter
1971:78-79)

Collectivity

Temporary groups like crowds, masses, and public. And social

movements are cluster of people interacting with each other, but
the interactions are passing short-lived. Temporary groups like
collectivities are not governed by the established norms of the
culture. They are composed of clusters of people who share some
kind of belief which prepare them for action, spontaneously form a
temporary or short-lived group. They are characterized by the
spontaneous formation of norms and organizations that oppose or
interpret existing norms and organizations in a society.

Factors that Influence Groups

People live in groups and form groups to meet certain social

needs. Certain experiences predispose people to form groups
with or without conscious planning. Fundamental to the process of
group formation is social interaction people who are in close
proximity, or who share common experiences around some
cultural interest, or who have common objectives tend to interact
and form groups in order to satisfy their affectional or economic
needs, gain a sense of belonging and achieve security, or to
further their political ambitions or obtain recognitions.

Various factors influence groups. We shall discuss a few

important factors.
200
Motivational base shared by individuals. Individuals find
themselves together in similar social situations that may have
motivational implications for group formations. The motives cover
the entire range of social needs, desire, interest, noble activities,
insecurities or problems, or even pursuit of nefarious activities.
Exposed to the same experiences and situation, a number of
people are able to secure results through group action. Some
people find themselves sharing a common cause to fight for. The
same may be said about the formation of associations or formal
organizations in modern, complex societies motivated by special
purpose.

Santos (1948:31-40) cites a case of deviant group formed in 1970

outside the Metro Manila. Thirteen boys, whose ages ranged from
19 to 27 years, formed a group centered on the acquisition and
use of marijuana. To them, the rituals involved in smoking
marijuana became the basis of their friendships and identity.

Size of the group. The size of the group may range to two to a
million members. When a group has two members, it is called
dyad, as in a friendship group. The designation whether a group
is small or large arbitrary. In some cultures, a family with six
members or a university with a population of 10,000 would be
consider large: in other culture, these may not be viewed as
large. As a group size increases, the type of interaction affected:
the number of possible channels and interactions among group
members increases geometrically (Dobermen and Hartjen
1979:53). The interactions in a family differs in a university, as
relation in a family are generally personal and intimate while most
university are more informal and interpersonal.

201
In addition to the number of relationships, other characteristics
change with increasing size. Among these are the division of
labor, the group structure, type of leadership, and the
communication patterns. When the number of members
increases, division of members specialized, and group structure
becomes more formal and rigid. Social relationships which are
personal and intimate in a small group become more impersonal
and contractual as group becomes bigger; likewise, the need
arises for a more formal type of leader with authority and power to
direct influence the behavior of others. As a group size increases
communication becomes formal and kept within specific positions
of the group. In a large group, work may be divided among
communities or small groups which can facilitate the personal,
informal type of communication.

Type of group goals. It is often said that the structural patterns

of social groups are affected by its goals. Therefore, the parts of
the organization are assumed to have been formed in order to
attain group goals. A group will develop structural forms that will
facilitate the achievement of its goals; inversely, it will block
structural forms that will slow down the pursuit of its goals
(McGee 1977:185-186). Let us take the case of local
governments. What structural arrangement is more conducive to
the pursuit of its goals? There is the old centralized bureaucratic
structure where national government executives exercise control
over the local units. Another structure is one where local units
have autonomy is some aspects of governance and just
coordinate on other matters with the national government.

Kind of group cohesion. Group cohesion refers to the degree to

which members of a group are able to function and interact
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towards the pursuit of their goals (Santos 1984:32). Group
cohesion may be influenced by size, goals, and the possibility of
attaining its goals.

According to Santos (Santos 1984:32, group cohesion depends

on the degree to which the group has developed the notion of
what George Simmel calls a code of honor. This may be
illustrated in the attainment of family honor, the honor of members
in a business, or the honor of soldiers in the army. Group
cohesion is also determined by the extent to which individuals
needs and interests are satisfied. In the family, when the
members needs for affection, physical and psychological well-
being, and respect for each other area satisfied, cohesion is
strong and the breakup of its members will be remote. Likewise,
in a business establishment, when members needs are met and
achievement is recognized, the morale and degree of cohesion
will be high.

Social Structure

Just as physical objects have a structure, society and group also

have one. Social structure is an abstraction; it cannot be seen
directly, but it can be inferred from observing human behavior.
Social structure refers to the patterned social relationships and
interrelationship of the parts guided by the norms, expectations
and values of the social units members. The behavior patterns to
be followed as well as goals and purposes to be pursued area
taught through the process of socialization.

When we observe the structure of whole societies, we observe

that those with similar subsistence strategies tend to have similar
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social structures. Certain factors, like the availability of particular
resources, the weather, or contract with different people, will
somehow change some features of the social structures.

Small rural communities have the high degree of internal solidarity

of cohesiveness but limited division of labor. As the society
becomes large, the social structure comes to be made up of more
specialized parts and more distinctive division of labor (Howard
and Hattis 1992:426).

Predictable social relationships can be analyzed in terms of the

social structure. In the family for example, the statuses area those
of husband, wife, son, daughter, father, mother, brother and
sister. Father is a status and attached to it is a set of expected
patterns, duties and obligations like being a good provider,
dispenser of love and affection, protector to the family,
disciplinarian, arbiter of the behavior of the children and above all,
a model of good behavior. The father holds his status and plays a
role in relation to his sons and daughters. However, in actual life,
the holder of such a status may or may not satisfactorily carry out
the prescribed standards of behavior.

Roles are interdependent, and each member plays ones role on

relation to others. Sometimes, a person may experience role
conflict when there are incompatible expectations for two or more
social positions they hold simultaneously. The head of a bureau
may face a conflict if he or she is employing a relative who is not
doing too well because the situation has ethical demands. One
can also experience role strain, where a person deals with the
challenge of occupying two social positions simultaneously or a
single position that causes problems. There is also the problem of
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role exit, which is the process of disengaging from a role that is
central to ones self-identity; like the retirees who will be leaving
their places of work.

Social Function

Social function is a component of social structure. It refers to the

results of action that occur in relation to a particular structure,
including the results of activities by individuals occupying
particular statuses (Schwarts 1968:181). The social activity of a
given social structure has certain consequences which make for
adaption or adjustment. The expected functions of the family area
to produce offspring socialize them and give security and
protection to its members. At times, the expected functions area
not realized.

Each social group has an organization with overall structure

governing the interaction of the members and performing the
necessary function of holding the group together. These social
groups are not in isolation but are linked together to form the total
social organization of society.

In the case of Philippines society:

The basic element of the Filipino social structure is

kinship. It is through this structural unit of society that
much local authority, rights and obligations and modes
of interactions are expressed, defined, ordered and
systematized. Interpersonal and intergroup
movements of people or groups in and out the barrios
and towns are in most cases, largely determined by
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 kinship. Group alliances are likewise formed on this
basis. (Jocano 1966:3)

Philippine society consists of a spectrum of social organizations

from the nomadic hunting and fishing bands and tribal societies to
the agricultural-handicraft-industrial societies of peasant and
urban communities. Differences in historical background,
economic base and settlement patterns brought organizational
variations among the animistic upland groups and Muslim and
Christian Filipinos. The integration of Philippine society can be
deduced from the establishment and development of a
superstructure which is the Philippines bureaucracy.

Types of Social Groups

Social groups vary in size, quality of group interaction, purpose,

structure, or combinations of these. One criterion for the
classification of groups is the character of social interaction
obtained in the groups, as can be seen from such established
classifications as the primary and secondary groups, the in-group
and the out-group, Gemeinsschaft and Gesselschaft and the
formal and informal groups. These classifications represent ideal
types, theoretical ideas, or constructs existing only in minds and
so the actual types may not exactly conform to their
characteristics. These dichotomies of social groups are useful
only insofar as they help one understand the actual or real types
by providing bases for comparing and analyzing existing
conditions or situations.

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The Primary Group and the Society Group

One of the most fundamental distinctions in classifying social

groups is that made between the small and intimate primary
group versus the large impersonal group, otherwise known as the
secondary group. The concept of primary group was introduced
by Charles W. Cooley (1957:23)

By primary groups I mean those characterized by

intimate face-to-face association and cooperation.
They are primary in several senses, but chiefly in that
they are fundamental in forming the social nature and
ideals of the individual. The result of intimate
association, psychologically, is a certain fusion of
individualities in a common whole, so that ones very
self, for many purposes at least, is the common life
and purpose of the group. Perhaps the simplest way of
describing the wholeness is by saying that it is We. It
involves the sort of sympathy and mutual identification
for which we is the natural expression. One lives in
that feeling of the whole and finds the chief aims of his
will in that feeling.

Primary groups, small face-to-face structures such as the family

and friendship groups, are where personalities are fused into a
common whole. These are considered the building blocks of
larger society. One can act spontaneously and show ease of
manner in a primary group. The members feel a sense of
togetherness and belonging, are sympathetic with one another,
and share common ends. The relationship is personal and
intimate. Likewise, the means of social control are informal.
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Pervading the whole group is the pakikisama, or attitude of getting
along with members of the group so that one thinks in terms of
the whole and for the interests of the group.

However, being in close physical proximity or face-to-face

relationships does not necessarily lead to personal relations as in
the case of a lecturer and students in a classroom, a
salespersons and customers, or a group of mahjong or chess who
play to win and not to have pleasant game. Likewise, a family
where the father is a tyrant and where there are constant conflicts
and strained relationships wherein a person gets to know another
intimately despite indirect contact. Examples are pen pals, phone
pals, or cellphone textmates.

Primary groups are so-called because they are the initial groups
that a person joins; they provide him or her with experiences in
social relations. Cooley (1957:27) calls primary groups the
nursery of human nature as these shapes our personality and
develop our self-concept. A child is socialized and gets emotional
gratification in the primary groups. From the primary groups, an
individual acquires ideas and experiences of love, affection,
sympathy, kindness and notions of right and wrong. From these
groups are also learned the virtues of fair play, loyalty and justice.
Primary groups give one sense of personal worth; they are an
important source of social control and social cohesion, and
provide the links to the bigger society.

The basic primary group is the family. Other primary groups are
play groups, peer groups, gangs, the immediate school group,
and the cliques formed in large impersonal organizations.

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In contrast to primary groups, interactions among the members of
secondary groups are impersonal, business-like, contractual and
casual. The interpersonal relations may be characterized as
rational, individualistic and segmental. The composition of the
group id heterogeneous and membership is numerous and
widespread. Communication is affected through telephone, mail,
digital technology, and the media. While members have different
ends, they are there for specific purpose or goal. Secondary
groups focus on the development of skills and specialized know-
how, enabling their members to perform effectively and thus
contribute to the efficient functioning of society. Secondary groups
are task-oriented and play specialized ties with the people.

Secondary groups tend to impose the patterns of conformity on

their members. Hence, they serve to offset the prejudices or
vested control of the immediate locality. Having a boundary
beyond the primary group, they make their members assume a
broader and more universal perspective. The focus is on its goal
rather than on personal relationships that characterized the
primary and local groups. This universal attitude maybe observed
in the planning of business, labor, economic, political and
religious organizations.

Secondary groups are so called because the individual comes on

contact with them later in life. Contacts in secondary groups may
be face-to-face or indirect, fleeting or longer in duration. The
relationships are valuable only insofar as they facilitate the
attainment of ones end or objectives. A sort of contractual
relationships exists where the parties agree to meet a definite
purpose without regard for the welfare of the other person and to
terminate the relationship once the purpose is achieved.
209
Sentiments do not enter into the relationship. Loyalty and the
sense of belonging do not develop spontaneously.

As industrialization and urbanization develop in a society, more

large-scale secondary groups are formed, such as in industrial
companies, labor federations and in political, educational,
religious, health and civic groups. New social relations develop as
the impersonal relations take the place of the personal intimate
relations. This tends to associate with others as mere
functionaries rather than as whole persons.

However, within the secondary groups, persons may become

friends, fall in love and get married and consequently form
primary groups. So, within the large-scale secondary groups, a
number of friendship groups and cliques are formed, which
provide personal intimacy within the group. Primary groups persist
in secondary groups because of the individuals need for intimate,
sympathetic relationships (Horton and Hunt 1984:201). Studies by
social scientists like shills (1964:34) reveal that the small well-knit
primary groups perform a mediating function between the primary
group and the corporate body. In the army, for example, primary
groups can raise the morale, efficiency and stability of the
members.

There are advantages in maintaining secondary relations in large-

scale establishments. In matters of appointment and promotion,
the merit system may be employed to ensure equality, fair
treatment and efficiency. An employee gets promoted not on
account of kinship and friendship, but on the basis of merits and
achievement. In instances where the merit system is disregarded,
demoralization occurs. The difference between the primary and
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secondary group is one of degree. Some primary relations
develop into secondary ones and some relationships and
exchanges in secondary groups may be warm, friendly and
personal (Sullivan 2001:198).

Gemeinschaft and Gesselschaft

A similar distinction in the primary-secondary group dichotomy

was that developed by Ferdinand Toennies (1951:82) between
Gemeinschaft (close communal relationships or community) and
Gesselschaft (organized impersonal relationships or society).

A Gemeinschaft is a community of intimate, private and exclusive

living and familism. It is based on what Toennies call the natural
will of the members who relate to one another as total
personalities. Their activities, interests and personalities center
around the large family groups and neighbors. For the local
equivalent, Filipinos have used the terms damay and bayanihan,
which imply mutual helpfulness and the sharing of pleasure as
well as of sorrow. Members are bound to the community and work
for its interests. They live and work together and share a common
language, traditions and customs which are not questioned.
These experiences and memories strengthen their ties and
identification with the community. The unity is based on similarity
of objectives, traits and experiencesthe type of social
designated by Durkheim as mechanical. Our tribal groups and
agricultural and fishing villages would exemplify Gemeinschaft.

In contrast to Gemeinschaft, Gemeinschaft is public life or the

world itself. This type of group is characterized bi impersonal,
secondary, contractual, and rationalized relationships. Members
211
are guided by rational will characterized by forethought and
deliberation. In Gesselschaft, there is transitory and superficial
contact, a characteristic of second group. The members in a
Gesselschaft coexist but are independent of one another. In the
Gesselschaft, like in the secondary group, there is division of
labor, specialization, functional interdependence, and solidarity or
cohesion are achieved. The type of solidarity among members is
what Durkheim term as organic and it is based on the differences
arising from dissimilarities in objectives and specialization,
resulting in mutual interdependence among members. There is a
trend towards Gesselschaft in a changing, dynamic society, as
may be observed in the urban-industrial communities. While
Gesselschaft has brought about problems replacing primary
relations with secondary relations, it has also brought benefits
such as efficiency, mass production of goods, and material
advantages. Individual talents are developed as a result of
specialization and new channels for employment.

In-Group and Out-Group

Groups may be classifies as in-group and out-group. In-groups

and out-groups are not actual groups but a kind of perspective
relationship that exists in the minds as an individual learns to use
the pronoun we to the refer in-group, and they, to refer to the
out-group. Those who belong consider themselves as a social
unit. This unit has boundaries which separate we front the they.
Therefore, one says we are in and they are out.

To the in-group and out-group, relations may be primary or

secondary, large or small. The differentiation is important for
understanding collective phenomena, as in the analysis solidarity
212
in the groups, cooperation and conflict situations, and patterns of
discrimination and prejudice between ethnic groups.

In the course of socialization process, start in the family and

continuing with a series of primary and secondary groups, one
learns to distinguish between groups to which one belongs in
contrast to other groups. Members of the group have some
common interest which draw them together and differentiate them
from other groups. The insiders are the in-group and the
outsiders are the out-group or the other group.

The in-group is the group with which the individual identifies and
which gives him or her a sense of belonging, solidarity,
camaraderie, esprit de corps, and a protective attitude toward the
other members. The members are loyal to each other and one
may accept responsibility for the others. Some groups have
boundaries which may be marked by entrance rites or
membership fees.

There are many in-group identities and loyalties, some of which

may overlap and cause conflict. A woman who is a member of a
womens movement and at the same time the Catholic Church
may be torn between the ideas of the former supporting the use of
contraceptives as a means of population control and the Churchs
opposing stands.

The out-group is viewed as outsiders by the in-group. It is a group

which an individual is in sufficient contact with as to be aware of
its existence, but which he or she is prone to criticize or ridicule.
One usually feels strangeness, indifference, dislike, avoidance,
and/or antagonism toward the out-group. There is a tendency to
213
think of those in the out-group in terms of stereotypes which are
oversimplified and sometimes misleading. The outsiders may be
labelled as headhunters or dirty pigs. There may also be
stereotype images of social classes, occupational groups, and
regional ethnic groups, as when Tagalog are labelled as
mayabang (arrogant) or the Ilokano as kuripot (tightwad).

The pattern of the in-group and out-group is found in all societies,

simple or complex, whenever competition or aggression arises.
Acknowledge of this pattern will enable one to gain insights into
sentiments and solidarity of the group. It will also enable to
understand the processes of cooperation among members of the
group and conflicts between the groups and to gain insight into
the pattern of solidarity within a group and of intergroup hostility.

Membership in an in-group to which one has intense loyalty and

identification has both advantages and disadvantages. Members
develop self-esteem, social cohesion, and a sense of belonging
emerging from shared belief in the superiority of their group. On
the other hand, the members may develop a false picture of
themselves and others.

Reality may be distorted by exaggerating ones worth while

deflating that of the out-group. Physical damage may also be
encountered. The in-group and out-group differences may
promote chauvinism, racism, sexism, and aggression (Shepard
1999:134-135). However, the solidarity and mutual understanding
found in a group does not necessarily imply a corresponding out-
group.

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Formal Organizations and Informal Groups

With increasing industrialization and urbanization, members of the

society fins themselves being more involved with a type of
secondary group called formal organization. These groups are
important in industrialized, complex societies. In our daily lives,
we come in contact with them vis--vis our need for food, clothing,
education, jobs, services, spiritual activities, health, and police
protection. They are social structures which are deliberately
organized for the attainment of specific goals which meet their
most fundamental needs. They are source of continuity and
permanence in a societys efforts to meet specific goals.
Individual members come and go, but these organizations will
continue to function. Schools, churches, hospitals, industrial
establishments, trade unions, government agencies, political
parties, military and civic organizations created to meet specific
goals, many of these groups started as informal social groups.

Power, which is defined as the ability to control the behavior of

others even against their will, affects human relationships. Power
plays an important role in many organizations on account of the
diversity of goals and interests that exist among the participants,
for example between the executives and the wage earners
(Shepard1999:145).

The goals of different formal organizations vary greatly. Some are

formed for profit, fort the spiritual needs of people, for the
education of the youth, for workers benefit, for service to the
poor, and others. On account of this variety of goals, certain
formal organizations come in conflict with other. A labor unions
goal or higher salaries and more fringe benefits may contrast from
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that of the employers goal of increasing profit. A teachers union
calling for higher wages may come in conflict with schools
administrations plan to allocate funds for improving facilities.

Conflicts also arise within the formal organization. In a business

firm, for example, there may be conflict as to whether it should
manufacture its own bottle or buy to another company. In a
university, there may be conflict as to whether priority is given to
teaching or to research; or to extension work for making profit.

Within the structure of these formal organizations are informal

groups called dyads (two-person groups), triads (three person
groups), cliques, friendship groups or circles. The membership
and organization of such group may coincide with the units of the
large organizations, but sometimes they are not in consonance
with the activity of the formal group. The informal structures are
formed spontaneously without any conscious effort of the
participants. These meet the need of those involved and provide
the members with the personal ties not found in the formal
organization. While formal organization contains norms for its
members, its fundamental objective is utilitarian, which is to
increase productivity and to protect them from what they feel are
unreasonable demands of the organizations. The informal
structure permits adaptations to situations or demand not
provided in the formal organization. These are informal rules,
punishments, and rewards, which encourage conformity. These
also promote workers satisfaction as well as organizational
satisfaction (Sheperd1999:144).

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Formal organizations has an administrative machinery that is
aimed to enable to meet their goals. The administrative structure
is bureaucracy.

The Bureaucracy

Oftentimes we hear people speak disparagingly of the

bureaucracy. The term is often associated with efficiency, red
tape, delay, or under-the-table arrangements. Yet, these are very
things which bureaucracy aims to correct.

As society becomes more urbanized and industrialized, complex

problems arise in carrying out tasks. The bureaucracy aims to
meet these problems for, as Merton (1964:489) pointed out, the
chief merit of the bureaucracy is its technical efficiency with a
premium placed on precision, control, continuity, discretion, and
optimal returns on input.

The bureaucratic type of organization is designed to protect the

members welfare through a system of rules and procedures.
Fairness in decision-making guided by impersonality ensures
some protection and more less equal treatment for its members.
On the other hand, Webber pointed out that the formality and
rationality of the bureaucracy would not necessarily lead to the
achievement of the intended desirable results. The efficiency and
management of the organization remain in the hands of the
leaders.

Merton (1964:488) defines the bureaucracy as a formal, rationally

organized social structure involving clearly defined patterns of
activity in which every series of actions is fundamentally related to
217
the purpose of the organization. It is characterized by a division of
labor based on specialization, a hierarchy of authority, a system
of rules and procedures, written records of activities, full-time
jobs, and impersonal relationships. It lays out the diverse roles of
individuals as they occupy statuses for carrying out specifically
defined functions of the whole social organization. There is
deliberate planning.

The classic work on bureaucracy was written by Max Webber (in

Merton 1964), the German sociologist and one of the pioneers of
sociology. There are several related characteristics of an ideal
bureaucracy identified by Webber (1964:465-472). Since the
emphasis is on the ideal type, what exists in reality may just
appropriate it. However, these can be used in analyzing large-
scale formal organizations. They include the following:

1. Position and offices are clearly defined and, in principle,

exist independent of the incumbent or the person occupying
the position. The performance of roles by the incumbent
during official hours is according to contract.
2. The hierarchical arrangement of authority, rights, and
obligations is specifically drawn and clear-cut. This shows
the chain of command and the levels of super-ordination
and subordination with their corresponding privileges and
responsibilities. Communication through channels is highly
regularized, and activities are coordinated and integrated
with regard to the pursuit of the organizations common
goals and objectives.
3. The personnel are selected on the basis of technical or
professional qualification, expert training, and competence
through competitive examination.
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 4. Definite rules govern official behavior. Knowledge of these
rules represents special technical learning which the official
has. Jurisprudence or administrative or business
management is involved.
5. Security of tenure and the pursuit of a career with promotion
in the hierarchy are assured. Promotions based on seniority
and merit, though slow. Occur periodically to maintain
morale and competent performance. Tenure is secure as
long as one does not perform any gross misconduct at work.

The bureaucracy penetrated various areas of living government,

religion, philosophy, politics, and law, education, health and
welfare, public works and communications, and eve crime and
vice. As a social organization, it has functions as well as
dysfunctions. Among the defects, which may be perpetuated by
the bureaucracy itself, are the red tape, or extreme adherence to
rigid procedures and paper work; the tendency of those in power
to maintain the status quo by withholding vital information from
members of out-groups; boss officials in key positions who feel
that they have become indispensable fixtures of the social
organization; and gentlemanly malingerers or employees who
have become so secure and contented in their jobs that they feel
do not have to work too hard (Merton 1957).

In the Philippines, the bureaucracy is vulnerable to nepotism and

favoritism due to strong family ties. Underlying Philippine
bureaucracy are substructures of small kinship groups. The
relationships of Filipinos are still personalistic in spite of the rise of
impersonalism in urban areas. Unclassified and temporary
positions become the convenient instruments for the practice of
nepotism, patronage, and influence pending. The demands of
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personalism are incongruent with the bureaucratic-legal norms
(Carino 1979:232). Bureaucracy requires universal and
collectively oriented positions, which are in contrast to the
particularistic and self-orientation demands of personalism.

One will also note the peoples apathetic reaction to bureaucratic

misconduct. Some have formed associations to counteract graft
and corruption but people generally seem to be injured to such
misconducts. These situations are not unique to the Philippines
and are present in other countries. There have been attempts to
restructure the bureaucracy so as to make it an instrument not
only of the national government but also of the regional and urban
communities

The Philippines is best with an oligarchic elite group that

administers the spoils system. Winning candidates tend to reward
those who helped them in the election by appointing them tom
positions in the bureaucracy, regardless of their qualifications. As
a result, the bureaucracy becomes bloated and staffed with inept
people. These weaknesses should be overcome because the
bureaucracy is necessary for nation-building and carrying out
national policies and projects.

Reference Groups

The reference group, unlike the then other types of groups

discussed earlier, is a symbolic reference or anchor for the
individual. The reference group is the group to which the
individual relates or aspires to relate psychologically. It becomes
the individuals frame of reference and source for the ordering his
or her experiences, perceptions, cognitions, and ideas of self. It is
220
important for determining a persons self-identity, attitudes, and
social ties. It becomes the reference in making comparisons or
contrast and in evaluating ones appearance and performance.

The knowledge of an individuals reference group is helpful in

determining his or her attitudes, values, standards, goals, and
aspirations. Reference groups are indices of status value. In a
study of health innovations in rural areas, Coller (1962:60) pointed
out the influence of the reference group as a basis for evaluating
ones behavior. He wrote:

From the sociological perspective, a health behavior is

accordingly seen as part of social behavior. It is thus thought
that the health practices of an individual rest upon the
particular kinds of social relationships that he has or wants
to have with his reference groups. In all cases, however, the
reference group values are internalized by the individual and
also become a basis for e valuating his own behavior. This
means that self-conceptualizations is built upon reference
group affiliation.

A reference group is ones membership group which he or she is

officially attached or recognized as belonging. Examples are the
family, peer group, school group, sorority, or fraternity, religious
organization, political parties, or civic group. The family is a
reference group to a child if or she has been influenced by its
views and attitudes. Childrens are often influenced by their
parents attitudes toward commonplace ideas and such matters
as religion, religion, politics, prejudice, or any ideology. In a study
made by Licuanan (1971:1-29) on the impact of modernization
and modern Western values on Filipino adolescents, she found
221
out that the peer group and the family are generally important
reference groups. Adolescents consider their peers an important
reference group. Yet the traditional, interpersonally oriented
values reflected in the Filipino family, like placing importance on
the qualities on intelligence, dependability, and hard work, are
also desired.

However, not all reference groups are membership groups. A

person may aspire to be a member of another group. An
individual coming from a lower class family may identify with the
norms and values of the middle or upper class. Sometimes,
people behave in terms of the norms they identify with rather than
in terms of the norms they are officially supposed to follow.

In slow-changing societies that have a unified set of culture, the

individuals membership groups are usually also the reference
groups. In modern industrialized societies where numerous group
have diverse ideas, individuals have find themselves caught in
circumstances where they have to work with people whose values
are at odds with their own. Adolescents may find their familys
norms of their school or peer group. Some entrepreneurs may
find the norms of their business group in conflict with their
religious values.

Sullivan (2001:119) holds that the reference groups serve as the

standards by which a person evaluates on understands oneself,
their attitudes, and behavior. They powerful and pervasive
elements in our lives and are important sources of our norms,
values, attitudes, and our standards of conduct. We adopt the
perspective and the social attitudes required by reference groups
affect our self-esteem.
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A knowledge of a persons reference group/s is important as it
helps us understand why people behave as they do. It is a means
of determining their attitudes and judgment. In summing up, it
may be said that the reference groups serve regulate attitudes,
loyalties, conformities, aspirations, and conceptions about ones
self. It provides the frames of comparisons by which the
individuals evaluate themselves and others

Social Institutions

Social institutions are sometime confused with formal

organizations, but these are actual different. A social institution is
an abstraction which an organized system of social norms,
beliefs, values, and material objects formed around the social
needs of people. All societies have intuitions such as family,
economy, religion, and education to meet certain social needs.
Religion is an institution, while the Roman Catholic Church is a
formal organization. Education is an institution, while University of
the Philippines is an organization. Today, mass media, sports,
science, medicine, military are considered as social institution. A
group is composed of specific, identified people. A social
institution is a standardized way of doing something and performs
certain functions in society.

When varied social norms, attitudes, values, beliefs, and material

objects become regular and centered around certain fundamental
human needs, they become normative systems or institution.
They grow out of the needs, drives, or interests of the group and
are organized, established, prescribed stable ways of doing
things. They are man-made ways of solving some problems that
individuals and societies face; are organized around critical
223
issues; and support important values of the group. Among the
needs, problems, maintenance of peace and order, and the
establishment of communication between human beings and the
supernatural.

Social institutions consist of combination of certain related type

into the configuration of folkways, traditions, and beliefs (Chapin
1935:15). The type parts are:

1. Common reciprocating attitudes and their

conventionalized behavior patterns. Within the social
institutions are clusters of established and accepted
behavior patterns through which the needs of the group
are adequately maintained and satisfied. Out of these
patterns may develop affection, love, cooperation, loyalty
and obediencefeeling expressed by individuals in their
roles.
2. Cultural objects of symbolic value which represent
social institutions. These symbols give sentimental
meaning to the behavior of the individual. Among them
are weeding ring for marriage, the cross foe the church,
and the flag for the state of the school.
3. Cultural objects possessing utilitarian value which
satisfy the wants if the individual. Among these are the
house for the family, pews for the church, building for the
state, and desks for the schools. In a way, cultural objects
satisfy the wants of the individual.
4. Oral or written language symbols or traditions. These
give the description, ideological system, and
specifications of the patterns of interrelationships. They
are generation to generation.
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Social institutions are the great conservers and transmitters of
cultural heritage as they embody the basic cultural values of
society. The family provides the means for the accepted sexual
activity and procreation. In transmitting the cultural heritage of the
group, the functions of the family, school, and the church, are
closely, interrelated. The church teaches love of God and
neighbors. The state maintains peace and order and protects the
country form attack or invasion by outsiders. The economy is
responsible for the provision of the production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services. These social institutions are
closely interrelated and function as socializing agents and
imbuing the members with a sense of purpose.

The various institutions in society tend to be interrelated and

integrative. The patterns in the family are somehow bound up with
other institutions. The church and schools strengthen the values
attitudes acquired in the family; business makes use of the
knowledge and skills acquired in the schools; and science and
technology contribute to the knowledge applied in business.
These institutions depend on each other, and change in one
institution has far-reaching consequences on other institutions.
Changes in the economic institutions, for example, can bring dire
consequences to the family, school, and political institutions.

Leadership

Who is the leader? Usually, we think of a leader as one who

directs, or leads the activities of a group. Leadership, according to
Hollander (Sullivan2001:122), refers to the exercise of influence
over a group and directs behavior toward particular results or
225
goals. Leadership can be formal position like that of a teacher in
the classroom or a manger in an office, or an informal one which
is shifting and sometimes difficult such as leader of a peer group
or a gang. Two important roles which leaders have to perform are
the task or instrumental roles and socioeconomic or expressive
relationship roles. The leader moves a group toward the
achievement of its goals. This requires skill in coordination and
command. When the leader focuses on the well-being of the peer
group like attaining productivity, understanding, sympathizing,
then these are expressions of the socioeconomic roles or
expressive relationships.

The type of leadership determines the forms of social structure in

their degree of defectiveness, which in turn influences the attitude
and behavior of the group members (White and Lippet 1960 in
Sullivan 2001:123). There are three kinds of leaders in terms of
directiveness:

1. Autocratic leader. This kind of leader is thoroughly

directive. He or she is a dictator who orders all actions and
techniques to be used in achieving group goals. With this
kind of leader, there is likely to be more tension, conflict,
hostility and aggressiveness. It is commonly believed that an
autocratic leader can spur higher productivity, but this is not
always true.
2. Democratic Leader. Members are given leeway to
participate in determining the policies of the group, choosing
procedures for accomplishing the group goals and deciding
the course of action to take. There is consensus building.
With a democratic leader, members derive more satisfaction
and greater interest in relaxed conditions for working
226
 together. They are more friendly and convivial toward each
other. Evidence shows that the democratic leaders are more
influential with their members than the other kinds of
leaders. Employee productivity and commitment are high.
3. Laissez faire leader. With this kind of leader, the members
are allowed almost complete freedom to make decisions
and choose alternative action. The members may view such
a situation positively but the laissez faire leader does not
work strongly in the achievement of the group. The laissez
faire leader is the least effective in achieving group goals.

Sullivan (2001:123) averred that the best type of leadership

depends on the type of group involved, its goals and the type of
environment where the group carries out its work. Working in a
stressful environment hinders its work; while quite, stable, positive
environment is more conductive to achieving goals.

Regarding the issue of gender in leadership, some researchers

support the popular belief that men are more influential than
women who are deemed as more likely to be swayed. This is
consistent with the stereotype of women as the weaker and the
more passive of the two sexes. But studies show that this is so
because men have more opportunities to hold leadership
positions, gain more experience and show a capacity for it. It is
not gender per se that affects leadership.

What are the traits necessary for leadership? Some decades

back, it was believed that the leaders are born with certain traits
that are necessary to be successful. Others believe that formed
and combination of traits are necessary to become successful.
Among these traits are intelligence, pleasing personality,
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educational background, socioeconomic status, integrity,
friendliness, energy, decisiveness and responsibility.

Felix (1998) cites the qualities needed in a community-based

leader as follows: values-centered, responsive, action oriented a
consensus builder and a clear sense of accountability. These
qualities are necessary for a community leader to shape his/her
attitude, behavior and methods of work.

Since our actions are influenced by our values, it is necessary for

the leader to acquire the core values of life-giving relationships,
cultural sensitivity, gender-sensitivity and environmental
awareness. When the leaders and the followers share these
values, the leadership structure becomes more effective and
viable (Felix 1998:23-29).

Being responsive to the needs and problems of the people,

especially during times of adversity, implies that the leader has a
clear vision, mission and goals for community. A good leader has
clear objectives and adequate resources to guide people in
solving their problems; active yet patient during crisis; creates a
climate wherein the members of the community can learn,
develop and aim for excellence and more motivates them through
appropriate recognition of their achievements.

An action-oriented leader implies he/she is enthusiastic to work

for the good of the community; is skillful in assigning community
members to perform specific tasks toward goal attainment; take
risks when needed; initiates and feels competent community
action.

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A consensus builder is one who can establish a conductive
interpersonal communication, can reconcile contending
perspectives, guides the discussion to attain similarities from
conflicting viewpoints, achieves agreement in the members
varying proposals, and informs members the nature of the
problem or project.

Accountability refers to the leader being transparent and

responsible for providing the members with substantial
information on the activities being undertaken. The tasks and
performance of the leader are open fro security. Information,
ideas, and even feelings are shared, and the leader can account
for the communitys funds. The leader and the community have
joint responsibility over the results of plans and projects.

The issue of leadership emerged with the ascendency of Gloria

Macapagal-Arroyo to the presidency, following the ouster of Pres.
Joseph Estrada from Malacanang on January 20, 2001 for
alleged graft and corruption, an extravagant life-style and abuse
of power. The country, then, was confronted with tremendous
problemseconomic instability, insurgency, increasing poverty
and unemployment, a bloated bureaucracy, graft and corruption,
kidnapping, banditry, and other crimes, and drug abuse, among
others. The Philippines was lagging economically behind its Asian
neighbors. People expected the alleviation, if not the resolution, of
these problems and immediate institution of reforms. However,
whatever reforms or policies instituted by the new administration
were not sufficient felt by the people. The issue of leadership is
now raised: what kind of leader could effectively address
problems besetting the country?

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In surveys on leadership, the priority traits that the people desire
in there are: those who show concern for the poor (may malasakit
lalo na para sa mga mahirap); and those who are humane
(makatao), moral and godly (maka Diyos). During election
campaigns, candidates project themselves these traits and those
who appear credible get the votes (Miranda 2002:9)

In Pulse Asias national survey in 2001, respondents were asked

to chose, from among eleven, traits they like in a leader. The
results show that traditional-value traits, like being godly and
prayerful, pro-poor, and relating well to others in humane way,
were overtaken by the traits of knowledge, capability to manage
the government and strong political will for justice and equity. This
may be an indication that voters are looking for a leader who is
capable for good governance.

Summary

An individual is born into and grows up in a social group. A social

group is composed of two or more persons who are in a social
interaction, guided by set of norms, values, and expectations.
Sociologist, observe the uniformities and regularities in a group.
Apart from the social group, there are human clusters like the
aggregates, social categories, and collectivities which may be
transformed into groups. The factors which influence the groups
are motivation among the people coming together, its size, the
type of goal, and kind of cohesion that the group has.

Social groups have a social structure which refers to the

patterned relationships among the members guided by the norms,
expectations, and values. Some kind of order and meaning is
230
infused into the relationships among members of the group. The
process of bringing order and meaning into the social human life
and subsequent stable pattern of relation is called social
organization.

Social groups vary in size, quality of group interaction, purpose,

structure, or a combination of these. Among the types are the
primary and secondary groups, Gemeinschaft and Gesselschaft
in-group and out-group, and informal and formal groups. The
administrative structure of formal organization is called
bureaucracy. There is also ones reference groups which are
symbolic references or anchors.

Playing a periodical in the group is the leader. Leadership refers

to the exercise of influence over a group and directing behavior
toward particular results of goals. The type of leadership
determines the form of social structure.

Study Guide

1. Concept to master:
Social group Gesselschaft
Social organization Informal group
Social institution Formal group
Primary Group Bureaucracy
Secondary Group Reference group
Gemeinschaft Leadership
2. What are the characteristics of social groups?
3. How is social group differentiated from aggregate, social
category, and collectivity? Five examples.

231
 4. Explain the various factors that influence groups. Illustrate
each factor.
5. List the various types of groups. Differentiate them and give
examples of these groups.
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of
bureaucracy?
7. Why are reference groups so called? Which groups do you
consider your reference groups?
8. How do social institutions differ from formal organizations?
Describe the type parts of social institutions.
9. What is leadership? What are the traits that one should look
for in a leader?

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Explain John Donnes statement: No man is an island.

2. How functional is the Philippine bureaucracy? How can the
Philippine bureaucracy be strengthened?
3. Who is the leader you will elect or campaign for in the next
election? Why?

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 Chapter 8

SOCIAL INTERACTION AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP

We often get to know about important events through mass media

and the internet. Among the significant news events in the recent
past are:

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN),

established for cooperation and cohesion in intra regional
relation, was shaken by the 1997 Asian financial crisis.

On September 11, 2001, two passenger jets slammed into the

twin towers of the world Trade Center in New York, causing the
building to collapse, killing more than 3,000 and injuring hundreds
more. Immediately after, leaders of others countries joined the
American government in declaring war against terrorism.
American British planes struck Afghanistan to smoke out Osama
bin Laden, leader of al Qaeda, who was believed to be behind the
September attacks. In the process, many innocent civilians,
including children, were injured or killed.

Under the Balikatan exercises, American troops were deployed to

train and advise Philippine soldiers fighting against the Abu
Sayyaf.

Russian president Vladimir Putin tied to mediate in the conflict

between India Pakistan; both countries possess nuclear weapons.

233
Militant labo unions and urban poor organizations organized
protest rallies against the purchased power agreement.

Pampanga governor Mikey Arroyo and Angela Montenegro were

married in solemn rites at the St. Augustine Church in Lubao,
Pampanga. Pres. Gloria M. Arroyo and First Gentleman Mike
Arroyo watched the ceremonies.

Ateneos blue eagle team bested La Salles green archers in the

basketball championship of the UAAP at the Araneta coliseum on
October 2002. The blue eagle team and their fans were jubilant
and teary- eyed.

Controversy hounded the Metro Manila film festival 2002 when

Ara Mina won the best actress award, Kris Aquino the best
supporting actress award, and Mano Po the best film award.

Pres. Gloria M. Arroyo announced she would not run in the 2004
election. Her statement elicited praised as well as scepticism.
All these are examples of social interaction and social relationship
occurring within society and between societies.

The Nature of Social Interaction

Within a society, we can observe people continually engaging in

social interactions. Social interaction is the basic social process, a
universal principle without which no social life is possible. A
considerable portion of our waking hours is spent in social
interaction. As a child, time is spent in conversing or playing with
others. As a student, time is spent in talking and listening to
others. Members of society are continuously exchanging
234
gestures, actions, or words, as may be observed as people
engaged in conversation, in striving for a reward, or while jostling
in a fight.

Social interaction takes place in both the social groups of which

one is a member as well as in social institutions, e.g., the family,
religion, government and education.

People may be understood in the context f their social actions

towards others and in the interplay between their action and the
expected or actual reaction of others (Coser and Rosenberg
1963:55) sociologist are particularly interested in studying how
people interrelate or interact with each other, and the recurrent
and patterned relationships that have attained stability. These
situations enable as to make generalizations. The basic types of
social relationships studied but sociologists are conflict,
competition, differentiation, and cooperation, as well as other
types of social relationships which are derived from the basic
types.

Social interaction is the way in which people respond or

communicate with one another within social contexts. This
distinctive characteristic of social interaction among human
beings is that interprets or defines the other action instead of
merely reacting to each others reaction (Blumer 1969:79 Ciyed in
Schaefer 2000:119). W.I. Thomas (1923) wrote of the concept,
definition of the situation, wherein people respond not only to the
objective features of a person or situation but also to the meaning
that the person or situation has for them. Through negotiation,
people attempt to reach agreement concerning their objectives,
thus changing the patterns of social interaction. People also
235
bargain, compromise, trade-off, mediate, exchange, wheel and
deal, and connive. Thus, form, direction, and meaning are given
to the individual or group concerned.

Social interaction involves reciprocal contact carried out through

spoken or written language. Codes, norms, or standards affect
and govern the social relationships. In an interaction, the
individual responds to the other person, and the response
becomes a stimulus which the other has to perceive and interpret.
Interaction is a sort of interplay or two way actions between two or
more individuals or groups within a society, or an individual and a
group, or two or more societies. It is a process of responding in
awareness of others and adjusting responses to the way others
respond as mediated through symbols. The pattern of interaction
is influenced by the manner or response given, body gestures,
deference, degree of acquaintance, social status, and numerous
other factors. Thus, social interaction is often explicated or
formally defined and regulated within a framework that includes
an elaborate and specialized apparatus for accomplishing group
or natural goals (Lindesmith and Strauss 1968).

As persons or groups interact with each other, a pattern of ties or

connection develops. There evolves a network of social
relationships which allows communication, exchange, or a pattern
of social links among social units. The repeated actions between
social units develop into a pattern of stable, shared features.

Role of Language

Social interaction occurs through communications, which is

mediated by symbols shred by a group. Language is the most
236
important form of symbol. It may be spoken or written, and make
social organization possible. Although interaction may occur
through gestures or physical movements which express an idea o
an emotion, as in a smile of greeting, a thumbs up sign, or a
glaring look at another person, the greater part of social
interaction occurs through verbalized symbols. Individuals react
according to their interpretation of and conclusion drawn from the
behaviour of another. They deduce, judge, and evaluate on this
basis.

The participants in all forms of social interaction respond to one

another, not as mere physical or psychological atoms, but as
members of social groups who hold status and roles and act
within the context of the acquired norms or culture of the group
(Nesbit 1970:28). An individual or group interacts with another on
the basis of behaviour as defined by the society, which considers
the status and role of the participant. This evaluation becomes the
guide for the individual behaviour, for only in the light expected
behaviour can an individual act meaningfully. Status position,
norms, and reciprocal obligations come into play in the process of
interaction. Let us take the case of a group of people huddled
over the bargaining table: to be able to strike a good deal, union
members who sit at the table must have a social status
comparable to that of management representatives.

The mutual adjustment of individual viewpoints in order to achieve

a measure of similarity in certain respects is an affect of
interaction. Groups trying to achieve a goal have to exert
concerted and coordinated action. This does not happen
automatically; they have to undergo a communicative process of
explaining, clarifying, debating, persuading, and arriving at an
237
agreement. This communicative process rests on what
sociologists call consensus, where individuals share certain
perspectives (Lindesmith and Strauss 1968:22). For instance,
people who come together to form a coalition must know their
goals and what can be achieved through such coalition. There
can be no consensus without communication. Each member has
to take into account the others, evaluate the tactics and strategies
to be followed, and consider their aims and commitments.

Patterns of Interaction

Practically all human behaviour involves social interaction: a

mother disciplines her child; a group of friends organize a party,
teenage groups quarrel, an Abu Sayyaf members fires at a
soldier, or a group of south East Asian leaders collaborate on
ASEAN activities. Sociologist has organized social interaction into
five types, namely: (Curry 1955:98) exchange, competition,
conflict, war, and cooperation.

Exchange

It is the process by which one transfers social goods, services,

and items to another. Exchange takes place when both parties
feel that they will benefit from frequent and voluntary interaction.
A child tries to behave well in order to get words of appreciation
from the mother. Usually a person who gives a gift also expects a
gift in return. These exchanges are within the family, among
friends, regular costumers and seller or between lovers. Usually,
the social exchange is of equal value, and involves not only good
and services but also sentiments (Stark 1996:83). For example,
politician would do something for their constituents in exchange
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for their votes. The basic reciprocity is that you do something for
another and expect something in return. There is usually trust,
gratitude, and affection in the relationship. The exchange stops
when one feels the other person is ungrateful or is cheating.

Competition

Competition is manifested in a variety of situations. One may

observe this in situations like two rivals for the same girl, teams
playing off for the championship, stores competing for costumers,
`presidentiables vying for the highest position of the land and
even two nations competing for power economic resources, or
supremacy. Competition is form of struggle to secure a reward or
a goal such as a prize, material object, position, leadership,
prestige, or power. The focus is chiefly on the reward rather than
on the competitor. Competitions occur between two individuals of
groups when the satisfaction of the needs or desires of one is
opposed to that of the other (Richter 1987:84).

The scarcity of the object or the limited quantity of goods or

services is the crucial factor. The emergence and decline of
competition is a function of the appearance or disappearance of
scarcity. For example, Carner (1981:51) described how three
groups of upland farmers the indigenous kaingeros, the marginal
kaingeros, and upland rice or corn farmers- competed as their
resource base degenerated is the mountainous provinces of
Ilocos, Southern Tagalog, Bicol, Eastern Visayas, Central
Visayas, Western Visayas, Northern Central Mindanao, and
Eastern Mindanao. Land became scarce as loggers, both legal
and illegal, took over large tracts of the forest. Some things are
inherently scarce and become the focus of competition, i.e.
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prestige, positions of power, or even space in commercial areas
in Metro Manila. When the goal is scarce and considered
important by society, the struggle becomes intense.

The aim of competition is to excel and surpass the opponent. The

competing individuals or groups try to achieve their ends through
emotional appeals and gimmicks to sway the judgement to their
favour. In some cases, competitors adopt whatever means to find
out what their opponents are doing in an attempt to outdo them.
Innovations may be introduced to outdo the opponent, as in the
case of economic competition. Competition is carried out by
peaceful means and is guided by a set of regulations and values.
The folkways, norms, and laws of society regulate competition.
Competition may be affected by the cultural system, i.e., the effect
of inventions, the technological development, the type of
economy, or political system.

Competition may be personal or impersonal. Personal competition

involves direct, face to face contact and is sometimes referred to
as rivalry. For example, classmates vying for honors, politicians
vying for elected positions, or athletes participating in sport
events. Impersonal competition involves struggles between
person and groups not directly aware of each other. Two
applicants for the same job may never have met; each may even
think that there are the only applicant and therefore not aware that
they are competing with anyone. The owner of a supermarket
competes with all other establishments in the area business firms
and government entities compete to recruit dynamic young people
into their organizations. Industrial establishments compete for
customers. Sugar growers in the Philippines compete with beet

240
growers in the use for customers. U.S. car manufacturers
compete with similar carmakers in Japan, U.K. and France.

In a dynamic, secular society that puts a premium on

achievements, there are numerous opportunities for competition.
Thus, the extent and degree of competitions also increase.
People scramble for all kinds of jobs. They struggle for housing
space the wealthy in the more expensive, deluxe suburbs, with
the lower class in the more crowded areas. Entrepreneurs
struggle for markets.

Conflict

When the rules of competition are broken and the opponents

become openly antagonistic, conflict may develop. Business
establishments may start as competitors but when malicious
gossips, cutthroat techniques, and black propaganda are used,
conflict may ensue. However, there are instances when, from the
very beginning, the struggle started in the form of a conflict. Coser
defines conflicts as a struggle over the values or claims of the
conflicting parties are not only to gain the desired values but also
to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals (1968:232). In conflict,
there is the intent to hurt others physically or mentally or deprive
them of liberty or property.

Unfriendly interaction between groups ranges from disagreement

to violent encounters like wars. Conflict is universal among human
personalities. It arises from personal problems and hostilities, and
is irrational. It may emerge in relationships with authority,
especially authoritarian figures. Employees may be outwardly
passive to their boss, but with suppressed rage and hostility. Two
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departments in the same bureaucracy can be engaged in a bitter
rivalry (Smelser, 1995:122).

Both competition and conflict are motivated by the desire to

secure scarce goals and common values. They are affected by
the nature of society and its culture. The parties involves, with
disregard for the rules, tries to block, defeat, destroy, or annihilate
each other. The relationship is reciprocal, personal, or highly
emotional and sometimes violent. Hostility, fear, hate, or anger
accompanies conflict. Conflicts may be (a) on a person-to-person
basis, as may be seen in spontaneous flights, duels, or hand-to-
hand combat in war; (b) between groups, as maybe witnessed in
riots, violent strikes, lynching, or massacres; and (c) national and
international, as shown in rebellion, revolution, or war. Conflicts
usually dissipate energy and resources; hence, efforts are made
to avoid or contain conflicts. However, conflicts are not always
characterized by physical violence. Examples of nonviolent
conflict in contemporary society are cold wars psychological
warfare where there is a battle of propaganda, espionage, or
economic struggle between industrial giants and super powers
and intergroup relations.

War

The most violent and intense form of conflict is war. War wreaks
havoc on life and property and disrupts and disorganizes the
existing social order. It also foments hatred between combatants.
Ironically, wars have been incited or fostered both by the desire
for excitement, adventure, and combat, as well as by hatred and
conflicting interests of different societies. War can be encouraged
by political and military officers who want to enhance their
242
leadership, as well as manufacturers of weapons and other war
technology who stand to profit from its sale (Richter 1987:990).

A historian estimated that in the past 5,000 years, there have

been 14,531 wars with 35 billion people killed. From the
beginning, there have been 2.9 wars per year (The Philippines
star week 2001:2). The 21st century has unshared in a period of
world disorder and conflicts in Africa, the Middle East, Southeast
Asia, and Europe. Most of these conflicts are rooted in issues of
ethnicity and religion (McFerson 1998:38). As of 2002, Philippines
government is still engaged in war against the Abu Sayyaf, the
Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), and the National
Democratic Front (NDF). On going in the Middle East is the long
and bitter struggle between the U.S.-backed Israelis against the
Palestinians who are fighting for homeland.

The horrors of war overweigh the advantages. Hence, bilateral or

multilingual arrangements have been made t limit the possibilities
of war (Richter 1987:99). Among them are: a. Norms which
require notifying the opponent before the start of the hostilities; b
Prohibition against fighting during specific times such as
Christmas and at certain places such as important cities; c.
Arrangements for a cessation of fighting between officials from
each side; d. Prohibitions against the use of certain tactics and
weapons like chemical warfare and nuclear weapons; e. Special
protection for diplomats, civilians, prisoners, and the wounded; f.
Provisions for true; g. Ban against war aggression.

In recent years, with the development of modern military

technology like nuclear weapons, the superpowers have forged
agreement to prevent the outbreak of horrendous war. One such
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agreement is the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, whereby
nations agreed not to acquire nuclear weapons and vowed to
accept the principle of international inspection; and limit the
production of nuclear weapon and submit to weapon testing. In
March 2003, U.S. and British forces invaded Iraq because it
allegedly have weapons of mass destruction. However, months
after they over threw Saddam Hussein`s government. The US
and British were still unable to show tangible evidence of the
existence of these weapons of mass destruction.

While the conflict can be destructive and wreak havoc in society,

it also performs certain function (Coser 1946:207):

a. Conflict can help establish unity and cohesion within a group

which has been threatened by hostile and antagonistic
feelings among its members. Conflict with outsiders may be
deliberately instigated by leaders to develop unity and
hasten the formation of power within the society. In times of
war or other forms of conflict, feuds, jealousies, and petty
differences are forgotten, and groups members close rank
behind their leaders against the opponent.
b. Internal conflict becomes a stabilizing and integrating
mechanism in certain instances. Threshing out differences
and clarifying issues goals to eliminate the sources of
discord. New rules, norms, association forms, and
procedures are laid out, ultimately resulting in a more
efficient social system.
c. Conflict provides an outlet to express suppressed emotions
and frustrations. Inhibitions and blocked passions are
released during the course of conflict. It can provide

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 excitement for soldiers craving for action and possibly an
opportunity to show heroism.

Cooperation

Cooperation is as old as this world and is present in varying

degrees in every group. It is the central feature of social life.
Cooperation ranges from the unity among members of a family or
among friends, to the bound found among nations, as in treaties
of the ASEAN, NATO, the European Community, and the Gulf
Cooperation Council. It was also seen in the 1986 People Power I
that ousted Pres. Marcos and the 2001 People Power II that
ousted Pres. Estrada. Cooperation may be defined as more
specific aspect of human intercourse, one having to do with
pooling resources, talents, and efforts to achieve the shared goal
or task of a group. It is conjoint action. Like competition and
conflict, it is a reciprocal relation and is affected by societys
norms and values. Some members may work harder than the
others depending on the role relationships within the group.

Cooperation is widespread because many things that people want

and need cannot be obtained through individual effort. Certain
goals, activities, and projects can only be achieved if there is
cooperation among members. A project to keep the Barangay
clean cannot be achieved without the cooperation of its residents.
Peace in the world will be difficult to obtain without nations bound
in alliance to achieve this end. The members achieve mutual
advantage and all participants share the reward.

The pattern of cooperation acquired in the family and in ones

friendship groups may be more spontaneously manifested in
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primary groups of Gemeinschaft rather than in secondary groups
or Gesselschaft. Loyalty may be found among group such as
family, friends, work group, community, church, political party,
ethnic group, or nation. This loyalty fosters cooperative behaviour,
which requires sacrifice, large or small, by the individuals for the
sake of the larger group. When group loyalties are not enough to
obtain cooperation, then special incentives like special awards,
citations, or prizes may be offered to make the members
cooperative. Loyalty is, therefore, necessary in order to make
special incentives unnecessary (Richter 1987:88). When there is
loyalty, strong and emotional attachments within a group generate
some sort of bond that enables them to stick together, to be long,
and to be loyal to each other, resulting in social solidarity.

Types of Cooperation

Bertrand (1973:232-248) classifies cooperation into three major

types, namely: informal cooperation, formal cooperation, and
symbolic cooperation. Informal cooperation is spontaneous and
involves mutual give and take. This type of cooperation is
commonly seen in primary groups or Gemeinschaft. It is practiced
by the family and can be found in simple societies, particularly in
rural areas. In the family, parents love and protect the children
who, in turn, love and help their elders. Among food gathering and
agricultural societies, food sharing and defense against invaders
are basic organizational principles. In Mindoro, for instance, we
find informal exchanges and cooperation among the Mangyans
and other residents. This type of spontaneous cooperation, which
calls for teamwork, is also found in the network of informal
groupings of large-scale bureaucratic organizations, and the

246
bayanihan, damayan, or voluntary cooperation in many
barangays throughout the country.

Formal cooperation is of deliberate contractual nature prescribing

the reciprocal rights and obligations of members. Formal goals
and objectives are laid out, plans are drawn, and leadership is
provided. Such is the type of cooperative activity in large-scale
economic organizations, government agencies, religious
organizations, civic groups, and international associations.

An example of formal cooperation is the cooperative movement. A

cooperative is an organization of individuals who get together and
run a business for the purpose of improving their social status. All
members plan, direct, and execute its economic activities and
divide its savings and earnings among themselves. The members
are entitled to its net income proportionate to their patronage. This
patronage refund is usually given at the end of each year (de
Leon 1986:200-201). The mechanics of operating a cooperative
are simple. The members bind themselves for a common cause,
pool their talents and resources, and help one another to achieve
economic independence. There is mutual aid and self-reliance
(Sacay 1974).

Symbolic cooperation is a situation when two or more members of

society, living together harmoniously, are supportive and
interdependent. It is a relationship in which an individual
participates without knowing that they are doing so. It lacks a
common goal or objective. This is seen in the division of labor in
society and in the marketplace. Buyers look for goods in
marketplace, e.g., agricultural products, and are satisfied when
they purchase the goods they need. The profits realized by the
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sellers in the sale of their goods help them in return. Symbiotic
cooperation involves interdependent activities, but the people
involved may not be aware that their activity is a form of
cooperation.

Functions of Cooperation

The factors that account for cooperation are varied and complex.
It may be loyalty to the group brought about by incentives offered
for cooperation, fear of an attack from the out-group, or the need
for mutual dependence; or it may be an expression of self-interest
(Fichter 1972:244-245). Whatever the factors, cooperation has
various functions (Lowry and Ranking 1972:606):

1. It makes for social cohesion and integration among the

members of a group. In this way, they can achieve unity
and harmonize their activities.
2. It contributes to social stability and order. With the
coordination and marshalling of their resources, talents,
and efforts, the members can readily achieve their goals.
3. It fosters consensus and compromise in various social
issues. This is evident with groups of diverse
backgrounds joining forces and maximizing harmony of
interest and common benefits. Political parties can join
forces to win an election, or nations can form alliances to
win a war or attain peace in the world.

Differentiation

One way to reduce or eliminate competition is by differentiation,

which is the creation of interest resulting in individuals or groups
248
needing or wanting different things or services rather than the
same thing (Richter 1987:85). Such differentiation is related to the
division of labor in society.

Persons of different occupational specializations, e.g., an

engineer and an architect, do not compete with each other.
Rather, they can work cooperatively in a construction project. Two
department stores offering different goods or services or with
different price levels will not compete with each other even if they
are located along the same street. In industrialized societies, the
complex division of labor and the increasing variety of skills,
occupations, and professions provide opportunities for relatively
high paying jobs and, consequently, higher status. This
differentiation of social status, life-style, and prestige leads to the
creation of subcultures as well as the development of social
stratification. This will be discussed in another chapter.

Interrelationship of Competition, Conflict, Cooperation, and

Differentiation

Competition, conflict, cooperation, and differentiation are

interdependent and intertwined social forms of relationship
present in every society, which can occur simultaneously.
Competition among members of a society leads to variation or
differentiation. However, while specialization leads to
separateness, it can also lead to cooperation and the integration
of society.

Cooperation may coexist with competition or conflict in some

relationships. Members of a basketball team cooperate among
themselves in order to win the game, and yet, while they are
249
cooperating with each other, they may also be competing to get
the title of the most valuable player in the games. The Arab states
in the Gulf Area willingly cooperated with the U.S. and other
Western countries to force Iraq to leave Kuwait in 1991.

In some societies, competition is stressed, while in others,

cooperation is emphasized. The dominant social process
depends on the attitudes and the requirements of the culture in
that society. If people are striving for a scarce goal, competition is
likely to dominate, but if the goods people need are abundant,
cooperation is likely to ensue. The prevalence of friendship,
kinship, and affection in a group is conducive to cooperation.
When the results of the activity are justly shared, people are likely
to cooperate rather than compete (Lundberg 1963:95-97).
However, the determinants of the intensity and the duration of the
particular social relationship depend on the culture of the group.

Accommodation

The presence of continuous conflict can hamper the groups

activities to the point of disorganization or destruction. The parties
concerned, therefore, try to thresh out difficulties in order to
minimize, if not stop, the conflict. Some types of accommodation
have to be carried out by the parties concerned. Mack and Pease
(1973:69) use accommodation in two senses: as a condition and
as a process. As a condition, accommodation refers to the fact of
equilibrium between individuals and groups and the rules of the
game which have to be followed. As a process, it refers to the
conscious efforts of men to develop such working arrangements
among themselves as will suspend conflict and make their
relations more tolerable and less wasteful of energy. Working
250
arrangements are developed to enable them to pursue their
respective activities. Each group tries to adjust to the others, and
yet maintain its own identity or interest a case of living in
peaceful coexistence. In some instances, the interests of the
group will remain antagonistic, and the equilibrium established
may break down again into open conflict. In other instances,
major differences are solved in the interest of peace and
harmony. When the conflicting parties are coordinate or more or
less equal in power, each party yields on some points of
difference. They bargain or negotiate to establish an exchange
relationship, which limits the goal-setting activities of both. When
the relationship is the superordinate-subordinate type where
parties are unequal in power, the stronger party is likely to dictate
its terms on the other.

The types of accommodation are domination, truce,

compromise, conciliation mediation, arbitration, and toleration
(Mack and Pease 1973:69-72; Bertrand 1973:240-242).

1. Domination is characteristic of the superordinate-

subordinate type of relationship where the stronger party
imposes its will to make the order yield. In the family, a
dominant husband may subdue his wife. In case of war, the
more powerful nations make the opponent yield; or the
dictator his will on the subordinate population. In some
instances, the loser is given some rights and privileges,
even while remaining in subordinate position. Sometimes, in
the relationship between dominant and minority groups, an
arrangement is made in which the social lives of the
dominant and minority groups are kept separate. Their
groups live in different neighborhoods and go to different
251
 schools and churches. The practice of apartheid in South
Africa a few decades ago is an example. Manila has an area
called Chinatown where some Chinese live, establish
business, school, and churches; Quiapo has pockets or
neighborhoods where the Muslims cluster.
2. A truce is an agreement to cease hostilities or fighting for a
certain period of time. Meanwhile, both parties seek to arrive
at peaceful and mutually satisfactory solution. If no
agreement is realized, fighting resumes. Treaties or formal
agreements are often preceded by a temporary cessation of
hostilities. Prior to the settlement of the U.S - Vietnam War
and the Israeli-Syrian hostilities, diplomats negotiated a
temporary truce.
3. Compromise refers to the mutual giving of concessions and
withdrawal of some demands. Husband and wife may
compromise after a bitter quarrel by discussing how they
can resolve their conflict. This may entail giving up part of
what they like to do. With the increased bargaining powers
of organized labor, conflicts have a times produced this form
of accommodation. Labor and management sit at the
negotiating table, discuss demands and grievances, and
arrive at a Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA). This
requires that both parties sit down in good faith and arrive at
a compromise of mutual concession. Nations of more or less
equal power also use compromise to avoid major conflicts.
4. When conflicting parties cannot resolve their disputes
because of non-willingness to see the other`s point of view,
they may resort to conciliation and mediation. Here, a
third party who is impartial, competent, respected and
acceptable by both sides intervenes. This usually resorted to
in settling disputes between labor and management who set
252
 work councils or shop committees. In conciliation, effort is
made to get parties to agree although the third party makes
no recommendation. In mediation, the neutral party makes
suggestions for settlement. If their recommendation is
acceptable to the opposing parties, the conflict is resolve. In
court cases amenable to mediation, the conflicting parties
select a mediator who is fair and caring. For the duration of
the mediation, court hearings are suspended while the
mediator tries to reconcile the conflicting parties by looking
into rational considerations acceptable to both. When they
have reached an agreement, the mediator helps the parties
to develop a formal document to give to the judge to formally
end the case.
5. Should conciliation and mediation fail to resolve the conflict
between parties, arbitration may be resorted to. This is a
special method of settling disputes through the efforts of a
third party that may be chosen by the contending parties or
appointed by some large agency power. Generally, a
tribunal or court hears the dispute. In the Philippines, the
Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) handles
cases of conciliation, mediation and arbitration. When a
complaint or grievance is field with the DOLE, attempts at
conciliation and mediation are made. If this fails, the
National Labor Relations Commission handles the grievance
and voluntary arbitration is used. If this cannot be availed of,
then compulsory arbitration by the government is used.
6. The tripartite approach is another way to achieve mutual
accommodation. While labor and employers are the parties
directly concerned in a labor dispute, the government also
relates with them through a consultative mechanism. The

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 three parties reconcile opposing matters of interest such as
wages.
7. Toleration is a form of accommodation without formal
agreement. It is a result of the `live and let live` policy or the
agreement to disagree. Individuals or groups put up with
others, without trying to modify them. They maintain their
identity and yet interact with each other peacefully.
Toleration of their ethnic, political, and religious groups is
likely to occur in a society when the members feel that
conflicts work to their disadvantage. Although they do not
settle a dispute, they interact peacefully with ethnic groups.
Peaceful coexistence makes for harmony and order. Each
group follows its norms of behaviour and accepts the others
as neighbours, fellow workers, or citizens. Through
education, public information through the mass media, legal
pressure, and research to the causes of intergroup hostilities
and ways of reducing them. People from various ethnic
groups can live peacefully together.

Reciprocity or Utang Na Loob

Reciprocity is a kind of social exchange, which is universal form of

behaviour. It is a principle where every service receive, solicited
or not, demands a return, the nature and proportion of which s
determined by the relative status of the parties involved and the
kind of exchange at issue (Hollnstiener 1970:65). Utang na loob is
kind of reciprocity commonly observe among Filipinos. Literally
translated, it means `internal debt of gratitude.` it is an obligation
to repay a person from whom one has received a favour. The
repayment has to be accepted and the quantification is undefined,
so that one cannot be definite as to when the debt is to be fully
254
paid. Payment may in the form of token gifts or service. Inability to
pay results in hiya (shame). One who does not pay the debt is
considered walang hiya (showing no shame, one of the worst
labels one can heap on a Filipino). Even children are supposed to
have utang n loob to their parents for giving them life, education,
or guidance. They can repay their parents by taking care of them
in old age. Hollnstiener (1973:8) holds that utang na loob
reciprocity stabilizes the social system in societies such as the
Philippines, where the gap between social classes is marked.
Through the utang loob reciprocity, a poor person is able to
approach a rich one and request a favour, such borrowing money
for medicine, tuition, or other necessary expenses. When abused,
utang na loob becomes a burden. As it makes a person
subservient o the debtor and may hinder his or her freedom of
decision as in electing officials in government. I a political context,
the repayment of utang na loob usually claimed during election
time.

Acculturation

When one group blends in and takes on the characteristics of

another culture, there ensues a process called acculturation.
When a dominant group brings in new forms of socialization and
education, language and values are also borrowed(Perucci,
Knudsen, and Hamby 1977;400). The course of interaction of the
Chinese and the Filipinos in the Philippines have brought about
adaptations of aspects of culture and values form each others
culture.

Social scientists who observe and record customs and cultures

perform valuable service for missionaries. By laying open the
255
people`s beliefs, fears, values, and customs, they suggest new
approaches in missionary and pastoral work. Their findings
speeds up religious acculturation and accommodation processes,
which were important in the effective Christianization of the
Filipinos. Arens (1958) cites a few examples from the Philippines
where missionary work among the pagans and pastoral work
among the Christian Filipinos are often combined. He makes
mention of the widely practiced agricultural and social rituals,
which have an animistic origin. The result is a kind of folk-liturgy
developing from these priestly contacts.

Arenas also wrote of worship in barrio Tinambacan in Samar

Island which may seem strange to an outsider. He describes the
Friday devotion to St. Vincent in the following manner: People
from all surrounding barrios flock there on Fridays - although they
do not come for the obligatory Sunday mass- to offer candle, use
a silver ring, or dip a silver sandal of St. Vincent in water and
strike t over their heads, arms and backs (patamak). They take
home ordinary water into which they dipped a candle that was
offered to St. Vincent. Women having du-difficulty in childbirth are
made to drink this water, presumably to ease the pain. Strange
promises (sa-ad) are made to St. Vincent for example, to cut the
child`s hair in the church, to let the girl wear boy`s clothing until
age 14 to 15, not to let the child be baptized until they are of
marriageable age, etc. some dance before the statue of St.
Vincent (synalogue), others pray in loud and fanatical way: St.
Vincent, listen to me. . . (Arenas 1958:16).

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Assimilation

When contacts between persons and groups are direct,

continuous, and friendly, differences decrease and assimilation
may follow. Assimilation implies the acceptance by a person or
group of the cultural traits, attitudes, and sentiments of another.
This may be observed between husband and wife, parent and
child, and teacher and student, who, after constant exposure to
each other, begin to think and feel alike even though one mat be
more affected than the other. There occurs some kind of
interpenetration and fusion of norms, ideas, beliefs, sentiments,
and memories. Their difference are reduced or eliminated.

Assimilation is best observed in societies composed of various

ethnic groups. Blending and merging of cultural traits, patterns,
and values of the groups occurs until they have a common culture
and become alike. Minority racial or ethnic groups lose their
distinctive identity and way of life and become absorbed into the
dominant group. Immigrants to a country, like the Chinese who
come to the Philippines, bring their culture traits and some kind of
exchange of cultural characteristics with the Filipino ensues.
There is adjustment, adoption, and assimilation so that they
become more or less alike their ways. However, there are still
other factors which have deterred the full assimilation of the
Chinese into the Filipino culture. In the U.S., the fusion of the
cultural patterns and values of various groups have resulted in
what is commonly called a melting pot. Members of various ethnic
groups tend to interpenetrate each other ways, follow a common
set of norms and beliefs, and share similar attitudes and values.

257
Certain conditions facilitate assimilation. As a first step, it is
important to learn the language of the other ethnic group.
Knowledge of the language gives members of the other ethnic
group of feeling that the other is friendly and interested in them,
so that intimate social contacts follow. The attitude of the
members of each group is important. Are they willing to know
each other and share ideas? Are they tolerant and friendly?
Tolerance of persons and groups with different cultures facilitates
communication and speeds up the process of assimilation. If
members of the group are willing to extend equal political and
economic opportunities to other ethnic groups, cultural barriers
are broken down. The blending of folkways, mores, and values is
likely to occur. The more similar the cultural patterns, the more
rapid the process of assimilation. Another important factor is
amalgamation, which hastens the process of assimilation by
reducing physical dissimilarities.

Cultural Pluralism

There can be also be cultural pluralism in which a number of

racial and ethnic groups living side-by-side retain their distinctive
identity and life-style and at the same time, share in the aspects
of the larger culture. A number of subcultures retain their
distinctive life-style (Sullivan 1995:87). The U.S. and Canada
have minority groups like the native Indians who retain their
traditional beliefs and customs. In the Philippines, the Muslims
and the Cordillera groups have retained their religious beliefs and
culture patterns.

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Amalgamation

When different ethnic groups intermarry, amalgamation results.

There is some kind of biological fusion. Oftentimes, color and
religion deter amalgamation. Nevertheless, a measure of
amalgamation still takes place. Amalgamation hastens
assimilation when groups are similar culturally and physically, or
when they are friendly with each other. Intermarriage on a large
scale has not taken place on account of divergence in both
physical and cultural traits.

Society may be perceived as a system of personal

interrelationships. The members are in constant interaction.
Patterns of competition, conflict, differentiation, and cooperation
are discernable in all societies. As society becomes more
complex, made up of various ethnic groups as a result of
international migration, other types of social relationships, like
accommodation, acculturation, assimilation, and amalgamation
are found. The social relationships are not mutually exclusive. At
times, they are interrelated and, in some instances, one shades
off into the other. At times, is difficult to draw a sharp delineation
between these types of social relationships.

Summary

Social interaction is a vital principle in society; no social life is

possible without it. The members of society are in constant social
exchanges and social relationships. Social interaction involves
reciprocal contacts. Language is crucial factor in social
relationships. In the process of social relationships and social

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interaction, the status, norms, and reciprocal obligations come
into play.

The basic social relationships competition, conflict, cooperation,

and differentiation are universal and may occur between
persons or between groups. Competition is a struggle for a goal,
wherein the focus is on the reward rather than on the competitor.
A crucial factor in competition is scarcity. When the struggle for a
goal becomes violent in the attempt to neutralize, hurt, or do away
with the opponent, it becomes conflict. War is the most violent
and intense form of conflict. Cooperation is the opposite of
conflict. In cooperation, the parties concerned join forces, efforts,
and talents to achieve their goal. Cooperation may be informal,
symbolic, or formal. One way to reduce or eliminate conflict is by
differentiation of roles. Differentiation is related to the division of
labor in society.

As society becomes more complex and composed of different

ethnic groups, other types of social relationships emerge.
Accommodation refers to the conscious efforts to develop working
arrangements to end conflict and make life more tolerable and
less wasteful of energy. Acculturation is the process of blending
with another culture or changing to the ways of the dominant
group as a result of socialization or education. Assimilation refers
to cultural fusion or interpenetration of norms, ideas, beliefs,
sentiments, and memories so that the individuals or groups
become alike. Amalgamation is biological fusion, which comes
about with the intermarriage of persons coming from different
cultures.

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The various types of social relationships are interrelated; in some
instances, one shades off into the other. It is sometimes difficult to
draw a dividing line between these various types of social
relationships. Any social activity or social movement may be
analyzed in terms of these types.

Study Guide

1. Concepts to master
Social interaction Differentiation
Society Accommodation
Competition Assimilation
Conflict Cultural pluralism
2. Discuss the nature of social interaction. Illustrate how
interactions occur in your family, your class in school, or the
club of which you are a member.
3. Differentiate competition from conflict.
4. Which is more emphasized in the Philippines, cooperation or
competition? Support your answer.
5. What is accommodation? Illustrate the different types of
accommodation.
6. Contrast acculturation with assimilation. Why is assimilation
called cultural fusion?
7. What is amalgamation? How does it hasten assimilation?

Critical Thinking Questions

1. How does culture affect cooperation? Conflict?

2. Propose a solution to the conflict between the government
and/or Christian groups and the Muslims in Mindanao.

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 Chapter 9

COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR

The 1960s and the early 1970s saw Metro Manila rife with
demonstrations, protest rallies, sit-ins, barricades, and boycott of
classes. Participants would come to different sections of Metro
Manila, assemble at Morayta St. and march to Mendiola (now
Chino Roces Bridge), not far from Malacaang Palace. They
carried flag and banners, and chanted slogans like Down with
imperialism, fascism, and bureaucrat capitalism or Himagsikan
(Revolution). These rallies and demonstrations were directed
against congress and then President Ferdinand Marcos, the
policy of sending Philippine troops to Vietnam, graft and
corruption, and the overstaying Chinese.

On October 11, 2000, Ilocos Sur governor Chavit Singson

revealed that then President Joseph Estrada (Erap) allegedly
received P400 million from jueteng and P130 million kickback
from the tobacco excise tax. This triggered chain of events which
led to the process of Eraps impeachment.

On November 13, 2000, the House of the Representatives, under

Speaker Manuel Villar, garnered enough votes to elevate the
impeachment case of the Senate. Thus, began the impeachment
trial on the grounds of bribery, graft and corruption, betrayal of
public trust, and culpable violation of the Constitution. The
proceedings became the primetime telenovela assiduously
followed by the populace.

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On January 16, 2001, there was an impasse in the Senate on the
issue of whether to open or not a second envelope which
allegedly contained evidence that would indict the president. A
vote was taken, and the senator-judges voted 11-10 against its
opening. This infuriated the public. Immediately thereafter, people
sent text messages to kin and friends to mass-up at the EDSA
shrine to protest. There was the collective outraged and disgust
over the action of what they called the abominable 11. The
Catholic Church, business community, a number of cabinet
members, and, eventually, the military withdrew their port for
President Estrada. The crowd at EDSA was composed of
students and the youth, workers, peasants, professionals, artists
and other people of all ages and walks of life.

As the crowd at EDSA grew from day 1, simultaneous rallies were

held in the other parts of the country. Praying, chanting, waving of
flags, entertainment, and speechless urging Erap to resign were
the main events. The support thrown in by Defense Secretary
Orlando Mercado, Chief of Staff General Angelo Reyes, and other
generals gave the people added confidence. It was a fight for
Eraps ouster and the preservation of the countrys integrity.

On January 20, 2001, a group of rallyists marched to Mendiola to

force Eraps resignation. By the time they reached Malacaang,
the president and his party had already fled. By noon that day,
Chief Justice Davide administered the oath of office of Gloria M.
Arroyo as the fourteenth president of the country.

The above accounts are examples of collective behavior. As

Randy David (2002) wrote, EDSA II was the culminating of a
movement to restore accountability and idealism in government.
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What is Collective Behavior?

As we conduct ourselves in our structured social life, we are

guided by norms and values which make our behavior patterned,
recurrent, and settled. We do things the way they are supposed to
be done. However, despite these standards of behavior, we
encountered situations where norms do not apply. These types of
behavior that are not guided by the group norms are called
collective behavior. There is no single definition of the term
collective behavior and no agreement as to its important features.
It is a kind of group behavior characterized by spontaneous
development of form and organization, which contradict or
reinterpret the norms of the group. Turner an Killian (1987:3)
define collective behavior as forms of social behavior in which
the usual convention cease to guide social actions and people
collectively transcend, bypass, or subvert institutional patterns
and structures. For Zanden (1993:400), collective behavior refers
to ways of thinking, feeling and acting that develop among a
large number of people which are relatively spontaneous and
unstructured. This is in contrast to organized or institutionalized
behavior which is regulated by established group of norms and
clearly defined roles and positions. Collective behavior occurs in
time of rapid social change.

From the earliest recorded time, people have manifested various

types of mass behavior: riots, crowds, religious revivals, and
rebellions (Zanden 1993:400), collective behavior occurs in the
form of demonstrations, rumors, protests, riots, coup detat, cults,
religious revivals, and even revolutions. Collective behavior has
been observed since the Spanish colonial period, with the
outbreaks of social, economic, political, and religious protests.
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Although collective behavior was once believed to be highly
emotional, irrational, and spontaneous, recent studies reveal that
collective behavior is characterized by more caution and less
emotion. It occurs in situations of stress and social change, and is
characterized by some degree of emotion. It is not totally
unstructured, as one may observe a pattern of social relationship
in the group (Perry and Pugh 1978:10). Demonstrations, rallies,
and social movements have a degree of organizational planning
as there is the designation of time and assembly place, the
speakers, and a person to take charge of obtaining a permit.

Explanations And Theoretical Formulations About Collective

Behavior

How do people come to transcend, bypass or subvert established

patterns and structures? Various explanations and theoretical
formulation have been given to describe the conditions that bring
about collective behavior. Among these are:

Convergence Perspective. This explanation is premised on the

idea that human behavior is determined by forces within the
individual. Collective behavior, like individual behavior, is the
result of these forces. The participants in collective behavior have
common characteristics such as similarity in social positions
based on income, education, social class, and relative
deprivation. The group is considered as homogeneous and those
who gather share the same needs or aspirations. (Turner Killian
1987:19-20). This may be exemplified in events organized for
fund raising; protest movements; and group mobilizations
expressing the cause of the poor.

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The criteria to this perspective is that the homogeneity of the
group is over-simplified as interaction take place between
individuals, whether or not they are of similar characteristics. The
complexity of the human psychological make-up is overlooked,
and people have latent tendencies that they do not ordinarily
express.

Emergent Norm Perspective. This view was initiated by Turner

and Killian (1987:36). It states that collective behavior is not
characterized by unanimity but by differences in expressions and
emotions. Proponents assume that collective behavior is guided
by emergent norms. Members who come together have divergent
views, some act simultaneously to each other, others express
what they feel, and still others are restrained in their behavior.
These people interact with each other guided by symbols, and an
emergent norm comes about. In the process of responding to
each other, a revise definition of the situation comes about and
then members act in terms of this definition. So, in rallies, riots, an
demonstration, there are some participants who are highly
excited, expressing anger, hate, or fear, while some are
restrained in the expression of their emotions. The emergent
theory emphasizes communication among members that serves
to show applicability of a particular norm, thus, justifying the
crowds action. Moreover, the norm may also define limits to their
behavior.

Smelsers Value Added Approach. (1962; Turner and Killian

1987:3, Light and Keller 1982:524-527, Maciones 1997:558-560)
Smelser notes certain conditions, which may bring about
collective behavior. These are:

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1. Structural conduciveness, which means that there exist certain
social conditions for collective behavior to be possible, such as
the existence of factories or other places of work where
conflicts may arise between employers and employees or
among ethnic groups who live together in the same area.

2. Structural strain, which is brought about by a gap between

expectations and reality, resulting in conflict or problems. This
is a major determinant of collective behavior, which calls for
some kind of action to relieve the strain. For example, the
rising prices of commodities and low wages of workers may
bring about such a strain. Another example is the incident in
1989, when public school teachers left their classrooms and
went on strike over unpaid allowances and low salaries.

3. Generalized belief, which is brought about by the inability of

participants to define and analyze the problem. This intensifies
the tension as it makes the vague threat more pronounced and
can be fostered by the media. A shared common interpretation
of their problem arises after some discussion and analysis.
This generalized belief may or may not be true.

4. Precipitating factors in the form of dramatic events, which may

trigger collective response. The assassination of Senator
Benigno Ninoy Aquino on August 21, 1983 led to mass
demonstration resulting to pent-up emotions and tensions over
the authoritarian regime, the abuse of human rights, the
growing gap between the rich ad poor, rampant graft and
corruption, and other grievances. The non-opening of the
second envelope in the impeachment trial of President Estrada
triggered the People Power II.
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5. Mobilization of participants to join the action after the
precipitation. Rallies and demonstrations after Ninoys
assassination continued, dramatized by the throwing of yellow
confetti along Ayala St. in Makati. In 1986, the people called up
friends and Cardinal sin appealed for people to go to EDSA to
express their indignation. Likewise, on January 16, 2001,
following the walk-out of the prosecutors in Pres. Estradas
impeachment trial, there was widespread texting and appeals
by Cardinal Sin and former Pres. Aquino to go to the EDSA
shrine.

6. The ineffectiveness of the means of social control. With the

increased intensity and zeal of actions, as demonstrated by the
protest rallies and demonstration after the assassination of
Sen. Aquino, social control becomes ineffective. When the
forces of social control fail to check the collective action, the
collective behavior continues.

Smelsers approach to collective behavior can be useful and

applicable in the analysis of collective behavior. It can be used to
assess the behavior involved and work out some forms of social
control.

Types of Collective Behavior

The Crowd

A crowd is said to be a transitory group of persons in an

ambiguous and, to some degree, unstructured situation where
participants do not have the clear and pre-existing knowledge of
how to behave, but feel that something that can be done.
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Uncertainty, feasibility and timelessness characterized as crowd,
and a combination of these leads to a collective search for
appropriate action. When pressure sets in and develops the
sense that everyone should share these feelings and definitions,
a norm emerges. If this agreement is not reached, members
disperse and may come together again when some event creates
a renewed sense of urgency (Turner and Killian 1987:78-79).

Herbert Blumers (1946:174-176) description of the important

features of the crowd is embodied in what is known as the
contagion theory. Blumer holds that crowd behavior stems from a
state of unrest caused by the ordinary routine of life. Tension
develops which sets the stage for circular interaction. The inter-
stimulation of emotion results in the movement of emotions
(affection, fear, anger, hate, etc.) in circles.

Milling, anonymity, suggestibility, and circular interaction

may be seen in the crowd. Milling is the aimless, restless
movement of the members, which may take the form of both
physical and verbal activity such as moving impatiently, asking
questions, talking excitedly, and passing on or receiving rumor.
Rumor is unverified information accepted as truth about certain
things, which become revised, distorted, and condensed or
expanded as it is transferred from one person to another. It may
incite violence in the group. Anonymity refers to the failure or
reluctance of the participants to identify one another even if they
can do so. It is this anonymity which is responsible for the
contagion of feelings and emotions. Circular interaction is the
movement of emotion and excitement in circles. Suggestibility is
the tendency to accept unhesitatingly and unconsciously the
opinion of others without critical judgment. With the rise of
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suggestibility, emotions are further heightened and critical thinking
decreases.

As excitement spreads, there is a degree of collective mood and

some kind of behavioral or social contagion. The members
restraint is loosened, and they engage in the same kind of
exciting activity. This collective mood spreads and is the
mechanism that sparks riots.

Types of Crowd

Crowds range from loosely organized casual groups to the more

unified acting and expressive crowds. Blumer (1946:178)
classifies crowd into casual, conventional, acting and expressive.

1. The casual crowd is the spontaneous, loosely organized

and very momentary type of grouping whose members
come and go. The emotional interaction is very slight and
the group has little unity. Members may form inconvenient
aggregations like those who gathered around a bargain
counter, a celebrity, or in midnight sales in mall.

2. The conventionalized crowd is characterized by

established regular ways of behaving, depending upon the
time and place of performance and order of activities.
Members may shout, clap their hands, or boo. These are
seen in ball games, boxing bouts, or New Years Eve
parties.

3. The acting crowd is the type most observed by

sociologists. This is an active, volatile group of excited
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 persons whose attention is focused on controversial or
provocative issue which arouses action, if not indignation.
(Light and Keller, 1982:523).

It may be motivated by intense love and affection, like those for

religious or political leaders, sports or movie idols, but the more
common motivations are rage, fear, and hate. A common symbol
related to the cultural definitions of the society furnishes the basis
for collective actions. In the process, group members lose their
ordinary critical understanding and judgment. Slogans are
formulated and catchwords are coined. Members believed that
they are right and are motivated by the best of intensions.
Usually, a leader arises to channel the activity into actions that
are deemed as desirable. The leader may stimulate the crowd
into action. Once members lose faith in the symbol or leader, the
crowd is weakened.

Riots, mobs, panic, unruly strikes, and rallies are examples of

acting crowds. Cases of such behavior were present since the
Spanish times, continued during the American occupation period
and still exist today. In a study by Talens (1974:160-161) of pre-
martial law student activism, among the issues raised were the
need for government reforms and credibility of the on-going
Constitutional Convention to institute these reforms, the high
prices of commodities, graft and corruption, feudalism, fascism,
imperialism and neo-colonialism. These are still basically the
same issues being raised today, although the emotions and
action have intensified.

A mob is a crowd focused on a target that is resented or seen as

a source of frustration. It forms when a large number of people
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with a common set of impulses communicate with one another
and act out on the impulse that they would not have given into if
they were alone. The crowd becomes unruly and volatile as they
become highly emotionally aroused, but dissipates once the
target has been attained. During the First Quarter Storm in 1970s,
demonstrators attacked the American Embassy while shouting,
Down with imperialism and fascism! they hurled stones and
Molotov cocktails (Home-made bombs) at the US Embassy,
breaking its glass doors and windows. On the evening of
February 25, 1986, right after the fight of the Marcoses from
Malacaang, an angry mob dashed into the place. They shattered
glass panes, ransacked, and looted the palace until they stopped
by the police. Similar incidents happened on May 1, 2001, when
loyalist of newly ousted President. Estrada marched to
Malacaang in a frenzy of anger and hate. With stones, lead
pipes, shotguns, and slingshots, they went on a rampage and
tried to force their way through gate 7 of Malacaang. A riot
ensued between the mob and the police.

Riots are similar to mobs, but defused in their activities. Riots are
hostiles, violent outburst between groups; random destructive
behavior occurs in several places, expressing general
resentment. Riots may be of longer duration than mobs. During
the 1960s and 1970s, demonstrations, riots, and unruly strikes
were common. In January 1970, right after the inauguration of
President Marcos, a group of protesting students and workers
marched across Mendiola Bridge and tried to storm Malacaang
Palace. They lit candles near a coffin to symbolize the death of
democracy. While they were being stopped by anti riot police
men, Violence broke out resulting in the injury of participants,
destruction of property and the death of a 20 year old student.
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The same phenomena happened in the 80s, 90s, and the early
years of the millennium. Related to mobs and riots are protest
crowds which have a specific goal. Their activities include
marches, boycotts, and strikes. Protest issues were against
despotic land owners, low wages, tuition fee increases, price
increases, militarization and foreign intervention.

Acting crowds can be controlled by the police by keeping

maximum tolerance and utilizing scientific crowd control
techniques.

Panics are situations in which people are largely affected by fear,

such as stampedes. Panic situations happen when a building
burns, a ship sinks, or when there is an earthquake. People panic
when there is a generalized belief that there is insufficient time or
inadequate means to avoid injury. There is fear in collective flight
as people hasten to escape. Just before the end of 1999, rumors
circulated that computers would crash because these would not
be able to adjust to the number or the new millennium ; at risk
were computer systems of government and business
establishments. Some people panicked and stacked on groceries
or withdrew large amounts of money from the banks. Fortunately,
computer did not crash, and the new millennium was greeted with
joy, revelry, and thanks giving in practically the whole world.

4. The Expressive Crowd is characterized by rhythmic

activity, intense emotional contagion, and emotional release.
Unrestrained physical movements like clapping, singing,
dancing, shaking, rolling, or crying is frenzied activity are
distinct features of this crowd. The crowd acts but does not
develop any goal. Nor is there an external force which is a
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 target of attack. A feeling of exhilaration and excitement is
experienced by the members as a result of the release of
emotions, tensions, or frustration. Even if they appear unruly
or turbulent, the participants are still aware of acceptable of
behavior. This type of behavior is observed during major
sports events, charismatic sessions, rock concerts, and
festivals like ati-atihan in Aklan.

The Audience

Often confused with the conventionalized crowd is the audience.

Sociologists consider the audience as an institutionalized crowd.
The spectators or audience are usually passive and controlled by
certain cultural rules. They have to remain quiet during the
performance and clap their hands only after the rendition. There is
some kind of seating arrangement. The audience gathers for a
specific purpose like entertainment or information. It meets at a
predetermined time and place. Audience attention is directed
towards the leader who communicates with them. The leader
attempts to arouse and catch the attention of the members and to
hold their interest. When members are dissatisfied with the
performance, they may boo the performer and, if this goes
unchecked, bedlam may result. Audience may be seen at
lectures, conventions, meetings, or cultural events.

The Mass

Unlike the crowd, the mass is a diffused collectivity. It is made up

of a number of desperate individuals, each responding
independently to the same stimulus. Blumer (1946:185-186)
characterizes the mass as made up of members coming from all
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social strata of society and all walks of life; it is composed of
anonymous individuals, so that there is hardly any interaction
among members; it is very loosely organized and has little unity.

The mass has no social organization, no established leader, no

structure of statuses and roles. Members are only concerned with
their individual condition. Because they encounter the same
stimulus, they feel that they are reacting similarly. Each member
makes a decision independently, so that discussion is not crucial.
The mass only results in a convergence of decision. Mass
behavior may be seen in migration, evacuation, and rush to
mining sites or to reported sites of miracles and faith healers.

Mass behavior may also be observed following a national or

international event, a sensational crime trial, a public scandal or a
dramatic event, like the kidnapping of foreigners in Palawan in
2001 by Abu Sayyaf members, the impeachment trial of Pres.
Estrada, the attack on the World Trade Center in New York, and
the reportage on the war launched by a coalition forces led by the
U.S and Great Britain on Iraq.

The Public

Like the mass, the public is a dispersed collective and, like the
crowd, it includes the elementary processes of milling and rumor.
Unlike the mass, which is confronted by a problematic situation,
the public is faced with an issue on which they have the right to
agree or disagree. Disagreement, discussion, argument, counter-
argument, and compromise which are not important in mass
are important in a public. Unlike the crowd, there is disagreement
on the issue before a decision is reached. The public, in Turner
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and Killians (1987) definition, is, a dispersed group of people
interested in and divided about an issue, engaged in discussion of
that issue with a view to registering a collective opinion which is
effected to affect the course of action of some decision-making
group of individuals. For Turner and Killian, what is crucial is to
focus on the ways by which the publics opinions are
communicated to decision-makers and the final outcome of their
attempt to influence policy-making.

The public results from the presence of an issue, like the election
issue. There are as many publics as there are issues. These
issues may involve economics, politics, health, education, the
family, moral reform, or international commitments. The
interaction in a public, such as discussion or argumentation, is
effected through personal contacts, rumors, and the mass media.
In simple societies, people are faced with fewer issues. However,
in industrialized and urbanized societies, issues constantly
emerged and create a number of publics.

Rumor and Gossip

Rumor is unverified or unsubstantial information about events or

people which become revised, distorted, condensed or expanded
as it is transferred from one person to another. According to
Maciones (1997:618), rumor has three essential characteristics.
There is a climate of uncertainty as there is no definite information
about the topic of concern. It is unstable because, as people
spread the information, it becomes altered or distorted. It is
difficult to stop. Some rumors disintegrate over time or are
stopped by convincing information.

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Gossip is related to humors. It is also formal and idle talks but
centers on the personal affairs of others, usually celebrities like
the elite, movie stars, or politicians. These people can be subject
of praise or scorn. Usually, the gossip-monger is looked down
upon by others in the group or is subject to ridicule or jokes.

After the September 11, 2001 bombing of the World Trade Center
in New York, there was an outbreak of influenza in some elite
schools in Pasig and Mandaluyong, while nearby public schools
were unaffected. Thus, rumors spread that this is part of the
biological warfare targeting the elite. Some schools closed
temporarily. The rumor stopped when the Department of Health
announced that the outbreak of flu in these schools should not be
a source of worry because September is the flu season.

Fashion, Fads, and Crazes

Cultural drifts, such as the changes in fashion, fad, and crazes,

are forms of mass interaction or diffused collectivities. They meet
a persons need for excitement, novelty, self-expression, self-
esteem, or social status.

Fashion is applied to short-lived, socially approved variations in

clothing and adornment, art, housing, furniture, and other areas of
behavior. It is the prevailing usage or mode of behavior which
departs from the customary ways but is generally acceptable. It
reflects the prevailing interests of a society and is centered upon
the spread of change in taste and life-style.

Changes in fashion are continuous. The upper class usually sets

the pace for fashion, and the reward for following it is the prestige
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of using a symbol of high status. As Turner and Killian state,
There is abundant opportunity for popular selection and for the
establishment of a partially spontaneous consensus through
crowd mechanism operating within the channels of the
established social system (1987:216-217).

Styles follow styles and the changes are usually cyclical as

evinced in the expression of some women, iyan ang moda ng
1940s (that was the fashion in the 1940s). To illustrate fashion
changes, one has only to point to the varying length of hemlines
or the variation in sleeve style.

Fads are passing fancies or novelties related to trivial deviations

from the conventional behavior. They involve minor modifications
or decorations of dresses, mannerisms, and use of slang words
and other verbal expressions collective enthusiasm is
developed for an innovation that meets the peoples fancy.
Adolescents are prone to fads which give them an in-group
feeling of security and a means of protest against conventional
behavior. A careful qualitative study of fads shows that they are
numerous in period of crisis, when they serve to divert attention
from the problem.

Some fads which Filipino adolescents have followed at different

times include sporting long or short hair; wearing low-waisted,
bellbottoms, corduroy, or faded jeans; using Pop Swatch,
blankets, and beads; expressions like chicks, groovy,
gimmick, and walk. Some fads were later adopted at large and
became conventional behavior.

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Crazes and fads are hard to differentiate. Crazes are new
activities which excite persons who become subsequently
preoccupied with these. Transient infatuation is the apt phrase
Stark (1998:585) gives to describe a craze. Crazes rapidly
generate interest, but are usually very fleeting in duration and the
excitement collapses suddenly.

A craze, according to Apppelbaum and Chambliss (1995:540), is

an intense attraction to an action, activity, object, or person. They
are like fads, although more intense. It is based on a positive wish
fulfillment. Get-rich-quick schemes such as investing in tilapia,
stock market, or pyramid are examples of crazes. For some
people, involvement in crazes provides an outlet for self-
expression, anxieties, and tension.

The marketing goods involved in fashion, fads, and crazes is very

profitable, and so business corporations develop and produce
attractive products in great numbers. However, these products
become ordinary after peoples interest in them declines.

Disaster Behavior

This behavior is displayed during times of disaster such as

earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, typhoons or hurricanes, and
coup detat. Disaster behavior combines both crowd and mass
behavior. Great fear emanating from threatening situation
becomes widespread. Mass hysteria and panic ensue as people
scamper for safety. This kind of behavior was observed during the
7.6 intensity earthquake in Northern Luzon and Metro Manila on
July 16, 1990, the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991, and the

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typhoon and subsequent flood which swept Leyte in November
1991.

Following these phenomena is a flurry of activities to aid disaster

victims. Government and private agencies organize groups to
solicit material and financial assistance for the victims. Task
forces are formed to set up rehabilitation centers, reconstruct
damaged infrastructure, and distribute aid and health services.
Barangay captains and their kagawads and tanods usually inform
people about available evacuation centers. Action lines are set up
to receive complaints, give public information, and plan details of
the future relief and rescue operations.

In view of the various disasters that have hit the country, efforts
are being devised by the government and NGOs (nongovernment
organizations) to institute counter-disaster measures. For disaster
prevention, infrastructure
programs and use of safety devices to offset the consequences of
disasters are instituted.

Public Opinion

The product of collective discussions for decision-making is public

opinion, which is the result of interaction vic-a-vis an issue. Public
opinion is the composite of individual opinions as these are
communicated to leaders who are empowered to render a
decision. It is difficult to arrive at a unanimous opinion, but the
majority opinion nonetheless is usually acceptable. Public opinion
can also be those of leaders or the opinion-makers, thus it may
emanate from the minority.

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Public opinion can be expressed through the ballot or referendum,
letters, petitions, delegations, meetings and interest groups. At
the local level, the presence of leaders ((Hollnsteinern1963:41,
95-110) in certain municipalities exert influence in forming public
opinion. The views of persons who have prestige or are held in
high esteem carry weight, and some seek their advice. The social
circle to which one belongs is also an important source of ones
opinions. Thus, citizens assemblies are effective channels for the
expression of opinions on vital problems and issues. Polls and
surveys play crucial role in determining public opinion. Surveys
are conducted to determine peoples opinion on current issues
concerning the economy, politics, and culture related topics. The
more popular polling groups in the country are the Social Weather
Station, Pulse Asia and Audits and Survey Worldwide.

Blumer (1946) avers that, public opinions occurs as a function of

society in operation. The process by which citizens of a society
acquire political attitudes and opinion is complex. It encompasses
a continuing interaction among institutional sources of
information, interpersonal contacts, and ideological and
personality factors (Lowell, in Janowitz and Hirsch 1981:51).
Public opinion can be influenced in a wide range of ways, from
indirect persuasion to direct propaganda techniques.
Representatives of various organizations play an important role in
shaping public opinion, and the individual within the public is able
to express oneself through the membership in the formal groups.
Through their leaders, these organizations make their presence
felt by those empowered to make the decision.

There are also political and commercial public relations,

advertising campaigns, and propaganda which directly attempt to
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influence public opinion. Mass media also plays an influential role
in forming public opinion. In general, it has been found that
personal persuasion is more effective than the mass media in
influencing opinions and behavior, especially during election
campaigns.

Mass Communication

Public opinion depends on a shared framework for holding

together the members of society. In turn, this framework is
dependent upon effective media in order to make information and
knowledge accessible to the public. Mass media plays an
important role in this regard. Mass media refers to large-scale
organizations using print and broadcast communications such as
radio, television, and film. Media functions as an agent of
socialization. It gives information, introduces us to wide variety of
people, entertains us by providing opportunities to live variously,
and provides an array of viewpoints, products, and services
which, if we use, will us acceptable to others (Kendall, 2000:87).
During elections, media becomes the venue for informing people
about candidates platform. Newspaper, reporters and columnists
and TV newscasters also interpret information and prescribe
possible reactions. The social heritage of the group its
knowledge, norms, and values are transmitted to the audience.

An issue that is constantly raised is how reliable is the media. Is

there not too much sensationalism which then distorts the truth?
Former President Diosdado Macapagal aptly described this when
he wrote, We cannot close our eyes to the widespread criticism
of the media such as considerable cavalier treatment of facts and

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truth and impingement of integrity known as developmental
journalism and other (1991:7)

Polo (2002:15) confirms medias influence on popular culture,

politics, and social power relations in the following:

Popular traditions in our history have been expressed in

soap operas, action films and newspapers. A wealth of
images has been created for the masses. As a result, the
masses have been transformed into social actors who
intervened in political events like the ouster of President
Estrada. Thus, media serves not only as a source of
entertainment and escapism; it also participates in cultural
and social processes and constantly interacts with the stress
of society.

Newspaper

The newspaper is a channel for disseminating information to the

public. It relays news, comments and opinions through its reports,
editorials and opinions pages. It covers issues of local, national,
and international interest and is an important instrument for
breaking through to public opinion and social consciousness.
However, while a newspaper is intended to render objective and
reliable reporting, it will also reflect its own biases and thus
becomes inaccurate. Big business or other groups with vested
interest may gain control of the press and project their positions in
the editorial. News reporting can also be sensationalized to the
point of distorting information. Because newspapers derive a
large portion of its revenues from advertisements,
commercialization can compromise there social value.
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The guiding principle stressed by the Philippine Council Print
Media is freedom with responsibility, our self-censorship. The role
of newspapers among farmers can be gleaned from the study of
Feliciano and Icban (1967:252-253) on the effectiveness of the
farm and home development program of the UP College of
Agriculture. They found out that the number of hours spent on
reading print media, mostly vernacular magazines, was positively
associated with the adaption of new farm practices. Farmers who
read more tended to be high adopters, and those who read less,
low adopters. In their study of four barrios in Nueva Ecija, they
found out that in cases where farmers were ready to change or
where there was a keenly felt need for a specific practice, mass
media was able to trigger immediate trial and adaptation. So, if
farmers had already accepted the idea of using fertilizers to
increase crop yield, they would buy at last fertilizer right after
reading an advertisement in Liwayway magazine.

Radio

The radio is a powerful medium because it reaches a wide

audience. Its effectiveness lies in making listeners feel the
speakers personality. Although the radios chief function is to
entertain, it also disseminates news and information through its
news cast and public service programs. Like the television, it can
instantly broadcast news to the public through on the spot reports.

As of 1999, there were 208,580 licensed stations in the

Philippines. As of this number, 20,950 stations are government-
owned 187, 622 are privately owned. Through battery- operated
transistor, radios, more and more rural folks are able to listen to
the radio. Programs are sometime hackneyed, as they try to
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appeal to the popular taste. They consist mostly of pop songs,
dramas, balagtasan, true confessions, comedy skits, police
reports, agricultural programs, religious broadcast, news and
commentaries.

Television

Television uses both sight and sound in conveying ideas to

people. Televisions advantage over the radio is its visual
projection for events which makes this appear more real and
stimulating. Though primarily intended for entertainment,
television has a powerful influence and far reaching effects on
viewers. Significant events, both local and international are
brought directly into the viewers home. The development of
satellite networks enables live coverage of events around the
world and thus global flow of information.

Through the reporters commentary or through manipulation of the

camera angle, it is possible for television to present a perspective
different from that of the actual spectator. The camera operators
can present their own interpretation of events by focusing on what
they consider important, and relegating into the background what
they deem unimportant. Thus, the emphasis of events depends
on the judgment and accounts of the television reporter and
camera crew. According to Tupperman (1999:39-40), television is
graphic and attractive; its depiction of life shows an uninterrupted
flow of images that appear like the reality. Viewers take what they
see as natural situations of the actual word. They are not aware of
the techniques like programming, filming, writing and directing
which involve manipulation in editing.

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Viewers also become accustomed to sex, violence, danger and
excitement as their standard fantasy fare. Researches shows that
constant exposure to violence encourage violent behavior in
children, like those that show a perpetrator being rewarded or
escaping punishment; justify violence or do not portray evident
pain, sorrow, or remorse; accompany physical violence with
verbal abuse; do not criticize violence; portray violence in a
realistic setting with realistic characters.

According to Bautista (2002:A10) of the Philippine Childrens

Television Foundation and Community of Learners Foundation,
television wields the biggest influence on shaping views and
values second to parents and family. Her study on media
revealed that Filipino children view an average of 6.2 incidents of
violence for every hour of TV viewing, or an average of 13 violent
incidents a day. There is less cause for worry of children who live
in stable, secure homes where parents and other adults regulate
their viewing. A problem arises among children who are neglected
and are constantly exposed to TV violence. One effect is the
desensitization to such incidents.

Since the 1970s, television networks have been criticized for

featuring mainly entertainment programs which are lacking in
substance. De Guzman (2002:8) writes that some shows are
actually offensive and degrading. Corny expressions bordering on
vulgarity are used to appeal to the mass market. Noontime shows
are nuances, expressions and body language are overtly sexual.
Sexy and revealing outfits do not portray good role models. Soap
operas and teledramas catering to millions of viewers show
conflict, rivalry, double cross, and violence. Such shows do not

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honestly reflect reality. The danger is that soap operas and
teledramas may influence reality.

Motion Pictures

Like television, motion pictures are primarily for entertainment, but

can also be informative and instructional. Concerns have been
raised on the movies reflection of peoples values and the effects
they have on the viewers. Powell (1956:353) states that motion
pictures are effective to some degree in cementing or changing
attitudes; our least influential in affecting attitudes that are remote
from the apparent purpose of the film; sometimes implant or
strengthen attitudes to those intended.

Claims that motion pictures are important for achieving goodwill

and peace in modern society are not supported by evidence.
Filipino films usually center on love or detective stories, dramas,
horror tales, comedies, and musicals. Locally produced comedies
are usually of the slapstick varieties, relying on puns and off-color
jokes for laughs. The common criticism against local movies is
that they are of poor quality, cater to the bakya crowd (the low
socio-economic class) and infused with too much sex and
violence.

Like TV, an issue constantly raised is the effect of too much

violence in films on the personality of an individual, especially
children. Sen. Santanina Rasul, in her speech, Education for
Peace (1987), expressed fear that if the children see that
violence on television or movies are condoned by people around
them, then they will accept it as a fact of life and not consider
crime as deviant. Furthermore, when children see that violence is
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glorified, they might even think that violence is heroic or noble.
Studies shows that an increase in aggressive behavior of children
as a direct result of viewing violence in films. Many professionals
feel that the average adolescent is unharmed by violent scenes,
but similar scenes may stimulate an emotionally distuebed child
or reinforce delinquent tendencies of gangs (Wright 1974:144-
146).

Social MovemenTS

When collective behavior persists and develops a considerable

degree of organization, it becomes a social movement. A social
movement is a type of collectivity composed of people who share
sentiments or grievances who unite to promote or resist change. It
is directed toward changing the established norms, values, or
social structures. Thus, it challenges the existing social order.
Social movements are a function of the level of social and
economic deprivation of a group (Light and Keller, 1982:536).

Formation of Social Movements

To understand social movements, let us use Smelsers

preconditions for its analysis. All social movements start with a
feeling of discontent with the existing social order. When people
become conscious of their lack of basic social services, social
power, or human rights, they become discontented. The
perceived deprivation results in frustration. This generalized
restlessness and agitation fuels social unrest. Resources are
mobilized for leadership, organizational talent, and prestige, in
order to attract followers. An organization is set up to serve as the
nucleus of a group with a leader (Smelser, 1995:109-110).
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Important in a social movement is an ideology which is codified
from the ideals, beliefs, values, principles, and doctrines of the
people. According to Smelser (1995), ideology is the bridge
between discontent and action. It defines the problem in terms of
right and wrong and offers a guide for action. Communication
channels like leaflets, the media, mobile phones and media link
like-minded people over a considerable area. Television, radio
broadcasts, and cell phones were utilized on January 16, 2001 to
call on people to converge at the EDSA Shrine and protest
against the senators who voted against the opening of the second
envelope which allegedly contained vital evidence against Pres.
Estrada in his impeachment trial.

The group may opt for aggressive or non-aggressive strategies.

Non-institutionalized strategies like demonstrations, boycotts,
noise barrage, or even sabotage and other forms of violence are
utilized. For social movements to succeed, it is necessary to
mobilize people and resources. The social movement must be led
by charismatic and competent leaders; it must attract committed
and disciplined members and possess needed resources, such as
the finance and facilities. It must also be able to counteract
external opposition. The social movement must enlist external
allies from other major groups and powerful institutions in the
society, and unity separate organizations. (Stark 1996:642)

Types of Social Movements

Social movements that emphasize social change abound in our

society. There are movements for agrarian reforms, wages hike,
human rights, protection of the environment, peace, a gunless
society, pro-life, feminist and political and economic change.
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Religious movements and cults also abound. Social movements
have been classified from the short-lived organizations to the
widespread and protracted revolutionary movements. They may
be classified according to their goals or their types, such as
political, religious, economic, educational, etc. The most common
types are the expressive, the resistance and protest, the reform,
and the revolutionary movements.

Expressive Movement

The expressive movement is a form of dissent against the existing

power structures. It is not directed to bring about the change in
power relations; rather, it is a reaction to a sense of
powerlessness or alienation and dissatisfaction. This type of
movement may be seen in crank or unconventional movements,
messianic movements, gospel sharing and bible study
movements. Members are usually detached and dissatisfied with
the society they lived in. this type of movement tends to have
intense effects on the personalities of the members, strengthen
members faith, and develop spirituality and a sense of
community.

Among the messianic cults were: the socio-religious protest of

Apolinario de la Cruz, who set up a kingdom of the Tagalogs
during the Spanish Regime; the religious movement organized by
Gregorio Aglipay to secularize the parishes and remove
foreigners from the Catholic Church; the Colorum movement in
Tayabas province (now Quezon), led by Ruperto de Dios, who
appointed himself Pope and then God; the Lapiang Malaya,
founded by Valentin de los Santos in the 1960s; and the Iglesias
Watawat ng Lahi.
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In their study of the Lapiang Malaya, Aldaba-lim, Perlas and
Sucgang (1967) noted that the members were from Manila and
the neighboring provinces, belonged to the lower class, lacked
education, and were engaged in unskilled occupations. They were
Roman Catholics, but considered the doctrines as foreign and
abstract in contrast to the teachings of the Lapiang Malaya which
were concrete, personalized, and indigenous. They joined the
group to derive spiritual benefits such as loving relations with
God, Country, and fellowmen. They sought spiritual security in the
face of material deprivation. According to Aldaba-Lim, et al, the
Lapiang Malaya was symptomatic of the dissatisfaction within
Philippine socio-political structures.

In August 2000, the Philippine Benevolent Missionaries led by

Ruben Ecleo Jr. came into the news. A team of police, soldiers,
and military men entered the cults village to serve a warrant of
arrest on a cultist member for frustrated murder. The cults
member responded by attacking police, killing some militiamen
and hurting others.

According to David (2002:A7) people join cults because these:

offer a wide range of assistance to the underprivileged and
powerless; give them sense of oneness and community; gives
solace and spiritual comfort; healing from the leader is extended
to the members; are held in awe for the elaborate rituals,
symbols, and incantations of the rites and ceremonies. David
adds that, the existence of cults is symptomatic of a society that is
underdeveloped, unequal, predatory, and corrupt.

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Resistance and Protest Movements

The resistance movement is brought about by structural strain; it

aims to change existing social values and institutions which
members consider decadent. The social institutions weaknesses
are attributed to the present leadership who, in the movements
view, lacks integrity and loyalty. As a reaction, the movements
members prefer to revert to the folkways and mores of a historical
or idealized past.

Protest movements aim to oppose social policies or programs.

They are an expression of dissent and a need for change.
Examples of protest organized by special interest groups are
those waged against the low wages, price increases, scams,
corruption, and dismissal of a union leader. There were intense
protests against the American bases in Clark and Subic Bay and,
later, against the Balikatan and Visiting Forces Agreement
between the US and Philippine governments.

In the 1970s and subsequent decades, a number of non-violent

resistance activities or the so-called peoples power protests
took place in Manila and other parts of the country. The members
trace their expression and the injustices committed against them
to deeply rooted inequities in the social structure. Among the
peoples power action were those organized by Zone One Tondo
Organization (ZOTO), a group of 5,000 from the urban poor who
opposes the demolition of their homes. In Bontoc and Kalinga,
tribal communities fought to prevent a logging company gaining
access to their forests and opposed the construction of the Chico
River dam which would inundate their lands.in all these cases,
non-violent strategies and tactics were used. Some factors that
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contributed to the success of these mobilizations are the courage
and determination of the people who collectively fought for their
rights.

After the assassination of Sen. Aquino in 1983, protest

movements were staged in the business district of Makati, which
was a turnabout from its traditional stance of political indifference
and conservatism. In a survey-analysis of Makatis white collar
workers, majority of Bautistas (1985) subjects were college
graduates aged 22 to 57 who may be classified middle class.
Majorities were not student activists of the 70s, nor were
members of any political organization. Their forms and protests
include: 99% threw confetti from their offices in various buildings;
82%, joined demonstrations and rallies; 19%, participated in
teach-ins; 16%, jogged to protest; 11%, joined motorcades; and
less than 1% attended symposia on the current national issues. In
their perception, the national crisis was caused by government
mismanagement and corruption, the low position of the
Philippines in the worlds economy, the political unrest, the New
Peoples Army, and problems with some Filipinos. Bautista
(1985:9) described these protest movements as a collective and
significant expressions expression of an outrage against a brutal
murder that hurt the sensibilities of most Filipinos and a
collective camaraderie filled affair of people working in the same
office. The ambience of this protest was like a fiesta.

Reform Movements

Reform movements are directed at a changing certain aspects if

the social class structure or a segment of the power relations in a
social system. They usually aim to make the existing social
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structure work more effectively by extending rights or privileges to
certain groups. They seek to change only some segments of the
society or culture, as they reaffirm some of its values. They are
generally interest groups designed to aid their members;
occasionally they act as pressure groups designed to aid their
members; occasionally they act as pressure groups for promoting
the resisting actual changes in social norms and values.
Examples of this type of movement are the labor movement, the
womens liberation movement, pro-life movement, cooperatives
movement, consumers movement, gay and lesbian rights
movement, movement for a more equitable global economy, etc.

In his paper Some Implications of Student Activism for Sought

East Asia University Administration, Felipe (1969:122-131)
identifies the causes of student activism. Foremost is the shift in
function of education from providing status and economic
opportunities for individual members of society to one of providing
economic obligation to the society at large. Second is the change
in the character of the student populace resulting from
universities policy of selective admission, which in turn results in
the emergence of a more intelligent, critical, and militant student
body, in demonstrations and rallies, students demand the right to
speak in behalf of the society and the right of representation,
including demands for universities to become accountable to
society. They also clamor for a curriculum which is more relevant
to and answers the need of the present society.

NGOs have taken a lead role in social change and national

transformation. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, voluntary
groups were engaged in the anti-Marcos dictatorship struggle and
the boarder movement for social change. There were also
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traditional groups which directed activities towards socio-civil and
religious aspects. In the 1980s, NGOs advocated and fought for
fundamental societal changes and reforms. At present many NGO
snare engaged in development work and continue to work for
both fundamental changes and reforms. They are effective
instruments for mobilizing peoples participation in development
activities. (Marilao and Bautista, 1993:22)

Rebellion and Revolutionary Movements

Rebellion and revolutionary movements aim to change the whole

social order and replace the leadership. They challenge the
existing folkways and mores and propose a new scheme of
norms, values, and organizations. They occur in societies where
there is a distinct ruling elite and where there is oppression,
conquest, or colonization. Not all suppressed or colonized people
revolt against the colonizers or dominant groups. Revolutionary
movements involve more radical changes in the society. These
are brought about by wide gap between the rich and poor,
widespread poverty, oppression of a class by the more powerful
groups, suppression of peoples rights and the colonizing groups
of exploitation of a nations natural resources.

A revolution has a long background of unrest and dissatisfaction

among the people, but needs a precipitating crisis to start it.
People are spurned when the social, economic, and political
systems persist in the unjust treatment of the people. Those who
feel oppressed try to wrestle power from the ruling class (Light
and Keller 1993:564). Leaders arise, members divide tasks and
functions, and an ideology evolves. When legitimacy of the
authority is challenged and weakened, military forces act to quell
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disturbances but end up aggravating these. A precipitating crisis
sparks the outbreak of the revolution. Force and violence are
used to wrench the control from the ruling power. If successful,
they establish a revolutionary government.

The French, Philippine, Russian, Chinese, and Cuban revolutions

are examples of revolutionary movements. During the Japanese
Occupation of the Philippines, the Hukbong Magpapalaya ng
Bayan struggled to wrest control from the Japanese and Shift the
countrys system to socialism. After World War II, the group
became known as Huks and continued fighting against the
government. The movement was later suppressed by then
Defense Secretary Ramon Magsaysay.

In 1969, Jose Ma. Sison co-founded the Communist Party of the

Philippines (CPP) and its military arm, the New Peoples Army
(NPA). It politicize and organize the peasants and workers and
aims to set up a national democratic society through its general
tactic of seizing the cities from the countryside. In the 1970s, the
CPP-NPA staged revolutionary attacks against the Marcos
dictatorship, and continues to date to launch military operations to
realize its political-economic agenda of changing the structures of
government.

The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) and the Moro Islamic
Liberation Front (MILF) are Muslim groups whose goal is to
secede from the country. At present (2003) there are on-going
peace talks with the MILF. Another Muslim group is the Abu
Sayyaf. Critics claim, however, that this cannot be considered a
revolutionary group since it is engaged in criminal activities, such
as kidnapping for ransom and does not have an ideology.
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Non-Violent and Peaceful Revolutions

A notable and unique type of revolution, different from the armed

revolutions, was the February 22-25, 1986 peoples Power
Revolution at EDSA, Quezon City. It was unique in the sense that
it was a nonviolent and peaceful mass action which toppled a 20-
year old dictatorship. During the years of the Marcos dictatorship,
disenchantment steadily grew because of the suppression of
human rights, rampant graft and corruption, the widening gap
between the rich and the poor as well as the increase in the
proportion of poor people, suppression of media, economic
instability, and spiraling foreign debts.

The First Quarter Storm in the late 1960s and early 1970s
ushered students, peasants, and laborers protest against
feudalism, neo-classicism, and imperialism. The assassination of
opposition leader Sen. Benigno Aquino, Jr. on August 21, 1983
intensified collective actions against the Marco regime.

Tension over the snap presidential election on February 7, 1986,

with Ferdinand Marcos and Corazon Aquino as candidates,
intensified during counting of the ballots. Mrs. Aquino claimed that
she won the elections but lost in the counting because of
widespread cheating and fraud. Mrs. Aquino called for peaceful
rallies and boycotts of crony-owned businesses to protest.

On February 1986, the discovery of a plot to overthrow Marcos

led to the arrest of members of the Reform the Armed Forces
Movement (RAM), involving Minister of Defense Juan Ponce
Enrile and Gen Fidel Ramos. Cardinal Sins help was seeked; and
he appealed for people to gather in front of Camps Aguinaldo and
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Crame along EDSA where Enrile and Ramos were holed up. The
people responded overwhelmingly. Soon, EDSA was teeming
with people from all walks of life: nuns, priests, seminarians,
laypersons young, old, rich and poor. They joined hands,
prayed for Gods intercession, and barricaded the advancing
tanks and troops loyal to Marcos with their own bodies. They
appealed to the soldiers, saying, We are all Filipinos; let us not
fight each other. The defection of key military officers helped the
movement. On February 25, 1986, a provisional government was
formed with Corazon Aquino as president. Later that morning,
Ferdinand Marcos was sworn in as president by his followers at
Malacaang. But that evening, Marcos and his family together
with some cronies escaped to Hawaii with the help of the US
government. This marked the end of the Marcos dictatorship, the
triumph of People Power, and the rebirth of freedom.

Soon after, a revolutionary government was established under a

freedom constitution, which remained until a new constitution
was drafted by a commission on October 15, 1986. This model of
a peaceful, non-violent revolution has inspired other countries.

Another People Power Revolution took place on January 16-20,

2000 at the EDSA Shrine. An account is contained at the
introduction of this chapter.

Social Consequences of Collective Behavior

Collective behavior is a result of social change, which promotes

non-institutional courses of action with a normative justification.
While some circumstances strengthen resistance to change, in
the most cases, collective behavior leads to changes.
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Developments in technology and other changes like urbanization,
industrialization, increase in population, and the mixture of diverse
ethnic groups open up new self conceptions and create new value
perspectives which challenge traditional norms and values.
Collective behavior becomes a vehicle for the release of aroused
feelings or accumulated tensions, anxieties, and discontent as
manifested in the acting and expressive crowds.

In the most cases, social movements lead to basic changes in the

social structure and policies. Labor movements have succeeded
in influencing legislation favorable to workers. The same may be
said of the womens movement which has advocated for equal
rights for women.

Widespread collective behavior becomes a vehicle for change

when diverse cultures interact and supply new values around
which collective behavior can become focused. As people
continue interacting, collective behavior may develop form and
organization. The crowd may develop into sect, the public into a
political or interest group, and the mass into a cult. Social
movements may result in new institutions with new and radical
values or, in a few cases, in the preservation of the social order.
Collective behavior may produce new cultural directions and
establish new folkways, more, and values. Thus, collective
behavior plays an important part in the process of social change.

Summary

No single definition of the term collective behavior can be given.

Turner and Killian define collective behavior as forms of social
behavior not guided by usual conventions and involving a
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transgression of established institutional patterns and structure. It
occurs in stress situations, usually brought by social change, and
is characterized by a high degree of emotions.

A number of theoretical frameworks have been formulated to

describe the conditions that bring about collective behavior.
Among them are the convergence perspective, the emergent
norm perspective, and the value-added approach.

Forms of collective behavior include the crowd, mass, public, and

social movements. A crowd is a transitory group of persons in an
ambiguous and, to some degree, unstructured situation in which
participants do not have a clear and pre-existing knowledge of
how to behave, but feel that they can do something to correct the
situation. Some types of crowd are the casual, conventional,
acting and expressive crowds. A mass is composed of desperate
individuals, each responding independently to the same stimulus
in a similar way.

In the public, members are confronted by issues and they

discuss, argue, debate, compromise, and form composite views
known as public opinion. Public opinion is dependent upon mass
media to make information about the issue accessible. Mass
communication is organized communication through some
systematized structures directed toward a relative large audience
during a short period of time. This includes the newspaper, radio,
television, and motion pictures.

When the collective behavior process becomes so organized that

rules and norms are established and a leader arises, it assumes
the proportion of a social movement. Social movements
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emphasize social change and emerge from stressful changes in
ones environment which bring about dissatisfaction with the
existing living conditions. The objective of the social movement is
to promote change or, in a few cases, to resist change.

Study Guide

1. Concepts and terms to master

Collective behavior Fashion
Organized behavior Fad
Crowd Crazes
Mass Mass Media
Public Social Movement
Disaster behavior
2. What is collective behavior? What are its important
features?
3. Explain the theoretical framework for describing the
collective process.
4. What is crowd? Characterized and give examples of each
type of crowd.
5. What is a mass? Give example of mass. Differentiate
between fashion, fad, and craze.
6. What is a public? How is public opinion formed and
expressed?
7. How is the public influenced by mass media?
8. Characterized social movements.
9. Described the various types of social movement.

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Critical Thinking Questions

1. Explain the collective behavior and activities shown in EDSA

II in terms of the Smelsers value added approach. How
would you evaluate the consequences of EDSA II and the
so-called People Power III?
2. How do you account for the widespread social protests in
2001-2003? What issues were raised in these protests?

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 Chapter 10

THE FAMILY

A Philippine Population Report showed that despite the fact that

abortion is illegal in the country and condemned by the Catholic
Church, one in six pregnancies ends in abortion. The report adds
that the prevalence of abortion in the Philippines is higher than
other Asian countries like Japan, Bangladesh and India. To
console us is the fact that our abortion prevalence is lower than
that in Vietnam, China, Mongolia and South Korea. The common
denominator in our situation is pregnancy that is ill-timed,
unplanned and unintended. This calls for family solidarity, more
enlightened social science education and a return to traditional
values.

Jess Sison, Malaya , 6 Oct. 2002

What is the prevalent attitude of young people towards abortion?

What is our concept of family solidarity?

Basic Concepts

An important institutional element of the family is marriage. It is

the cultural mechanism that ensures the family is marriage.
Marriage is an institutional practice with social definitions and
legal restrictions.

People marry for a combination of reasons; love, economic and

emotional security, the parents wishes, escape from loneliness or
303
an unhappy home situation, money, companionship, protection,
adventure, or common interests (Bowman 1970;72). Sex or
sexual attraction is the least consideration, but marriage makes
sexual intercourse legitimate. It sanctions parenthood and
provides a stable background for rearing of children.

Marriage is the foundation of the family, an inviolable social

institution. Its purpose may not necessarily be for procreation or to
have children but for companionship, as in the case of couples
past the age of procreation.

Since 1949, our Civil Code has prescribed behavior on marriage

and family relations. The Family Code of the Philippines, which
became effective on August 3, 1988, defines marriage as a
special contract of permanent union between a man and a woman
entered into in accordance with the law for the establishment of
conjugal and family life.
The family Code speaks of two aspects of marriage: as a contract
and as status. As a contract, it applies to only a man and a
woman. It is permanent, unlike other, contracts. The law
prescribes penal and civic sanctions, like criminal action for
adultery or concubinage, legal separation, or action for support.
Once the contract of marriage is valid, the status of being married
is created between parties.

Marriage is valid in Philippine society only when the following

requirements are present: the legal capacity of the contracting
parties who must be a male and a female, and the consent freely
given by the couple in the presence of the solemnizing officer.
The minimum age for marriage is 18 years but parental consent is
necessary for those below 21 years. The formal requisites of
304
marriage are the authority of the solemnizing officer (judge or
priest), a valid marriage license (good for 120 days), a marriage
ceremony which takes place with the appearance of the
contracting parties before the solemnizing officer, and their mutual
declaration that they take each other as husband and wife in the
presence of not less than two witnesses of legal age.

After 40 years under the Civil Code, the government has made
some changes in the formal requisites for marriage. One of these
is that no license is necessary for the marriage if the couple has
lived together as husband and wife for at least five years and
there is no legal impediment to their marriage. Husband and wife
are obliged to live together observe mutual love, respect and
fidelity, and render mutual help and support.

Forms Of Marriage

The form of marriage practiced in a society affects the structure of

the familys kinship group. The accepted form may be either
monogamous or polygamous.

Monogamy - permits a man to take only one spouse at a

time.
Polygyny - is the marriage of one man to two or more
women at the same time. It is example of Muslims that
status symbol for the man.
Polyandry - is the marriage of a woman to two or more men
at the same time. Practiced by the Kaingang of Brazil.

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Selection of Marriage Partners

Various pressures and control operate that regulate the choice of

a marriage partner. No society permits a totally free choice. There
are 2 types of norms regarding the selection: endogamy and
exogamy.

Endogamy refers to the norms which dictates that one

should marry within ones clan or ethnic group
Exogamy-prescribes that one marries outside ones clan or
ethnic group.

The levirate norm prescribes that a widow marries the

brother or nearest kin of the deceased husband.
The sororate norm prescribes that a widower marries the
sister or nearest kin of the deceased wife.

Family Structures

The family is a small institution that unites individuals into

cooperative groups to oversee the bearing and raising of children.
The family is built on kinship based on blood, marriage, and
adoption.

As a social institution, the family consists of a social structure

providing a more or less stable framework for the performance of
reciprocal roles and of certain functions to make the relationship
enduring. The nature of the familial structure has a bearing on
personality development; an insight on these can shed light on
the personality type of the members, as well as on questions

306
concerning the family. Some degree of relationship also exists
between family patterns and the type of economy of the society.

The structure of the family varies from one culture to another.

Within a given society, there may be variations among the
families. However, there can be a more or less dominant or
typical type. The classification of families into categories can
represent ideal types. A number of anthropological and
sociological publications classify the forms of the family and
kinship organizations in many ways.

Basic Concepts

Based on internal organization or membership

The family is classified as nuclear or extended. The nuclear

primary or elementary family is composed of a husband and his
wife and their children in a union recognized by the other
members of the family. Murdock (1949:2-3) states that every
normal adult in every society belongs to two kid of nuclear
families, namely, the family of orientation and the family of
procreation. The family of orientation (origin) is the family into
which one is born, and where one is reared or socialized. It
consists of the father, a mother, brothers and sisters. The family
of procreation is the family established through marriage and
consists of a husband , wife, sons and daughter.

The nuclear family is said to be a universal social institution found

in every society. However, Mogey (1962:1412) cites to specific
cases which are contrary to this view --- the Nayar group of India
where the roles of husband and wife are reduced to a ritual
307
ceremony and the Israeli kibbutz, where the parental functions are
lost to the community.

The nuclear family is the smallest unit responsible for the

preservation of the value system of society. Its duty is to see that
members are socialized into the basic value system of the society
(Bell and Vogel 1968; 18-20).

The extended family is composed of two or more nuclear

families, economically and socially related to each other. The
extensions may be through the parent -child relationship. Where
the unmarried children and married children with their families live
with the parents. Another type of extensions is through the
husband and wife relationship, as in a polygynous marriage. In
polygyny the man keeps a number of nuclear families and units
them under a larger family group.

Linton (Murdock 1949:3940) distinguishes two types of family

structures corresponding to the nuclear and extended
families. He refers to theme as; (1) the conjugal family, which
considers the spouses and their off springs as of prime
importance and which has a fringe of comparatively unimportant
relatives. The marriage bond is emphasized; (2) the
consanguineal family, which considers the nucleus of blood
relatives as more important than the spouses. Blood relationships
formed during childhood are emphasized.

Each type of family presents distinct advantages and

disadvantages. The nuclear family, with its emphasis on conjugal
bond, motivates the husband and wife to work out and
harmonious relationship based on congeniality of interests,
308
mutual understanding, and sympathy. This type of family
emphasizes independent residence, strong allegiance to the
members, romantic love, and sexual attraction. Since the family
has to be independent and economically self-sufficient, the
members tend to be imbued with values of independence,
initiative, and self-reliance. A disadvantage is the danger that the
children may develop emotional problems due to the excessive
child-centeredness of the family and the solicitude of the parents
for theme. In crises like deaths, separations, divorce and
desertion, the members feel the impact of the strain severely.
Children can be vulnerable to such crises.

An advantage of the extended family over the other type is its

likelihood for permanence. A member can turn to a kin for help in
times of crises and thus withstand the stresses that it causes.
Social relationships are diffused such that the children learn to
adjust to persons of varying age levels. The children learn
cooperation at an early age. A wide range of protection is afforded
to members and the aged can rely on the younger ones to take
care of theme. However, such setup can make the children overly
dependent on relatives and may stifle the development of self-
reliance, initiative, and independence. The different kin
relationship may result in confusion of values and norms.

Based on Descent

Rules of descent imply cultural norms, which affiliate a person

with a particular group of kinsfolk for certain social purpose and
services, such a mutual assistance and regulation of marriage.
Rules of descent do not mean that certain genealogical ties are

309
closer than others are (Murdock 1949:15-16). On the basis of
descent, the types of families are:

Patrilineal descent affiliates a person with a group of relatives

through his or her father. The child has also well-defined
relationships with the mothers kin, but when the child finds it is
necessary to seek aid, the child turns to his or her fathers kin.
Matrilineal descent affiliates a person with a group of relatives
related through, his or her mother. Bilateral descent affiliates a
person with a group of relatives related both to his and her
parents.

Based on Residence

The basis of this classification is the preferred rule of the

residence. With whom does the newly married couple stay?
Patrilocal residence requires that the newly married couple live
with or near the domicile of the parents of the groom.

Matrilocal residence requires that the newly married couple live

with or near the domicile of the parents of the bride. Bilocal
residence gives the couple a choice of staying with either the
grooms parents or the brides parents, depending on factors like
the relative wealth of the families or their status, the wish of the
parents, or certain personal preferences of the bride and/or the
groom. Neolocal residence permits the newly married couple to
reside independently of the parents of either groom or bride.
Avuncolocal residence prescribes that the newly married couple
reside with or near the maternal uncle of the groom. This type of
residence is very rare.

310
The rules of residence reflect the general social, economic, and
cultural, conditions of the society. Where the couple choose to live
means additional kinsfolk for the family with whom they will stay.
Additional kinsfolk means additional labor help and, therefore,
enhancement of the power of the family. To the spouse who goes
to live with the family of the other, married life with mean living
with strangers and may entail problems of adjustment.

Based on Authority

Where is authority vested--- in the family or kinship group? Based

on who wields authority, families are classified into the following
types. The patriarchal family is one which the authority is vested
on the oldest male in the family, often the father. The sons,
especially the eldest, enjoy prestige and privileges. The males
speak for the familial group with regard to properties, legal
obligations, and criminal offences. The double standard of
morality exists. This type of family is further characterized by
family solidarity and ancestor worship. The Chinese family of the
pre-revolutionary period and the biblical families of Abraham and
Isaac (kirkpatrick1963:60) exemplify the ideal types of patriarchal
family.

The matriarchal family is one in which the authority is vested on

the mothers kin. This type is found in few societies. Individual
families, however, may be found in societies where the mother
dominates the households. The egalitarian family s one in which
the husband and the wife exercise a more or less equal amount of
authority. The matricentric family is a recently emerged type
found usually in the suburbs of the United States. Burgess and
Locke (1963:70-72) attributes its emergence to the fact that, in
311
suburban families, the father commutes to work and his absents
gives the mother a dominant position in the family, although the
father may also share with the mother in decision-making.

Functions of the Family

The family, as the basic social institution, performs manifold

functions, some of which are reinforced and supported by other
social institutions. The social and cultural changes that impinge
on the family have weakened some functions but strengthened
others. Literature on the sociology of the family abounds with
discussions on the functions of the family (Davis1949; Goode
1963; Kenkel 1973; Bell and vogel 1968; Maciones 1997). These
functions are:

1. The family regulates sexual behavior and is the unit for

reproduction. Within the marriage bond, sex expressions is
socially sanctioned. Thus, the perpetuation and continuity of
the group are assured. While some societies, like the Ifugaos
and the Bontocs, allow premarital relations, most societies
condemn the practice. Moreover, extramarital. Relations are
frowned upon. Aside from this important biological function,
the family also serves to provide legitimate children with a
status.

2. The family performs the functions of biological maintenance.

The human infant is born helpless and the parents fill the
roles of protector, provider, and guardian. They look after the
infants physical and material needs, giving is sustenance
nourishment, and protection. From the family, the infant and,
later, the child draws security, affection, and guidance and
312
 learns tenderness, sympathy, understanding, and love. In
some societies, the family is the group responsible for the
care of the aged, the physically incompetent, the
unemployed, and the widowed.

3. The family is the chief agency for socializing the child. The
family transmits the culture of the group though its patterned
ways of living and transmits values by example, teaching, or
indoctrination, Supported by a system of reward and
punishment, the children imbibe the value system of the
society and internalize these; they acquire the basic skills,
motivations, and attitudes toward work which are essential
for the performance of their tasks. They also acquire the
standards of behavior, aspirations, and expectations of the
family, which become part of their personality. Parson and
Bales (1955:35) state that, as socializing agents, parents
perform not only their familial roles but also related roles in
other structures of the society a condition necessary for
their affective functions as socializing agents. Further, the
child is socialized not only for and in ones family orientation
but also for structures which go beyond their family, such as
the peer group, school, family of procreation, and work
group.

4. The family gives its members status. A child is born into a

family that gives him or her a name and lineage. Whether
born into a lower class family or on upper class family, he or
she is provided with its attitudes and values. For the upper
class family, status is something to be maintained and
continuously achieved. In lower and middle class families,
status is ascribed and goals are set for an achieved status
313
 depending on the motivations and aspirations set by the
parents.

5. The family is an important mechanism for social control. It

continuously exerts pressure on its members to make them
conform to what it considers as desirable behavior. To
maintain its good name, the family has to keep its members
within bounds in the various aspects of living: in their
relations with their fellow human beings, morals, control of
the sex drives, etiquette, earning a livelihood, etc.

6. The family performs economic functions, especially in simple

societies. It likewise performs educational, recreational,
religious and political functions.

Structural Characteristics Of The Filipino Family

The basic social unit of Philippine society is the nuclear family,

which includes the father, mother, and the children, and the
bilaterally extended kinship group, which embraces all relatives of
the father and mother, Other important relationships are those of
the siblings and the cousins, of the grandparents and
grandchildren.

The Christian Filipino family is described as a large family group,

usually including three generations in the same home that is
extended in terms of membership. However, the study of Barrio
Esperanza, an agricultural community in Matalon, Leyte, by Pal
(1956:305) showed that only 20% of the households were
extended families in the ideal sense. In 12% of the households,
the membership included the husband, the wife, the children, and
314
a widowed parent whose presence showed a pattern of parent
support. The studies of Castillo and Pua (1963:4-7) of four barrios
in Los Banos, Laguna showed that only 21% of the families are
extended, while 79% were made up of the family of procreation.
The study found an average of 1.85 extra-family members for
household heads. Other findings showed that 100 families, or 8%
independent households, belonged to the modified family type;
meaning, they receive regular assistance from relatives in the
form of family expenditures. The researchers raised the question
as to whether this modified extended family is a transitional stage
between the classical extended type and the nuclear family or a
third type of family arrangement. The study of Mendez and
Jocano (1974:45-46) In Baras, Rizal, affirm the above findings
and showed that 72% of the households are nuclear family. The
study of Medina (1991) showed that contrary to expectations,
there are more nuclear families in the rural areas than in the
urban areas, particularly Metro Manila.

Among the Muslims, the more common type is the joint family
(Arce 1963:248-251). For Tausugs, the young couple and their
children live as a dependent unit with the family of either spouse;
for the Samals, the couple lives with the family of the wife. In such
a setup, the female continues playing the role of the daughter in
her natal family, while she is a mother in her conjugal family.

Blood kinship is important in the Filipino family especially in the

rural areas. Because of this, the family can be considered
consanguineal. Family alliance is further extended by the
compadre or compadrazgo system, which is formed through the
rituals of baptisms, confirmation, and marriage.

315
The Filipino family is said to be patriarchal in authority. Macaraig
(1948:87) cites the patriarchal family as one of the factors
responsible for family solidarity. However, studies by other
sociologists and anthropologists reveal that the Filipino family is
not patriarchal, nor was it ever in the past, but is egalitarian. This
is attributed to the division labor between husband and wife
functioning as a mutually cooperating unit. The husband is usually
the bread earner, although the wife shares in the struggle for a
living. Decision-making is also shared.

Although the father is usually the head of the family, the mother is
equally vested with authority over the children. Grandparents are
also given authority, and so are aunts and uncles. Moreover,
there is a pattern of generational authority.

Jocano further states that the family is more supportive in nature

than authoritarian. Any member can be assured of support and
protection in times of need. This idea of support merged kinship
status and obligation, which emphasizes the solidarity of the
family, as well as the importance of the kinsfolk to ones existence
in the community.

The Filipino family is bilateral in terms of reckoning descent and

social allocation. This is evident by the lack of distinction in
terminology between the paternal and maternal groups.

In terms of residence, the Filipino family can be said to be bilocal

and neolocal. The more influential and affluent family is likely to
be a place of residence of the newly wed couple. When the girls
parents are wealthier than the boys parents, the couple is likely to

316
choose the residence of the girl. As a rule, Filipinos practice
endogamy.

In marriage, monogamy is the norm, although polygony is allowed

among the Muslims and other cultural communities. Islam allows
male members to take as many as four wives. Among the
Tausugs, the two or more families who share a common male
may live together in one household or separately.

Stages of Family Life

Courtship is the stage preparatory to marriage and may include all

the forms of behavior by which an individual seeks to win the
consent of another to a marriage (Burgess, Locke, and Thomas
1963:224). It includes a body of folkways and mores through
which a man and a woman can come to some point of mutual
understanding from which, in time, a permanent union may
emerge. The practice is limited by taboos and there are
preferential modes for selection. In the Philippines, there are
incest taboos that prohibit marriage between first cousins or
between up to the fourth civil degree relationship. Likewise, there
is a taboo on premarital sexual relationship, although this has
been relaxed in recent times. Traditional courtship is generally
observed; young pairs have to be with chaperones when they go
out. This is because premarital chastity an important virtue of a
girl. In the rural areas, the common ways of courting are by
serenading and visiting the girl in her house (medina 1991:65).

Because of the western influences and the shift from a

gemeinschaft, sacred society to a secular, urban society, norms
are changing. There is now a trend among the young people to
317
choose a mate for themselves on the basis of romantic love. The
criteria that young people go by in the choice of a marriage
partner are physical attraction, congeniality, economic status,
intelligence, and similarity in interests, ideas, or likes. However,
parental influence is still strong and parents approval is sought
and desired. Parents still make their children aware of their
expectations and the qualities they consider desirable in a
marriage partner and make their children live up to this
expectations. Santos-Cuyugan (1961:21) remarks, though, that
even the romantic-love complex which has effected a dramatic
change in the character of interpersonal relationships with the
family has not acted as a threat to the integrity of the larger
kinship system, but rather has served to broaden somewhat the
base on which nuclear families are formed, through which new
elements are recruited the system.

A study made by Medina (1971:31-35) of a squatters area in

Quezon City showed shorter courtship periods, more
intermarriages, and marriages arranged by non-relatives such as
employers, sponsors, compadres, and friends. A church wedding
is the accepted practice, an influence of the catholic religion. Civil
marriages is frowned upon and his not considered a binding union
by Roman catholic. There occasional trial marriages in Metro
Manila. In cases of elopement, the couple usually goes through a
civil ceremony and, when the parents have been pacified, a
church wedding follows.

Social Change and the Filipino Family

The Philippines is undergoing many changes; brought about a

number of factors that have affected all segments of the society,
318
including the family. Among these are geographical mobility,
increasing population, industrialization and urbanization, the
changed status and role of Filipino women, and mass media. As
Santos-Cuyugan (1961:911-21) says, the Philippines is
undergoing a rapid transition from traditional feudal, peasant, rural
economy, and kinship-dominated type of society to a modern,
industrial type.

Today emerging patterns include mate selection on the basis of

freedom of choice. Sex norms have changed. Young girls openly
call up boys or take the initiative of inviting the boy out. Premarital
pregnancies and live-in unions are now accepted and permitted.
Marriage markets are now available through the classified ads in
newspapers, lonely hearts clubs, and other private agencies
including mail-order bride system which has been regulated by
law.

There is a decline in the traditional division of labor in family roles.

There is also the emergence of solo-parent families, because of
marital separation, migration, illegitimacy and adaption even by
single men and women. In child rearing practices, parents have
been less authoritarian, more liberal and less restrictive. The
number of working mothers have increased so that there is now
part-time parenthood. Fathers are now are getting more involved
in child rearing. Marriages are now more fragile as evidenced by
the increase in the number of applications for annulment of
marriages. The social pressure to keep husband and wife
together is not as strident.

Kinship ties and respect for authority of elders have decreased.

This is the result of various outside interests and commitments
319
and immigration to cities. Sacred familism is characterized by
adherence to traditional moral values, the presence of an
authoritarian figure who is status-dominated, gemeinschaft
interaction, and a traditionalistic, simple technology with a
peasant type of economy. Secular familism is characterized by
members of the family who still aim success of the family as their
goal but whose definition of success has changed to a secular
material sort.

These social changes bring about conflict in values and mores,

which may in turn bring about social problems. And there is no
gain saying the fact that problems beset the Filipino family today.
Among these are conflicts in the families, separations and
desertion, abortion, illegitimacy, prostitution, juvenile delinquency,
drug abuse, etc. the extent of these problems is difficult to
ascertain.

A study of Filipino elderly by Costello (1994) indicates that value

is placed on parental respect. It showed a high incidence of
elderly Filipinos living with one of their children (80%), while 15%
live with their spouses but with a daughter or son living nearby.
Sometimes, they remain economically active after 69years of age
and are able to continue to extend financial assistance to their
children and relatives. Family values, thus have eased the
transition to old age even with modernization.

Other changes in the Filipino family is the decline in size. In 1993,

Filipino couples averaged four children, or less two children than
in 1970. National survey report shows that 80-85% oppose the
legislation of divorce. The incidence of single mothers (not
windows) remains low compared to other countries.
320
With modernization, poverty is the single most imminent threat to
the unity and harmony of the traditional Filipino family (Marilao
vol. 45:189-211). Quarrels between spouses include neglect of
children and household duties, drunkenness, cruelty, vagrancy,
infidelity jealousy, and interference of in laws.

David (1984) cites that the Filipino family is burdened by many

illusions that prevent us to get a clear picture of the actual
changes. These changes are: the increasing fragility of todays
marriages, the loosening of family ties, and the wholesale
degradation of Filipino women. We have now in our midst de-
facto divorces, petitions for annulment of marriages and conjugal
separations. It must be viewed instead as an outcome of our
socio-political order.

Most analyses of the future of societies have been in economic

and/or political terms. It is expected that, as societies develop,
they will move closer economically to a modern industrial state,
and politically to a democratic one. Cultural values and the social
features of societies are expected to adjust to economic and
political changes.

Politically, the Philippines is moving towards the establishment of

democratic institutions in the area of the national life. However,
some traditional values and its family system can be deterrents in
the attainment of this development.

Modernization can bring with it changes in life style and values.

Family problems may arise, particularly marital separations. For
example, while Filipinos living in nuclear households comprise
29.5% of all households in 1990, this situation is common in the
321
rural rather than urban areas. At the early stage of the family, the
newly married couples tend to live with one of their set of relatives
because of the high cost of living in the urban centers.

Changes in society have also increased the incidence of Filipinos

seeking overseas employment. This highlights the strength of
family ties and the resilience of Filipino families. Work immigration
decisions are made by the family members, nothing its benefits to
the family. Grandparents, aunts, uncles, sisters, and brothers act
as surrogates in caring for the children of overseas workers. The
level of migrant support may be seen in the amount of workers
remittances that enter the Philippine economy. Long term Filipino
immigrants still maintain their ties with their families in the
Philippines, as in Filipino settlers in Hawaii.

Summary

The family is the most universal of social institutions. The basic

institution in most societies, it is the group that ensures continuity
and socializes the child. The concept of family varies from culture
to culture. The basic family is the nuclear family. It is composed of
husband, wife and children, bound in a union recognized and
approved by the society. The foundation of the family is marriage,
which provides the cultural mechanism to insure its continuity.

The family performs varied functions, among them is sex and

parental functions, socializations and social control, biological
maintenance, status placement, and economic, religious,
educational, recreational, and political functions.

322
There are variations in family organizations in terms of structural
arrangements. Based on descent, the family is classified as
nuclear or extended. Linton classifies the family as conjugal or
consanguineal. Based on residence, the family is classified as
patrilocal, matricoal, avunculocal, bilocal or neolocal. Based on
authority, the family is typed as patriarchal, matriarchal,
egalitarian, or matricentric. The forms of marriage may be
monoganmy or polygamy.

The Filipino family is usually bilaterally extended, embracing all

relatives of the father and mother. The family is consanguineal
and egalitarian. In terms of residence, the family may be bilocal or
neolocal. Exogamy is practiced.

Since the society is undergoing social change, the family has

been affected with regards to its values and mores. This had led
to certain social problems. Among these are conflicts, separation
and desertion, abortion, illegitimacy, prostitution, juvenile
delinquency, drug abuse, and the like.

Study Guide

1. Concepts to master:
Family Extended family
Marriage Endogamy
Nuclear family Exogamy
Family of orientation Courtship
Family of procreation Monogamy
Polygamy
2. Why is the family considered the basic social institution?
3. What is marriage? How is marriage related to the family?
323
 4. Discuss the functions of the family
5. Give the various family structures. Give the advantages and
disadvantages of this type.
6. What are some of the structural characteristics of the
Filipino family?

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Discuss the courtship practices of Filipinos. Are these

practiced in the locality where you come from?
2. How has Filipino family been affected by social change?
3. What are the various structures of the family in the
community where you come from?
4. What are the courtship practices in your school? How has
westernization affected courtship practices?
5. How can we enhance Filipino family solidarity?

324
 Chapter 11

THE ECONOMY AND WORK

Multinational companies operating in the Philippines have picked

Manila as he most attractive investment site in the Asia-pacific
region, conducted by the economic intelligence unit the survey of
foreign businessman cited the educated labor force the size of the
domestic market the English language proficiency of the people,
the long term strategic importance low labor cost and the large
export base as the edge of the Philippines over its Asian
neighbor.

A total of 33 foreign businessmen who responded to the survey,

However, pointed inadequate infrastructure government
bureaucracy peace and order corruption political system as major
concern about investing in the country.

Economic intelligence today 11 April 1996:13

Is Metro Manila still the most attractive investment site in Asia-

Pacific region?

The Economy

Economy is one of the social system in the totally in the social

organization. It refers to the structuring and functioning of the
development and utilization of human and natural resources in the
production processing distribution and consumption of material
goods and services. This aspect of social system is important to
society and culture economic activities influences habits, skill,
325
knowledge, expectation, motivation, aspiration. It also affects
social norms values and personal relationships within the society.

The interrelation between the peoples economic activity and

social behavior is clear. Human economic life influence culture
and society and vice versa.
Table 11.1 labor force and labor by sex and area participation rate Philippines 2000
Labor forces Labor force participation rate
Both sexes 30,991 64.9
Male 19,306 81.4
Female 11,605 48.5
Urban 15,147 63.0
Rural 15,764 66.8

Sociology of the Economy

The components of the sociology of the economy are property,

technology division of labor and organization of work which
simultaneously interact with each other. Fundamental in economic
development are the social subsystem of the economy.

Property refers to the network of rights and duties of one person

as against all other persons and groups with respect to some
scares goods (Davis 1949:453)

Property may be private or public. Private property is relatively

free from direct state controls and is generally transferred from
the owner to their duly designated heirs. Public property is subject
to governmental restrains and is controlled by the respective
subsystem of government.

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Technology consist of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes
necessary to convert available resources into object people need
or want.

Division of labor represent the differentiation of function

performed by the individuals members and small groups of the
society (Durkheim 1949).

Organization of work is concerned with the application of

sociological principles to the study of economic structure changes
in these structure and the value and ideologies related to them
(Millerand form 1964) it includes organizational problems such as
workers morale productivity absenteeism and turnover rates.

Structure of economy

Economic system moved from agrarian to industrial, subsistence

to mechanized underdevelopment to develop. Agricultural
activities dominate an agrarian economy. The family is the center
of the economic activities, it provides for most of its own needs
and seldom produces economic goods nor render economic
services beyond its minimal essentials needs the system of
exchange is barter.

Mechanized economy employ mechanized power of the

production processing and distributing of economic goods. These
activities are complex to factories or mass production, a network
of transportation and communication a chain of banks for the
exchange of the economic goods and services for money.

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In underdeveloped economies, a great part of natural and human
resources are untapped. In a highly developed economy, there is
a high degree of mechanization, industrialization urbanization and
automation such that a high cost of living exist. In an industrial
economy manufacturing trade and commerce and services
dominate.

Types of economic system

We will limit the discussion on economic system to the main ones

namely; capitalism, socialism and communism. Capitalism is an
economic system that focuses on the right to own private property
to invest it as capital in productive enterprises and to obtain profits
from each investment values that favored include aggressiveness
and competitiveness in the market (Smelser 1995:334-338).

The impetus to the development of modern capitalism was the

industrial revolution this industrial growth required investment of
capital in machines and equipment. Economic power was
transferred from the landlords to bankers and industrialist.
Government intervention is almost nil and expected to protect
business interest, eventually however government began to
regulate the system. Income was redistributed through taxation
and benefits schemes, such as social security unemployment
compensation and medical aid.

Socialism is based on a set of political theories that espouses the

collective ownership of the means of production and distribution of
goods. It takes on measure such us public ownership of basic
utilities and in some other countries an extensive state control
over economic planning and direction.
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Communism is a social political and economic system whereby
property publicly owned Karl Marx the leading theorist of
communism espoused a classless society in the 1980s major
countries which espouses communism and socialism
experienced difficulties in the face of inefficiencies in government
planning and state enterprises. In the 1990s these states were
marked by declines in economic output which resulted in high
unemployment rates.

Function of Economy

As a social institution the economy carries out the following

important function: 1) provides physical subsistence necessary for
group survival in a society 2) generates social changes for the
continuity of society 3) maintains a balance with the other social
system and its social subsystem in the production processing
distribution and consumption of economic goods and services
and 4) indicates the nature of social stratification in the society
social class and mobility differences.

Karl Marx and F. Engles (1885) Thorstein Veblen (1922) and

Wliiam Ogburn (1922) ever that the economic system especially
its technology is the generation of social change the shift from
agricultural to industrial economy brings about significant changes
in the other social institution such as culture courtship and
marriage patterns, religious rituals government and educational
reform health welfare and recreational patterns demographic and
ecological structures. The economy in turn is influence by these
changes as it makes modifications in its technology division of
labor organization of work and property allocation.

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Land reform in the Philippines

The centuries old struggle of landless farmers for agrarian rights

continues today inequitable distribution of lands continuous to
plague the agriculture sector. It is estimated that 2.9 million small
farm holder (with 5 hectares or less) occupy slightly more than
one half of the total farmlands I the country while medium sized
and large farms (25 hectares and more) account for 11.5% of the
total farmlands landownership is concentrated only of a few and
landowner-farmer relationship is still feudal.

Generally, landowner is not interested in agricultural sustainability

and productivity. Their objective is to control the use of their land
and the consolidation of their political powers in the rural areas.

Marginal farmers total 10.2 million 70% are landless in 1988 the
comprehensive agrarian reform program (CARP or RA6657) was
in enacted in an effort to change the situation from 1972 to 1966 a
period of 25 years, the government distributed a total of 2.56
million ha redistribution can be due to lack of political will to
implement agrarian reform on top of this are legal blockage by big
landowners many of whom sit in congress or have post in the
bureaucracy.

The legal impediments that slow down the full implementation of

CARP include the exemption of big prawn farms all fish food
areas foreign investors lease for privates land for up to 75 year
and the proposed 25 year moratorium on CARP implementation
in Mindanao moreover farmers who have been awarded titles do
not receive the support and resource that would enable them to

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enhance their welfare such as credit facilities and training in land
development.

The DAR is the principal agency responsible for implementing the

CARP the target for 2000 is almost the same as the 1999 target
to 171,535 hectares. Actual land distribution accomplishment in
1999 was 131,907 ha. (Philippines update March 2001).

Understanding the global economy

Globalization is a process by which the money, goods,

information and people move across nations at a pace and on a
magnitudes made possible by the rapid advance in
communication and travel as a result it changed the face of
human societies shattered cultures and social system the way the
industrial revolution and the expansion of trade transformed
Europe and its colonies 250 years ago. The globalization of the
economies is driven by two major forces the advance in
technologies particularly information technology and the progress
of negotiation for regional and international trade and investment
agreement by the GATT-WTO, APEC, and the ASEAN free trade
agreement technological development is reducing the world into a
global village. The regional and international trade and investment
agreement are also reshaping many rules of the economic
games.

The Philippines manufacturing garnered the biggest share of

foreign investment during the period 1991-95 the manufacturing
sector engaged in domestic and export production received 43%
and 20% respectively of total foreign direct investment that
flowed into the country in the same period (BOI).
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The country has lured more than p142.8 billion in foreign
investment since the enactment of the foreign investment act of
1991 or R.A 7042 from about p21 billion 1991 investment jumped
78% or P35 billion in 1995 due mainly to the law (Manila
Standard:1996;7).

However, the system of globalized economy has also produced

victims for example, in the Philippines, an engineer lost high
paying jobs because corporations streamlined operation or moved
operation off-shore solution to the global economic situation
should consider the cultural patterns aside from merely the
economic.

Globalization, Poverty and Social Conflict

Globalization have brought about more inequality between and

within nations. It has not eliminated poverty. Instant prosperity has
been experienced only by a thin layer of society and the rest are
confined to marginality, this has brought about more insecurity in
the working class all over the world and has dislocated the poor
and the indigenous people.

The term of globalization have been dictated by a few powerful

organization and treatise which they have imposed these
organization operate without transparency or democratic
oversight what are these organization and agreements:

1. World Trade Organization (WTO) established in 1995

as a powerful international body that develops and
enforces rules for trades and investment some analyst
summarize WTOs dictum as in a global economy
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 corporations have all the rights government have all the
obligation and democracy is left behind
2. World bank (WB) and International Monetary Fund
(IMF) provides loans to underdeveloped countries but
their terms makes these countries remain in poverty.
Their policies ensure the open market access for big
corporation and cut the opportunities of small ones, while
speaking of programs such as education, health care and
production credits for poor farmers
3. North American Free Trade Agreement includes the
entire hemisphere. This is to be implemented by 2005
negotiations take place behind close door, with no inputs
from citizens but plenty from business interest groups
4. International Free Trade Agreement provides great
opportunities for corporation, but at the expense of
maintaining low wages and sacrificing environment
regulation. There is plenty of production for corporate
profits but little for workers.(Global exchange2/14/03)

Basic Policies on Overseas Employment in the Philippines

The government recognized the valuable contribution of the

overseas Filipino workers. Their remittance spruce up the
countrys dollar reserves and sustain the economic survival of
many Filipino families. There are however serious problems
confronted by workers abroad and the families they leave behind.
Employment overseas provide useful and valuable employment
alternatives but it should not be at the fore

Of our labor policy as a democracy we recognized the right of our

people to mobility but the government should not encourage them
333
to go where their welfare will not be clearly protected and
enhanced. The overriding policy of the law that governs the
overseas employment program is the protection and the
promotion of the welfare of the overseas Filipino worker. This is
the fundamental policy and trust of the department of labor and
employment (DOLE)

Philippine economy: Prospects

The world growth area has shifted from northwest Europe at turn
of the 19th century to Asia and the pacific today the share of the
APEC member economies to total world trade has increased from
33.3 percent in 1970 to 45.1 percent in 1995. The world bank
project that East Asia will remain the economic growth leader in
the world with a per annum growth rate 7.9 percent between 1996
and 2005 by 2005 the three largest economic in the world the us
Japan and China will all be located in Asia pacific. The Philippines
will be heavily influence by the development in the Asia Pacific
region, the co improvement operative advantage of the
Philippines is in its shift to low skilled labor intensive
manufactures and in human resource intensive industries like
electronic and electrical machinery, for the Philippines to benefits
from deeper economic integration with the rest of the world it
needs a facilities macroeconomic policy environment sustained
productivity improvement and stronger institutional and human
resources capacity sustained growth in productivity necessaries
more efficiency resource allocation more effective infrastructure
and bureaucratic support service and higher rate of technological
absorption and adaption, between 1970 and 1997 savings rate
rose sharply for most of South Asia the availabilities of financial
investment promoted domestic savings in contract Philippines
334
gross domestic saving rate dropped substantially in the 1980s
and early 1990s it is now the lowest in the region which is one
reason for the investment rate in the country to also be low a
robust economy a competitive environment and an efficient
pension system are major factors for raising savings rate. Other
sources can also be tapped to stimulate the economy foreign
capital inflows have been the most obvious choice by the
government to keep up the local economy, however the
Philippines fails to be a major destination of foreign direct
investment foreign direction investment accounted for only one
third of investment inflows in 1990 compared to one half for other
economies in the region, the ultimate encouragement for foreign
investment are improved economic prospect and political stability
streamlining of system and procedure will help the environment
climate focusing on fewer industries in support of export and
industrial restructuring

Summary

Economy refers to the organization and utilization of natural and

human resource in accordance with cultural patterns, economic
system are classified as agricultural or industrial subsistence or
mechanized underdeveloped developing or developed capitalism
socialist or communist its function are to provides for the physical
subsistence of the population promote social change maintain a
reasonable balance of efficiency with other social institution to
enhance selective welfare and determine the stratification in the
society its components are property technology division of labor
and organization of work which simultaneously interact with each
other, industrialization was brought about by major technological
innovation this resulted in change in the value system and social
335
organization conflict and accommodation result from this change,
the Philippines is in a transition stage from an agricultural to an
industrial economy the Philippines has vast natural resources but
its population has substandard levels of living

The globalization of the economies is driven b the advance in

technology and trade and investment agreement in the regional
and international spheres. The Philippines government
recognizes the contribution of the overseas employment program
which is determining the economic survival of many Filipino
families and the country as a whole however it should not be at
the fore of our employment policy

Study Guide

1. Concepts to explain
Economy
Components of economy
Economic system
Function of economy
Globalization
Overseas employment
2. Describe land reform in the Philippines
3. Hoe has the globalization affected the Philippine economy
4. How do economies operate in different societies at different
stage of technological development?
5. In what way has the economy been shaped by the industrial
revolution? By the information revolution?

336
Critical Thinking Question

1. How would you describe the features of the economic

system in the community where you came from? To what
would you ascribe the economic development of the
country?
2. Discuss the pros and cons of overseas employment cite
examples of these in your community?
3. Analyzed the tables on overseas employment what
change should be undertaken? Explain

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 Chapter 12

RELIGION

The feast of the Nuestra de Candelaria is a cherished tradition in

Silang, Cavite celebrated from February 1 3, although the real
feast is on February 2. The intense devotion of the people to their
patron saint is manifested not only on the physical preparations
but also in their fervent ardor in the form of praises and prayers
heaped on her. There is soaring of the spirit as devotees look
forward to the virgins feast. People from the nearby towns
converge in the plaza or poblacion marked with festive money
making and revelry.

A prelude to the fiesta is the ritual of dressing the image of the

virgin. Painstaking care is taken to dress the Virgin in the most
gorgeous and elaborate gown made of velvet brocade and lace.
The colors of the gown are usually blue and white, symbols of
purity. Donations pour in to buy the materials needed. There is a
story told about the Virgin, which occurred during the Japanese
occupation. Gng. Irene Vedar, who was in charge of dressing the
virgin, noticed that the hem of her gown is wet with the pieces of
tingloy stuck to it. Mrs. Vedar could not explain why this
happened. The tale goes on to say that a beautiful lady was
wandering around vicinity. At about the same time the Japanese
soldiers were engaged in burning houses and buildings from
Tagaytay to Bicol but Silang was spared. The people attributed
this happening to their beautiful patron saint. People also try to
get a piece of material of her gown as this has healing effects.

338
The Image of the Nuestra Seora de Candelaria is alos given
special devotions on Good Friday, the month of May for the
Flores de Mayo and during Christmas season.

Teresita Palma Unabia, 2000

The account of the celebration of the feast of the Nuestra Senora

de Candelaria was taken from the book Silang 2000 by Unabia. It
describes a religious ritual that is common to many towns in the
country and which embodies the religious beliefs and practices of
those who profess the Catholic religion.

The Nature of Religion

Like the family and the economy, religion is a universal and

pervasive phenomenon, a part of the cultural system. Religion is
central to practically every society. Religion is a matter of faith
and some turn to it to meet their problems and challenges and as
a way of looking toward the future. Religious beliefs and practices
become guides to behavior, and thus play an important role in
society. Religion is an integrated part of the human experience
and shows remarkable continuity through time. Even in the
modern secularized societies in the west, religion has persisted
and still exerts a great influence in peoples lives. To those who
subscribe to a religious view, an explanation or justification of
human behavior and social organization regarding the distribution
of wealth, or the success or failure of people are answered by
religion.

Religion is interwoven with the social, cultural, economic, and

political life. It is properly one of the areas of interest to a
339
sociologist because of its influence on the individual and its
functions in society. A sociologists main concern in the study of
religion is not to establish the trust or falsity of a certain religion
but to look into its structure, to and influences an individual or
society. The sociological theorists aver that religious beliefs and
practices, cohesion and continuity of the society are attained.

What is Religion?

Historical records and ethnographic studies show that all societies

have some form of religion. According to Edward Taylor (1968),
religion came about as people tried to comprehend occurrences
and conditions which they could not understand or explain, like:
Why am I Here? Where do I go after death? Why do disasters
and catastrophes like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods, and
lightning occur? People in the past and even at present, were
baffled by death, dreams and trances and thus attributed these
occurrences to external or impersonal forces, such as a
supernatural power.

Because modes of religious experience are diverse and religion

means many different people, the definition of religion varies. It is
difficult to reach a generally accepted definition of religion.
Etymologically, religion comes from the Latin word religare, which
means to to bind together. In religions of pre-literate societies,
the various phenomena of nature are associated with a number of
different personalities and, in many instances, numerous nature
deities are honored. Other people attribute to their respective
deities ethical qualities that correspond to the prevailing ethical
standards. In other religions, the supernatural being is conceived

340
as a spirit, one and invisible, and present in nature yet distinct
from it.

In the Philippines, majority of the people identify religion with

Roman Catholicism a belief in God, creator of the whole
universe, who, because of his love for humanity, sent his only
son, Jesus Christ, to the world to save people from sin. Religion is
commonly thought of as concerned with spiritual beings and the
supernatural, but Giddens (19989:452) pointed out that religion is
not solely identified with belief in the supernatural (i.e., belief in
phenomena outside of nature). He cited Confucianism as
concerned with accepting the natural harmony of the world
instead of finding truths that account for them.

Durkheim (1961) defines religion as a unified system of beliefs

and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set
apart and forbidden beliefs and practices which unite into one
single moral community called a church all those who adhere to
them. Religion and set apart from the mundance, the everyday
worldly objects and activities. Sacred things can be a tree, rock,
animal, book, cows or people (Christ, Buddha, Mohammed) and
all are treated with equal reverence and respect.

To Giddens (1989:452), all religions involve a set of symbols

which arouses feelings of reverence and awe, and are linked to
ceremonial rituals such as church services practiced by a
community of believers. There may be personalized gods, a
divine force or figure who is regarded with reverence and love.
Some symbols, like that Star of David for the Jews, the cross for
Christians, and the crescent moon for the Muslim, serve as
representation of reality and synthesize a peoples mores and
341
values or their way of life. The sacred symbols motivate the
members to certain overall courses or events. The members are
able to transform their problems of evil, suffering, or injustice into
concepts of order vis--vis their religion. Thus, they overcome
their frustrations, dissatisfactions, and conflicts, if not hostility.

Elements of Religion

1. Beliefs. Religion involves a set of institutionalized beliefs

and practices dealing with the ultimate meaning of life; it
provides a blueprint for social behavior based on a divine,
transcendental order. Among the indigenous religions of
various non-Christian ethnic groups in north and central
Visayas, there is a belief in the power of the spirits to
touch peoples lives for good or evil. They call these
spirits engkantos. These spirits dwell in large trees like
the balete or in lakes and rivers and are generous to
those who entertain or give them gifts. These groups also
believe in the spirit of the dead who return to the living at
night. Burials are followed by prayers and a feast, which
is commemorated every year. The family of the dead
shares their goods on their birthday and other big feasts
(Demetro 1978:90-92).

Muslims believe in one God called Allah, the Eternal,

whose revelations to prophets serve to guide humankind.
Another Muslim belief is that after death, people will stand
before Allah to answer for their deeds. Those who have
iman (faith) and performed good deeds during their
lifetime will go to paradise, but those who do not follow
the commandments of Allah will be punished in hell
342
 (Sayyed 1983:27). Christians have similar beliefs.
Catholics too believe that no one can seek entry to
heaven except through good deeds; this belief in
salvation and eternal life guides their behavior.

2. The sacred and the profane. Durkheim (1961) held that

all religions distinguish between the sacred and the
profane. The sacred is related to the supernatural, and
beliefs about the sacred entities develop a supernatural
quality which evokes reverence, awe, happiness, joy,
sorrow, fear, or ecstasy. This aspects of the sacred is
related to the control of the society and culture over each
individuals consciousness. The profane refers to the
irreverence for sacred things as manifested in greed,
selfishness, and adultery.

3. Rituals and ceremonies. Important in the practice of

religion is the observance of rituals which prescribe
courses of action for dealing with the sacred. These
rituals are repetitive sets of action and Sociologist study
the patterns of behavior which are socially channeled in
the various ceremonies practiced by the Roman
Catholics. Patterns of behavior for the regulations of and
order in social life. Rituals may be in the form of prayers,
songs, chants, dances, and food offerings. Prayers are
conversations with the spirits or god and may in the form
of adoration and offerings, thanksgiving, contrition, and
supplication. Rituals bring the believers of any given
religion together and are used to invoke or recall
communications with the supernatural.

343
 Farmers in agricultural communities also observe rituals
before planting rice. They have religious processions,
recite the litany, and implore a number of saints to give
them a bountiful harvest. After the harvest, they hold the
thanksgiving rites in honor of San Isidro de Labrador,
patron saint of farmers and laborers.

The most common rites are those performed in the

various stages in the life of an individual in interaction
with the group. These rites are performed when a person
changes status. For Catholics, there are rites for birth,
baptism, confirmation at the preadolescent stage,
marriage, and death or burial. In some societies there is
the so-called rite of passage from childhood to adulthood.
Rituals become occasions for people to get together to
renew or affirm their belief in what they consider as
sacred.

4. Moral community. All religions have a community of

believers or a church who share common beliefs, rituals,
and subjective experiences to heighten group
identification. (The sacred becomes the object of worship
of collective life.) Religion is collective; beliefs and values
are possessed by the group who impose these on its
members. Togetherness in worship satisfies human
wants and may be found in the religions like Buddhism,
Confucianism, Islam, and Christianity.

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Religious Structures

Throughout the ages and throughout the world, people have been
baffled by the unknown and the mysteries of life for which they
have no ready answer. As mentioned earlier, religion is a system
of beliefs and practices built around the supernatural. It gives
meaning to, and explains, the physical and social environment
and the lives of the individual and society. It deals with the
creation of the world, the nature of life and death, the relationship
of individuals and groups to each other, and the relationship of
humankind to the supernatural (Nanda 1991:36).

The expression of life and the practices toward the supernatural

differs from one society to another. The structural features of
religion include a body of ideas, beliefs, doctrines, dogmas,
rituals, and ceremonies. In contemporary religions, these are
rationalized and systemized in the form of theologies and creeds.
The patterns of conduct are those required by the supernatural
power of people. There are also practices intended to propitiate
the supernatural as well as the intermediaries called shamans,
imams, or priests, who are well versed in the doctrines of the
church, revolving around religion is a complex web of emotions
and faith. The Aetas of Mt. Pinatubo, for example, explain its
eruption as an expression of the wrath of God because of the
ravages people have made on nature. Science has provided
answers to some questions, but certain fundamental questions
remain unanswered, and these have become the focus of human
religious activities.

Some societies have beliefs in personalized supernatural beings

or spirits, which is called animism. Tylor (in Mair 1965:188-189)
345
introduced the term animism, which includes beliefs in spiritual
beings and souls. This involves two doctrines the doctrine of
soul, which survives after death, and the doctrine of spirits, or the
idea that other personalized spiritual beings exist. These beliefs
arose from certain universal human experiences. The idea of the
survival of the soul has given rise to the cult of the dead,
particularly in the form of ancestor worship.

A number of Philippine ethnic groups have animistic beliefs. The

Aetas or Negritos of Negros Oriental believe that unseen beings
inhabit trees, streams, and springs, (Oracion 1963:65). These
spirits have no names but they are feared and respected. The
general term given to them is engkanto or taglogar.

The Ifugaos of the Mountain Province have rice deities and gods
or reproduction or fetus makers. Their universe is divided into five
regions: the Skyworld, the Underworld, the Downstream Region,
the Upstream Region, and the Earth. Each of these regions is the
habitat of a number of supernatural beings. They believe in
regions of other deities and spirits, specialized evildoers of all
imaginable kinds (Lambrecht 1962:33-40).

In his study The Traditional World of Malitbog, Jocano (1969:321-

323) reveals a belief in the existence of supernatural beings
called engkanto who are conceived to possess powers and
authority over certain aspects of human life. The people are in
constant fear of these engkantos who are seen to actively
participate in human affairs.

346
Experience by assigning moral values to human sufferings or
good fortune, or offering a theological justification for mans fat
(1967:756).

As Sapir (in Lundberg, Schrag, and Larson 1963:54) said, the

function of religion in all cultures is to discover a road to spiritual
serenity or to achieve a peace of mind. It satisfies peoples
emotional and spiritual needs and serves as a soothing balm.

Religion gives meaning and purpose to certain beliefs and

provides people with a perspective for looking at the
world. It gives tradition a moral imperative and reinforces the
central values and norms of the group. The reinforced values
and norms become sacred and serve as the moral way. As the
individual passes through the major life stage like birth,
marriage, and death, religious rituals intensify his or her
spiritual awareness. A person also may encounter anxieties
about social relationships, economic security, or political tiffs.
Religion provides means to minimize these anxieties by
providing answers to the broad question about the meaning of
life.

Religion integrates and maintains the fundamental values

from the ultimate values of the Supreme Being to the
subordinate, material, and practical values. It reinforces
support for the moral codes and gives justification for ones
behavior. Catholicism, for example, emphasizes adherence to
the sacraments of the church and upholding the teachings and
commandments of God as a means to eternal salvation. The
Second Vatican Council exhorts the laity, as opposed to the
religious and the clergy, to live their lives and responsibilities in
347
 full engagement in the work of this world, and to engage in
apostolate work by participating in carrying out the mission of
the church which is to spread the faith and bring the world
closer to God. (Bacani 1988:37-38). Catholicism considers
marriage a sacrament and an inviolable institution, and
therefore divorce as unacceptable.

Protestantism, according to Weber (1958), encourages the

capitalistic spirit as it considers material success an indication
of Gods favor. The values it emphasizes are dedicated work in
obedience to God and working for his greater glory. Industry,
sobriety, thrift, restraint, and avoidance of fleshy pleasures are
behaviors hat have come to be labelled as Protestant ethics.
To the Muslims, the justification of behavior and their values.
To the Muslim, the justification of behavior and their values in
relation to each other and their society is found in the Koran.

Religion allays the fears and anxieties of individuals by

reassuring them of the care and protection of their deity. It
gives the solace and consolation when they are in crisis. Some
psychiatrists believe that prayers have cathartic and
therapeutic values which support the ego and restore self-
confidence. Some religious promise rewards and salvation for
a good life in the next world. Some members are able to
transfer their sufferings, injustice, or evil into concepts of order
vis--vis their religious norms. Thus, they overcome their
frustration and conflicts, if not hostility. A persons bond with his
or her god becomes a sort of anchorage, giving them a sense
of security and belonging. In a way, people are provided with
explanations and rationalization for their frustrations or
problems.
348
 Religion has an integrative function and is a means of
social cohesion or group solidarity. The expression of
common beliefs through collective ritual tends to reinforce
devotion to group ends. Religion reinforces moral norms by
adding sanctions to the secular means of control and promotes
solidarity by providing significant symbolic norms. The
members are united through shared symbols, values, moral
codes, and a plan for living a decent life. Many religions preach
love and peace and become a solidifying force in moral and
emotional matters. Moral support is given to a member in times
of stress and conflict. Even in death, the belief that a loved one
has moved on to a better life allays and relieves a person of
their grief and anxiety.

Religion binds society, and its symbol is a stand-in for society.

Religious symbols and rites become a powerful bond for the
members of the organizations. Rituals and ceremonies
performed on specific occasions, such as drought or during
land preparation, bring group together. This is seen, for
example, in the celebration of the canao among the Igorots.

Religion performs welfare, education, and recreation

functions. Aside from ministering to spiritual needs, some
religions also attend to the temporal and bodily needs of their
members. Religious organizations carry out welfare activities
and social action programs, stress philanthropy and operate
charitable institutions such as hospitals, orphanages, medical
and dental clinics, cooperatives, and schools for the poor and
underprivileged.

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 Religion serves as a means of social control. Religion
provides norms of behavior and proper conduct of daily
activities of the people. This is especially true in simple
societies where religious beliefs and practices are deeply
intertwined with the various aspects of the economic, political,
and social system.

Lambrecht (1963:12-13) observed that worship permeates the

whole social life of the Ifugao. Prayers and rites attend the
important stages of their whole social life cycle and accompany
economic activities such as the cultivation of rice and sweet
potatoes and the selling of their lands. The whole life of the
people is lived in accordance with the ancestors sacred
traditions.

Religion legitimizes the foundation of the societys culture

and integrates the value system of society. By defining and
explaining what the gods require of it believers and providing
roles and norms about how one must act, religion regulates
human behavior. Members follow rules and commandments
such as those regulating marriage. Religion can confer
legitimacy for political systems, as when political leaders
invoke religion to explain some phenomena or to ask for Gods
blessings before starting important activities. All religions have
rituals for individuals as they pass from one stage of life to
another. Such events are interpreted by the rituals and
ceremonies so religion serves to control many aspects of a
persons life.

The traits of honest, justice, integrity, and the sex mores are
integrated with religious beliefs. Religion delineates what is
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 right and what is wrong and prescribes a system of reward and
punishment. Penances for wrongdoing are served, and these
extend to the life here-after. The thought of damnation after
death among the Christians or perpetual reincarnation into
lower animal forms in Hinduism can be a controlling factor for
the commission of sin. Religious personnel like shamans,
rabbis, pastors, ayatollahs, or priest who are believed to be the
representative of God usually mete out penance.

Social Conflict Perspective

While the functionalist highlights the functions of religion, the

social conflict approach downplays them. Instead, t stresses the
dysfunctions of religion. For Marx, the ideologies in religion or
incorporated in the political doctrines which serve to legitimize the
status quo. Religious ideology is used by the ruling elites to favor
the capitalists, impede social change, dominate the workers and
mislead them about their true interests. People become
complacent, as they are lulled by ideas of an afterlife where their
poverty and sufferings will be rewarded, and where they will enjoy
eternal life. Social inequality is legitimized and passivity among
the workers is encouraged. Hence, Marx considered religion as
the opiate of the people (Kendall 2000:356).

Religion can also be divisive factor in society. It can provide unity

for those with the same faith, but it can spur conflict between
opposing religious groups. Wars have been fought over religion.

The inequality of males and females is seen in many religions of

the world. This results in a conflict between genders. In many
religions, God is usually a male who is vested with power and
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wisdom (Macionis 1997:488). For Muslims, the Koran proclaims
that men take charge over women. Good women are obedient to
their men. In Christianity, patriarchy is favored. Man is said to be
created in the image and glory of God, while woman was created
for man. It is not surprising, therefore, that most leaders or
personnel in religious organizations are men. There has been a
clamour for women to become priests in the Catholic Church, but
so far this has not been granted. Many feminists are advocated a
break from the traditional patriarchy and reforms in religious
language, symbols, and rituals to eliminate the elements of
patriarchy (Kendall 2000:357).

Critics of Marx claim that, in many ways, religion has brought

about changes as well as equality. Religious groups in the United
States were at the forefront to abolish slavery. Many members of
the clergy in the United States, Vietnam, and the Philippines have
opposed oppression and struggled to bring about changes in
society.

Symbolic-Interaction Perspective

The social interactionists focus their attention on micro-level

analysis and examine the meanings and significance of the
teachings, doctrines, and symbols of a religion in an individuals
life. The most important impact of religion on an individual is the
development of a self-identity or self-concept as a result of the
social relationships or interactions in the group. For Catholics, the
daily ritual practiced, like saying grace before meals, praying
during the Angelus, having a family rosary, or in special rituals
observed during the Christmas season, Lenten week, or feast
days of saints, the individual learns to distinguish between the
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sacred and the profane. Eventually, one tends to identify with the
group the imbibe norms and values which influence their
behavior. The individual acquires a sense of affiliation with the
group and a sense of security. In life-threatening situations like
sickness, natural disaster, or war, the religious symbols come to
the fore and one gain strength or courage to face danger and
even death.

Religions serves as a reference group. The helps the individual to

define their identity. So, to the questions, Who am I, one can
readily say, I am a Lutheran, a Buddhist, a Muslim, a born-again
Christian, or a Catholic. The religions norms and values become
a reference point for their behavior.

Religion and Science

At the dawn of the modern age, there were startling revelations

which threatened the status of religion. Copernicus (1473-1543),
a Polish astronomer, came out with a theory that the sun is
stationary at the center of the universe with the earth and other
planets revolving around it. Galileo (1564-1642), an Italian
astronomer, supported the Copernican theory and came out with
his own discoveries on the laws of gravity. This was denounced
by the Roman Catholic Church and started the dispute between
theology and scientific revelations and the view that religion is
incompatible with science. Another point of difference concerns
evolution and creation. A number of people believe that science
and religion are diametrically opposed to each other and that
religion should focuses on the supernatural while the sciences
should study the natural world. There also emerged a view that
biblical accounts are inspired by God and stand for philosophical
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truths without being correct in a scientific way. Hence, science
and religion represent two different levels of understanding that
answer different kinds of questions. (Maciones 1997:505).

An area of difference between science and religion lies in the

point of view. Since, like any other organized pursuit, possesses a
faith of its own. It has certain habits of mind and ethical attitudes
different from those prevailing in the traditional religions. The goal
of science is to pursue the truth trough empirical methods.
Science provides explanations for phenomena; it is open to new
data and explicitly, advocates various alternatives. Religion, per
se, does not oppose empirical testing. What the church,
particularly the Catholic Church, holds, to be absolute truths and
is beyond any scientific investigations are the dogmas of faith, the
creation of the world by God, and his continuous creation of
human souls. Religion revolves around existential propositions
like the origin of the world, life after death, the nature of heaven,
salvation, and the revealed character of the Bible. Religion
emphasizes the symbolic and religious sentiments and rituals
(Davis 1949:536-537). The difference lies in the view of the
physical world, the attitudes toward truth, and the method of
pursuing truth. Religion and science can therefore be reconciled;
they are not diametrically opposed to each other.

Science deals with observable with observable phenomena and

studies certain aspects of nature by empirical tests and
observations guided by and objective attitude. Thus, in expound
the theory of evolution, it gets evidence from the findings of
geology, paleontology, and other natural sciences. To the
scientist, truth is relative. The moral and theological explanation of
the universe belongs to religion. To the theologian, truth is
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absolute. Since ascertains the nature of the observable world,
while religion decides what is ultimately good.

At presents, most scientists and religious leaders are in

agreement that while science and religion represent distinctive
truths, their teachings may be complementary. It is the possible
for a person to believe in God and yet be a good scientist

Religious Patterns in the Philippines

In the Philippines, the presence of diverse religious organizations

represent religious pluralism. Table 12.1 shows the various
religious organizations in 1970 and 1990, no born-again
Christians were listed as yet and a number of denominations and
sects were listed as yet and a number of denominations and sects
were subsumed under the category of Protestants.

The statistics show that the Philippines is still predominantly

Catholic; however, the percentage of Catholics in the total
population has declined. There is a slight increase in the number
of adherents of Islam, the second biggest religion, but even so
they account for only 40.57% of the population.

The early Filipinos believe in spirits called anitos, who formed a

hierarchy of deities in type of animistic religion. These sprits were
believed do reside in plants, trees, rivers, or rocks. Ritual, where
prayers and food were offered, were performed to appease the
spirits. Beliefs in spirits continue to permeate the lives of some
rural Filipinos who may still be wearing amulets or agimats
protection against danger and other evils.

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Fourteenth century Arab traders introduced Islam to the
Philippines. The religion gained a stronghold in Mindanao. Islam
revolves around the teachings of the Koran which are revelations
of God to the Prophet Muhammed. Islam is an Arabic word which
means peace and submission to the will of God and obedience to
His Laws. Like other religions, Islam prescribes prayers, charity
work, pilgrimage to a holy place (Mecca), and a period of fasting,
solemn worship, and medication (Ramadan). Islam does not
condone terrorist acts.

When Spain ceded the Philippines to the USA as an aftermath of

the Spanish-American War in 1899, many American chaplains,
mostly from the Navy, stayed to preach their faith, Protestantism.
Later, missionaries from the US came and spread their religion in
the rural areas. The early missionaries were mostly from the
Methodists, Congregationalists, Baptists, Episcopalians, and the
Disciples of Christ. The Christian Missionary Alliance and the
Seventh Day Adventists also sent missionaries. Their supposed
objective was to serve as agents of civilization.

Since then, Protestant groups in the Philippines grew in number

and covered a variety of beliefs and structures. The fastest
growing group is the Pentecostals who stress emotional
expression, which they view as a visitation of the Holy Spirit. They
are known for speaking in tongues and faith healing (Hunt
1992:26.28). These groups helped set up churches, schools,
hospitals, and seminaries all over the country. The Protestants
have contributed their share of leaders in the various sectors of
the society, including the countrys first Protestant president, Fidel
V. Ramos. The relationship between Catholics and other Christian

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churches has improved over the years, and toleration of each
others faith is observed.

In the early stage of American regime, Gregorio Aglipay founded

the Philippine Independent Church which broke away from
Roman Catholic Church. Most adherents are from Northern
Luzon. Another religious group is the Iglesia ni Kristo, founded by
Felix Manalo in 1914. Starting as a sect, it steadily gained
followers after World War II. In the beginning, most adherents
came from the lower class who found in the religion moral
reassurance and a sense of belonging. Through the years, it
developed a bureaucratic formal organization and is considered a
force to reckon with during elections as its members are required
to vote as a block.

There have also been a number of messianic movements, which

are in the nature of socio-religious protest. As Osterval (1968:45)
pointed out, these movements are strongly syncretic, blending
ancient folk beliefs with practices of the Roman Catholic religion.
The emphasis is on loyalty and mutual support, the improvement
of society, and preparation for the coming of the messiah.
Examples of these are the Lapiang Malaya and the Good Wisdom
of All Nations. Another group which is now widespread is the Born
Again group whose followers call themselves simple as
Christian. To them, the Bible is only source of the faith. They are
not bound by tradition and other doctrines, and consider
Christianity as a way of life and a personal relationship with Jesus
Christ.

Although at times Catholics express prejudice against other

denominations aimed at a better understanding between
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churches on their positions on beliefs and a breaking down of
prejudices to undertake cooperation in various activities. It also
implies that adherents of different faiths should approach each
other as friends, rather than as opponents, in the pursuit of truth.
Within the Protestant groups, ecumenicalism has resulted in the
actual union of some churches.

Separation of Church and State

The separation of the church and state was enshrined in the

Malolos Constitution of 1898. This principle has been
incorporated in subsequent constitutions. Article II Section 6 of
the 1987 Constitution expressly provides that, The separation of
Church and State shall be inviolable.

Time and again, however, questions have been raised about this,.
This came to a head during the term of President Marcos when
the church and the state were in constant conflict over social
injustice, violation of human rights, and graft and corruption.
Cardinal Sin denounced state violence and enjoined the people to
use the parliament of the streets. Likewise, Protestant groups like
the National Council of Churches of the Philippines and other
non-ecumenical groups were critical of martial law policies. They
were very active during the February 1986 snap elections and the
church played a crucial role in the EDSA 1 Revolution which
overthrow Pres. Marcos.

In 1984, the height of Pres. Marcos conflict with the church, he

accused it of politicizing the pulpit and asked it to keep out of
partisan politics. He claimed that, in attempting to wrest political
power, the church was transgressing on the principle of the
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separation of church and state. In response, the church
maintained that human rights violations and graft and corruption
are moral issues; thus, the church is just doing its duty of helping
the downtrodden and the exploited by upholding the dignity of the
human person. Bishop Bacani (1987:43-44) pointed out that since
politics is the dynamic organization f the whole society, then
priests should be involved, just like other citizens. This is more so
when the issues are the defense of the human rights, promotion
of the full development of the person, and pursuit of justice and
peace.

The issue of separation of the church and state recurred during

national elections in 1992, 1998, and 2001. The Catholic Bishops
Conference of the Philippines issued pastoral letters designed to
guide the electorate on choosing the right candidates and to
heighten the voters commitment to guarding the sanctity of the
ballot by ensuring clean, orderly, and honest elections. Through
their homilies, religious leaders enjoined their flocks to exercise
discernment in selecting candidates, as they clamored for
electoral reforms. These calls were echoed by the Episcopal
Church.

Cardinal Sin (1991) maintained that the state, the political

community, and the church are autonomous and independent of
each other. The political community is concerned with attaining
the common good by protecting human rights, securing private
property, enacting laws, and pursuing economic and social
programs such as agrarian reforms. The church focuses on the
Spreading the Word of God and the love of God. Since the church
is charged with establishing Gods Kingdom, it is concerned with
graft and corruption and political issues. Thus, it is proper for the
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Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines to inform the
electorate about issues of the election, and ensures true freedom
of choice at the polls.

Cardinal Sin said that while church and state are autonomous in
their respective fields, both serve the same Filipino community.
Antonio Franco, the Papal Nuncio in Manila, averred that the
Vatican fully supports the bishops commitment to spiritual and
moral values which includes guiding the state in its task of
protecting the common good of its citizen (PDI Editorial 2000:A8).

The roles of the church and the state are complementary and
overlapping. They helping each other and work together for the
welfare of the same people. As F.C. Borlongan (1998:11) wrote,
the church helps preserve the integrity of the state by holding
retreats and organizing moral recovery programs, seminars, and
conferences that contribute to the formation of clean values and
honest living of government officials. The church operates
charitable and educational institution and helps in times of
calamity. In turn, the state protects religious assemblies, exempts
the church from paying taxes, and safeguards the individual and
collective rights of church members.

Folk Catholicism or Folk Protestantism

Folk Catholicism or folk Protestantism refers to beliefs and

practices of indigenous origin that are woven into Christian
practices. Official doctrines, beliefs, attitudes, and practices are
modified to suit local conditions. People who have been converted
into Christianity continue to believe in traditional spirits.
Catholicism has saints who may substitute for minor spirits;
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likewise, feast days may replace pagan rituals (Hunt 1992:27).
These practices are a function not only of the official doctrines,
but also of the culture where they are obtained. Official
Catholicism refers to the doctrines and rituals which are
prescribed, approves of, and maintained.

Despite their conversion into Roman Catholicism, some rural

people are still oriented toward local traditionsand pre-Christian
beliefs in spirits and charms the mangkukulam, the anting-
anting, the nuno sa punso, the aswang, and the like. They
continue to placate the malevolent spirits to whose displeasure
they attribute disease, crop failures, or any other catastrophe.
They observe the drenching practices or boling-boling on St.
Johns Day or on the Sunday before Ash Wednesday and hold
fertility rites. These beliefs are superimposed on the practices of
the Catholic religion. The rural folks have not given up the old
practices, and have instead fitted the external practices of
Christianity to suit old patterns.

Pals observation of barrio people (1964: 391-392) led him to

affirm that Christianity has been indigenized, rather than the
barrio people Christianized. The concept of the world by the barrio
folk revolves around the will of Bathala) their Supreme God).
Everything which happens birth, marriage, death, good harvest,
or accidents is attributed to the will of Bathala. This reflects the
fatalistic attitude of the people.

Split-Level Christianity

Fr. Bulatao (1966; 2-5) calls split-level Christianity as the

situations where two or more thought-and-behavior systems
361
which are inconsistent with each other coexist within the same
person. Split-level individuals, at one level, profess allegiance to
ideas, attitudes, and ways of behaving which are borrowed from
the Christian west; at another level, their convictions on behavior
and beliefs are inherited from their ancestors. For example, some
policemen and customs or immigration personnel collect brides or
protection money but they also regularly go to church. The split is
between the Catholic principle old justice and the feudal attitude
that the Lord may tax those whom he protects or gives favor.
Another example is a Catholic who gets married, prepares an
elegant and grand feast for the occasion, but continue to maintain
a querida (mistress) and then beats his wife for supposedly
neglecting her domestic duties. The split is between the Catholic
rules regarding marriage and the cultural norms.

While the people have imbibed Catholic doctrines that have a

strong hold on their psyche, these doctrines have remained
abstract concepts; unassimilated into the culture. People hold on
to the traditional patterns and ways of thinking passed on to them
by their ancestors, resulting in a lack of integration.

The Occult: Magic and Faith Healing

Although majority of the country has been Christianized, there are

still people, even in the urban areas, who depend on the occult as
a means of obtaining inner peace or solving personal problems.

Occult is derived from the Latin word occultus which means

mysterious things and practices related to supernatural forces
beyond the five senses. Included under occult are practices and

362
beliefs in astrology, magic, witchcraft, numerology, crystal ball
gazing, spiritism, and fortune telling (Villafuerte 1992:7).

Magic is still commonly practiced in some barrios in the country.

This involves mechanically manipulating the supernatural forces
for good and evil. Techniques include spells, formulas, and
incantations in order to derive results from deities or supernatural
powers and forces (Nanda 1991:372)

Going to the manghuhula is a popular practice among some

people. A manghuhula is someone who is believed to possess
psychic power and can foretell the future.

Thousands also seek the services of faith healers. A faith healer

is a person who serves as a medium for healing energy. This is
done by invoking divine power through empathy and reliance on
the faith of the patient. The faith healer may assemble a prayer
and applies oil on the patient. Some healers perform psychic
surgery, i.e., not using any surgical instrument. Reports of
successful operations and miracle cures view that faith healing as
an alternative cure for ailments considered incurable by Western
medical science.

Social Change and Religion

A few decades before the onset of the 21st century, the forces of
industrialization, modernization, globalization, and scientific and
technological changes swept the country. These changes were
accompanied by social problems and uncertainties. Likewise,
catastrophes like floods, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, coup
detat, El Nino, and La Nina, have battered the country. Not a few
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people asked, Is there a message from God? Leaders of
different religious organizations reacted by calling for peace and
reconciliation in the face of anger. Catholic leader Pope John Paul
II, together with other Christians and leaders of other religious,
pray for peace and the end of war, terrorism, and violence.

Dr. Roberto C. Salazar (1994: 190-208) made a study of the

fundamentalists, also referred to as born-again Christians, a
phenomenon which emerged in the early 1970s. the distinctive
characteristic of these groups is that these were initiated by local
personalities rather than by foreign missionaries. Their major
activities include Bible study, prayer meetings, and charismatic
healing sessions. Among fundamentalist groups, there are
differences concerning political issues. Some groups support the
conservative political causes. And are labelled as right-wing
Christians for their participation in anti-Communist crusades. In
the 1990s, they campaigned for the retention of U.S. military
bases in the country.

The growth of the fundamentalist evangelical movement seems to

be related to the countrys social, economic, and political crisis.
During the Marcos regime, poverty, corruption, and human rights
violations caused people to turn to a new religion which offered
hope, personal success, and salvation. The spread of the
movement was facilitated by organizational factors such as
leadership style, recruitment strategies, symbolic and ritual
elements, and information management. They have ample
financial resources, some of which are derived overseas.

For the Roman Catholic Church, there have been significant

changes following Vatican II. In 1962, reforms were instituted to
364
adapt the liturgy to the local culture. Instead of saying the mass in
Latin, the vernacular or English is now used. The laity can now
participate in celebrating church rites and are given more
Eucharistic privileges. Modern church music is now used and
have been translated into local dialects. New rules on marriage
and annulment have been also been proclaimed. Because of
increased comprehension of the rituals, services have become
less boring and more meaningful to the churchgoers.

The Church has also intensified its social action program. Priests
and nuns are enjoined to become involved in community work.
The National Secretariat of Social Action (NASSA), the social arm
of the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines, was
organized to establish and promote social action projects and
programs in the Philippines. Their program of activities includes
peoples social, economic and political development. NASSA is
involved in irrigation, fishing, nutrition, cottage industries , and
promotion improved varieties of seeds and breeds for agricultural
and livestock production (Victoriano 1972:222-223). Likewise, the
Church has been active in conscientiazing the people, i.e.,
making them aware of their rights and duties, their needs and
problems, and the ways and means of building their community.

The Catholic Church has played a crucial role in social

transformation. Fr. Rene A. Ocampo, S.J., in his presidential
address to the Philippine Sociological Society on February 22,
1991, had this say about the role of the Catholic Church in social
transformation:

Indeed, the situation has become alarming that the Catholic

Church in the Philippines is really committing herself-
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 judging from the documents and deliberating emerging from
the Second Plenary Council of the Philippines- to a bold role
in the politics. Given the climate of political vacuum and lack
of statement, it appears that no single force has dominated
the setting of direction or is providing leadership and vision
to the nation. In the words of one serious social
commentator, Amando Doronilla: In effect, (the Church)
stole the initiative from other major political (including
political parties) and social institutions like charting the
national agenda for social and political transformation.

Researches on Filipino Religiosity

In 1980, the University of Santo Tomas Social Research Center

conducted research on the religiosity of the Filipino youth aged 15
to 24. Respondents were asked about their religious practices,
attitudes towards social, personal, and sexual issues, and their
doctrinal and church beliefs. Among the salient findings were:

1. More urban Catholic youth respondents are moderate to

strong believers of doctrines than the rural youth. There is
no marked difference in their attitudes on morality.
2. There is a weak association between religious attitudes and
sex. Both males and females are moderate to strong
believers of doctrines. However, more females than males
comply with the weekly observance of mass and
communion. For females, the rosary is the preferred form of
devotion; for males, it is the special devotion prayer.
3. No significant difference between the young and older
respondents exists as to their rating on religious attitude. As
the individual grows older, there is less favorableness in
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 doctrinal attitude but greater favorableness in m0oral
attitude. Younger respondents (15-20 years old) tend to
observe mass and communion more frequently than the
older respondents who tend to have more devotions such as
the rosary and novenas.
4. More Catholic-educated youth attend mass regularly and
have religious devotions than youth from non-Catholic
private schools and public schools without catechetical
instruction.
5. A high degree of association exists between doctrinal beliefs
and socioeconomic status. There is no significance
difference between socioeconomic status and religious
practices (mass and communion and personal devotion). In
contrast to high-income groups there is less frequent
attendance in mass and communication as well as personal
devotion among low-income (P750 or less)
6. A high degree of association exists between education and
doctrinal beliefs, with those in the graduate level scoring
high in favorableness; the high school respondents,
moderate; and the elementary level respondents, weak.
Association is weak between moral attitude and education.
7. The more favorable the religious attitude, the more frequent
in mass attendance and communion. A strong connection
exists between doctrinal beliefs and the performance of
religious devotions.

The study implies that adherence to church practices among the

youth is far from ideal. This may be due to the difference between
the traditional practices that were passed on as Christianity and
the growing awareness of what the youth think Christianity ought

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to be. Christian faith is seen as a body of truths and values to be
observed in order to attain salvation.

Dr. Ricardo C. Abad (1995) analyzed Filipino religiosity by

correlating religiosity self-ratings and indices of religiosity with
demographic characteristics (gender, age, socioeconomic class,
and education) based on the 1991 Social Weather Station (SWS)
National Sample. The indices of religiosity used were relationship
with God, religious practice, Divine Providence, moral grounding,
orthodoxy, sound or correct practices and doctrines, folk beliefs,
personal efficacy, and fatalism. Abad found that relationship with
God and religious practices are the twin unifying elements in
Filipino religiosity; these cut across demographic groups. The
patterns of these variations are as follows:

1. Gender and Religiosity. Abad cited a previous analysis on

Filipino religiosity by Arroyo (1992:5) which indicated that
gender is the only category which shows a difference
between males and females, i.e., that female are more
religious than males. However, Abad found out that males
and females may be equally religious but with different
indices. Male religiosity has greater emphasis on orthodox
beliefs and moral norms; this is normative, cognitive, or
doctrinal in nature. Female religiosity, on the other hand,
shows greater acceptance of rituals and religious
experiences; moreover, they are experiential in spirit and
devotional in nature. This accounts for their greater
attendance of church services, novenas, and other forms of
devotional worship.

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 2. Age and Religiosity. Expressions of religiosity are seen to
move through phases formative, official, and independent.
Young people (18-29 years old) associate religiosity with
orthodox beliefs, special experiences, a lower sense of self-
efficacy, and a more fatalistic view of life. The middle-age
group associates religiosity with a moral grounding and
beliefs in Divine Providence. The older age group (45 and
above) associates religiosity with a close relationship with
God and following regular church practices.

3. Class and Religiosity. Compared to the ABC classes and

the working D class, persons in the lower E class tend to
accept folk beliefs, encounter special experiences, have a
fatalistic view of life, uphold moral norms, shows a lower
level of self-efficiency, and believe in Divine Providence.
Their religiosity is consistent with the folk or low religious
tradition. A close relationship with God is the most
important correlate of religiosity.

The D or working classs religiosity is associated also with a

strong relationship with God. Their religiosity is linked with
special religious experiences, belief in Divine Providence, moral
norms, low levels of self-efficacy, rejection of folk beliefs, and
fatalism. Their religiosity is similar to the conventional kind held
by the 30-44 age group.

The ABC class religiosity is also associated with a strong

relationship with God and regular religious practices, although it is
not as strongly expressed as those of the E and D classes. Their
religiosity shows very strong attachment to special religious
experiences which seem to be an individual expression of faith, a
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search for personal meaning and dissociated from dogma, moral
norms, and traditional attitudes like fatalism.

These variations in religiosity reflect particular types of religious

consciousness generated by a special social location in economic
class. As Abad said, they see what they have been trained to
see.

4. Education and Religion. Education has a weak

association with religiosity self-ratings and orthodoxy,
relationship with God, and belief in Divine Providence.
Those with lower educational attainment tend to have a
fatalistic view and are more likely to accept folk beliefs and
have special religious experiences. Their concern for rural
and folk belief has elements of folk tradition. It is weakly
related to orthodoxy and personal efficiency.

Those with high school education are characterized by a low level

of personal efficacy, regular religious practices, and a rejection of
folk beliefs. However, they are slightly connected with special
religious experiences and orthodoxy. Elements of conventional
religiosity prevail in their religious expression.

Those with college education are more likely to observe regular

religious practices, have a greater sense of self-efficacy, and are
more likely to have stronger moral grounding and beliefs. Their
religiosity seems to be a search for transcendental experiences
and is cognitive in nature. Educational attainment is not as strong
a determinant of religiosity as compared to class.

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 5. Locale and Religiosity. Rural people rate themselves as
more religious than urban residents and are more likely to
believe in Divine Providence, take a more fatalistic view of
life, and to some extent, accept folk beliefs. Urban residents
have a slightly greater tendency than their rural counterparts
to engage in regular religious practices and have a greater
sense of personal efficacy. The rural pattern of religiosity
approximates the national pattern. Like urban religiosity, it
is a combination of trends found among persons of different
classes and educational levels.

Similar in religious pattern across several demographic groups

exist, but variations are shown in the emphasis the different
groups assign to the different dimensions of religiosity. The
pattern of religiosity for the whole sample is in accordance with
that of males, persons in the 30-44 age groups, the D class, those
with high school education, and the ruralites. The national pattern
is least consistent with the religiosity of those with college
education and those in the A, B, and C classes. The dimensions
of religiosity associated with the basic stand towards God are the
same for all demographic groups. However, the variation in
religious expressions depends on how the other dimensions of
religiosity impinge on them and the peoples social location in
terms of the demographic characteristics of sex, gender, age,
class, education, and place of residence. Religiosity, thus, is a
reflection of ones social location and enables one to survive
within that location.

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Religion in the 21st Century

What is the state of religion in the 21st century? Has the role of
religion in peoples lives diminished? We can observe that
religion still remains a central force in our society. Various church
organizations are active in social action programs. They have
also actively participated in discussions on issues like agrarian
reform, drug abuse and trafficking, divorce, elections, and the
Balikatan military exercises. During elections, the church
instructs voters on the selection of the right candidates and to
work for clean, honest elections. Prior to the impeachment trial of
Pres. Estrada, some church organizations led rallies calling for his
resignation on the grounds that he had lost his moral ascendancy
to govern the country. Some church organizations like the Iglesia
ni Kristo and El Shaddai are constantly wooed for support during
elections.

There has been a rapid growth of the fundamentalist church.

Some cults have disappeared, but new ones continue to sprout
and gain strong support from some segments of the population.
The ministries of various church organizations have been
enhanced by the increasing popularity of media ministry. Some
preachers and programs have become household names.
Increasingly, media is being used for missionary evangelization.

Ecumenism is increasingly being observed in the relationship

between churches. It is a sort of rapprochement aimed at a better
understanding between churches regarding beliefs and break
down prejudices in order to undertake various social activities in
the spirit of cooperation. Joint prayer rallies to appeal for social
changes in the urban areas, religion still exist, but there has been
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progress in achieving friendlier relationships among different
religious groups. These ecumenical activities have helped
minimize bigotry and disunity among the members of various
religious groups in the country.

Summary

Like the family and the economy, religion is a universal and

persuasive phenomenon, a part of the cultural system. To
Durkheim, religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices
relative to sacred things, set apart and forbidden. Its beliefs and
practices unite into one single moral community called a church.
The sacred symbols motivate the members to certain events,
aims, emotion, and results in the expressions of exaltation,
adulation, sorrow, piety, and awe.

The structures features of religion include a body of beliefs,

dogma, rituals, and ceremonies. In contemporary religions, these
are rationalized and systemized in the form of theologies and
creed. The various forms of religious organizations are the
ecclesia (church), sect, denomination, and cult.

Religion performs many functions. It gives one peace of mind,

serves the basic human needs, gives meaning and purpose to
human belonging to the group, and is a means of social control.
On the other hand, religion may become a source of conflict
between opposing religious groups.

A pattern of religious pluralism exists in the Philippines. The

country is predominantly Catholic. The other religions are Islam,
Aglipayan, Protestantism, Iglesia ni Kristo, Buddhism, and other
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sects. A fundamentalist or born-again movement emerged in the
1970s and became a threat to the Catholics. The latter took
notice and instituted reforms. Basic Ecclesial Communities (BEC)
have been organized in order to strengthen faith and for social
transformation. Amidst rapid social changes in the urban areas,
religion still remains a potent force in the lives of most people.
Religious zeal may have declined, but religious movements have
tried to intensify religious interest. The Church has endeavored to
contribute to the common good.

Study Guide

1. Concepts to master:
Sacred things Cult
Animism Religious pluralism
Ecclesia Folk Catholicism
Denomination Split-level Christianity
Sect Magic
2. What is the religion? Describe its nature. Do you consider
communism as a religion?
3. Why is observance of rituals and ceremonies important in
religion? Describe the religious rituals of our ethnic groups.
4. Differentiate ecclesia from denomination; sect from cult.
5. Does religious pluralism exist in the country? Explain.
6. Cite examples of split-level Christianity among persons you
have come in contact with.
7. Cite instances or experiences you have had regarding
magic and faith healing.
8. What is the fundamentalist evangelical movement? Have
you met some fundamentalist Christians or born-again
Christians?
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 9. What are some research findings on the religiosity of the
Filipino youth and Dr. Ricardo Abads study on the varieties
of the Filipino Religiosity?
10. What changes have been taking place in your church?
Are they good? Explain.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What is the relationship between science and religion? Are

they in conflict with each other? Explain.
2. Should the church be involved in politics? Support your
answer.
3. Is there still a place for religion in our life?

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 Chapter 13

GOVERNMENT and LAW

While being efficient at different types of economic activity is a

necessary condition for wider prosperity and influence, it is not
enough. Enduring prosperity requires societies which are stable,
ordered and honest.

There are countries that will experience a burst of growth from

cheap labor and natural resources with a degree of corruption.
But as the experience of Argentina demonstrates it is hard to
maintain prosperity amidst chaos. Countries must have a balance
of order and individualism so that societies will be efficient and
humane. If countries want to carry on becoming richer, their
people will have to learn to behave better.

Haamish Mc Rae 1995

Can we gain prosperity and influence with stability, order and

honesty? How important is government and law?

Sociology of Politics

Politics is the theory, art, and practice of government. Political

institutions are the social arrangements for legislating and
enforcing laws, and providing social services like education,
public health and welfare, distributing public funds, collecting
taxes, conducting foreign affairs, and deciding on issues of war
and peace (Stewart and Glynn 1985:486). They consist of a
376
relatively stable cluster of norms, statuses, and roles that are
involved in the acquisition and exercise of power and decision-
making. The institution that sets social norms and values as to
who will possess the monopoly of legitimate use of physical force
within a given territory, and how that power is acquired and
maintained, how that power is organized and exercised comprise
what is the state (Weber in Gerth and Mills 1946:78). The
complex interplay between the state and society is the crux of
political sociology.

The State and Political Systems

The concept of the state as distinct from society developed

gradually. The need for the state arose when groups within
society realized that it was for their welfare to centralize authority,
set up rules for settling disputes, and apply force to maintain
obedience and loyalty to the social norms and values of society.

The underlying fabric of authority is ideology. An ideology is a

system of values, ideas, beliefs, and attitudes that a society or
groups within it share and accept as fact; it contains a set of
attitudes toward the various institutions and processes of society.
It is a set of interrelated beliefs that provide a picture of the world
as a whole; that furnish the believer with an image of the world as
it should be.

Political ideology, therefore, is like a blueprint for the good

society, with practical instructions on how to attain and maintain it.
Different political ideologies originated from varied historical
experiences such as war, conquest, colonization, liberation,
national consciousness, the increased size and changes of
377
population, ethnic diversity, regionalism, and the rise of social
problems requiring social action by society (Barnes 1948).
Various ideologies differ in what their ends are and the means of
attaining these ends.

The forms of government envisioned by different political

ideologies are autocracy, oligarchy, and democracy. Autocracy is
the direct opposite of democracy. It upholds that the government
should be in the hand of one individual who has supreme power
over the people. Autocratic governments have taken many forms
throughout the ages primitive kingship, despotism, tyranny, and
absolute monarchies. Mediator dictatorship and other forms of
temporary or emergency rules may also be considered autocratic.
A salient feature of autocratic regimes is that the ruler is not
accountable to anyone. He/ she make all the decisions and reaps
their consequences. He/ she is the law, therefore, in effect, is not
subject to any law. Traditional autocracy has been replaced by
present day autocracy of rightist and leftist ideologies, otherwise
known as totalitarianism, which is based on modern technology
and mass legitimization (Friedrich and Bazenzinski 1966:4).

Oligarchy is a form of government in which the power or authority

resides in the few persons who govern for their own interests. It is
also referred to as elitism. C. Wright Mills was a prominent
exponent of this view. He believed that a handful of men who
represent the corporate rich, the military upper echelons, and the
political directorate should make the most significant decisions.
According to Mills, the consensus that supposedly exists in such a
nation is, in reality, brought into existence by the elite, who
manipulate the masses through mass communication. Another
sociologist, William Danhoff (Dye, Situate and Duxbury 1972:60)
378
maintains that power wielded by the elite is in effect monolithic
because the elite resemble one another in social background and
have developed a community of interests and values. Hence, they
tend to act in liaison.

Democracy is form of government where there is a rule by the

people, either directly or through representatives. This grew out of
constitutional government. The principles of equal rights and
privileges, universal suffrage, and participation in the political
process which affect citizens lives are features of democratic
regimes (Braingart 1976:20). It is generally referred to as a
government of the people, by the people, and for the people.

In the nineteenth century, liberalism initiated the theory of the

democratic state as the referee of diverse competing and
conflicting interests and the system of checks and balances
against the political abuses of public officials. The role of the state
as arbiter is emphasized in capitalism or free enterprise where the
state asserts its power only when the struggle between interest
groups becomes sharp and bitter, as that of labor and capital.

There are other political ideologies that have presented

alternative views of the state. Socialism become the most
pervasive ideology of the twentieth century. It arose as an outcry
against the repressive mills of early capitalism, an intense
response against the profound changes caused by the industrial
revolution, and a reaffirmation of the utopian dream of the
heavenly kingdom on earth. It arose from the workers
associations, libraries, garrets, bourgeois parlors, and
occasionally, aristocratic salons. It has been pursued, abused,
glorified.
379
French political philosopher Raymond Aron observed that, in
most countries, socialism carries the connotation that whatever is
good is socialist, whatever is bad originates in capitalism. Nobel-
prize winning Economist Milton Friedman added: socialism
implies egalitarianism and that are living for society, while
capitalism has been given the connotation of materialism, greed,
selfish, self-serving, and the likes.

Socialist rhetoric derived much of its appeal from the economic

battering of the worlds economy in the 1970s. Economic
restructuring became more attractive because of the problems of
inflation, unemployment, and volatile currencies. There is no
universal model of socialism, just as there is none of free-market
capitalism. It became regarded as the most reasonable system of
human society based on scientific, modern efficient method; a
society based on cooperation, a collective movement of people on
the lookout for justice, as a bonding of brothers and sisters,
uniting hearts and minds.

Out of these diverse views of socialism, three main varieties stand

out. Marxism-Leninism, Communism, Fascism, and modern
totalitarianism. Communism, as espoused by Marxism-Leninism,
proposes the abolition of private property and the nationalization
of the major means of production and distribution. Also referred to
as revolutionary socialism, it maintains the inevitability of
revolution in bringing about structural changes. Karl Marx
concluded that revolution was the realistic means to attain social
betterment. He predicted the disappearance of the state and the
rise of a classless society whereby everyone would be
compensated according to each ones efforts (Marx and Engels
1955).
380
This is the variant of socialism which is the governing force in
countries like China, North Korea, Laos, Cambodia, Cuba, and
the former USSR.

Non-literate societies operate on a primitive form of communism

where the major economic resources are owned by the
community as a whole, rather than by individuals, families, or
other private groups. Religious sects, such as the Old Order
Amish, Shakers, Hulterites, Oneida Community, Father Divine
Movement, Mormons, gypsies, and medieval monasteries and
nunneries, are examples of Christian forms of communism.

Fascism, a derivative from the Italian Fascist Party, is a political

economic system in which all major aspects of societys life
activities are rigidly regulated by a centralized state authority.
Private ownership of the means of production is limited by strict
state control. There is monopoly of the means of communication;
civil rights are severely curtailed; and the state is highly glorified.

In modern totalitarianism, absolute power is not attained or

maintained easily. It evolves from a one party system and
develops entirely new political institutions for controlling and
supervising people. It destroys all social, legal, and political
traditions of the country (Arendt in Braingart 1976:176-194).
There is monopoly of control in every phase of the peoples lives
by a single party elite inspired by its ideology.it can banish people,
put them to death, or imprison them. It exercises supervision over
the governed through an official party, an official ideology,
monopoly of public communications, control of organized group
life, a managed economy, and arbitrary police power. However, it
has features that are similar to constitutional democracy, since
381
it is the main machinery for industrialization and emphasizes
participation. Technical and technological expertise is highly
prized. Emphasis is placed on mobilization, which is pressuring
the population to serve the state; such was the case on Nazi
Germany.

Social democracy is advocated by bourgeois revisionists, who

control the government of Britain, West Germany, Austria,
Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Luxembourg, Norway, the
Netherlands, and Portugal. They focus on mitigating the
hardships fostered by the capitalist economies, such as
underemployment, salary and wages, on the job promotion, and
taxation inequities rather than on the revision of the structure of
societies. Social democracies are generally mixed economies
with elements of both free enterprise competition and state
ownership of industries.

In underdeveloped to developing socialist states, ideology is

rooted less in Marxism than in nationalism. Because of their
experience with colonialism, they rebuff capitalism which they
equate with imperialism and exploitation. They adhere to policies
focused on decreasing the role of private property in the economy
and sharply restrain investment by private foreign firms. Examples
are the Islamic socialism advocated by Algeria and Libya. The
Bathist (renaissance) socialism of Syria and Iraq, the Ujammaa
(family hood) socialism of Tanzania, the Jamaica and Forbes
Burnham of Guyana.

These major political ideologies are still undergoing modifications

or reinterpretations, but whatever the scheme of the states, its

382
parts interrelate with each other as the state relates to other
institutions.

Functions of State

The main functions of the state are the maintenance of peace and
order and the regulation and control of the lives of the people. The
state is expected to answer the needs of the citizenry to a certain
degree of social order. There are things people must do and/ or
refrain from doing; not necessarily for ones individual benefit, but
for the benefit of the entire group. Hence, people create norms
and values that define what is wrong and immoral to make sure
that major norms are upheld by the laws; to settle disputes that
arise among the people living in the society; and to determine
who gets what in terms of rewards or punishment.

The increased complexity of society has caused the transfer of

some institutional functions to the state (Aron 1954):

1. From the family: the state has taken over the provision of
protection of home, the formal education of the youth, and
the maintenance of public welfare programs for the sick,
crippled, feebleminded and insane, the unemployed and
underemployed, the widowed and orphaned, the aged,
abused, and the like.
2. From the economy: the state has taken over the resolution
of labor-capital disputes; the limitation or regulation of
production; distribution and consumption of economic
resources, goods, and services; the control of wages,
prices, taxes, and savings, the operation of research; and
the allowances of fringe benefits, and others.
383
 3. From the church: the state has taken over the regulation of
the conditions for contracting and dissolving marriages,
family planning, the moral or spiritual training for the youth,
the provision of relief for the poor, and the disposal of the
dead.

The Social Structure of Politics

The state is the formal structure of government. It is the institution

whose functions are carried out by the government. Government
is the working active arm of the state that provides social control
through political processes, the laws it establishes and
implements, and the work of its agencies. Although individuals
and groups that comprise the government chance, the state
continues to function.

The same processes that were responsible for institutionalizing

social control in the state have also been responsible for the
creation of nations. With the increase in size and complexity of
societies, people have sought political organizations in clans
based on kinship, then in tribes that were collections of clans, and
finally in city-states. The state represents a politically organized
society functioning through a government; whereas, nation is a
culture group of people residing within the territory of the political
state.

The spirit of nationhood makes a group of people a nation. People

unify into a nation through factors such as geographic boundaries
(like mountains or bodies of water), commercial ties developed
throughout geographical area, and the knowledge of a common
language. Additional factors appear with the establishment of a
384
central government, such as an attempt to subordinate former
loyalties to the new political order, the development of a common
history, a common literature, and a sense of common destiny.
When the sense of unity that arises becomes intense, even
among a people with deep cleavages due to lack of cultural
uniformity, there will be reason to consider themselves distinct
from all others whom they designate as foreigners.

Nationalism

Whether a nation is already existent or whether its people are still

fighting for its independence, the ultimate goal is always the
social, political, and economic stability of the people. Nationalism,
which is the ideology behind the nation-state, has played a
significant part in modern history. It has been paramount in the
creation of modern societies, mitigating the narrow provincialism
of loyalties to family, kin, and community which prevailed in pre-
industrial societies. Nationalism is a complex social phenomenon,
made up of a set of beliefs about the capabilities and uniqueness
of ones own nation, and a defense of its interests, above all
others. It implies the individual identification with the nation,
culture, interests, and goals. Ethnocentrism cuts across all other
loyalties to emphasize loyalty to the national group.

As a form of social control, the government operates formally and

impersonally through the state. As it operates politically, the
following subsystems are discernible (Merton 1957:71-82; Chapin
1935:39):

1. The legalistic, which is wholly regulated by the laws,

whether in the international, national, or local spheres.
385
 2. The quasi-legal, which is partly within the limits of the law
and partly a matter of personal unofficial arrangements, as
in the villages;

3. The extra legal, which includes alliances of shady business

and underworld dealings, as in predatory-political-crime-vice
networks.

The Struggle for Power: Legitimacy and Authority

Political power is a basic force in the political process and in

structuring society. It is both a compensation and a determinant in
the distribution of wealth and prestige in the stratification system
Weber (1957:152) defined power as the probability that one actor
within a social relationship will be in a position to carry out his own
will despite resistance. The ability to sway decision-making is a
significant gauge of power. It is manifested in small or large
groups.

The state is the abstract representation of the political system of a

society. It has the authority to employ force or violence to
implement social control. It has a monopoly on the legitimate use
of physical force in the enforcement of order. People accept the
authority of the state and this acceptance or consent justifies the
states action.

When the power is held by an individual or a group not acceptable

to members of society, the power is illegal and illegitimate.
Authority is the legitimate possession of power. Power becomes
legitimate authority when members of society accept its use as
386
right and proper. A political system is generally considered
legitimate if goals and values coincide with the goals and values
of the majority of the people. No political system, even one borne
of violence and functioning through force, can survive for long
without legitimacy.

When a government has legitimacy, its laws are followed and its
officials respected by the majority of the people in society,
regardless of their feelings towards both the laws and the
enforcers. There is a crisis of legitimacy if majority of the people
believe that the government is not worthy or capable of upholding
and enforcing the law. Then, the people themselves disregard the
law and do not respect the enforcers. A crisis of legitimacy occur
during periods of rapid social change, and becomes severe when
major institutions are threatened or if major groups in society have
no access to the political system (Lipset, et al. 19633-65).

The struggle for power includes the acquisition, exercise, and

maintenance of power. The political elite are the persons or
groups who support the political leadership in a society at a
certain time.

In a monarchy, power is inherent in the ruler by divine right. It is

transferred by hereditary succession and exercised for the benefit
of both the rulers and the ruled. Purging members or houses of
the royal families brings a change of rulers. In an oligarchy, a
small group belonging to the elite class of society holds the
political power. Clashes among the cliques within this class
regarding their interests commonly bring about shifts in the power
structures.

387
In a democracy, power is vested on the masses who, in turn,
delegate this power to those whom they elect to represent them in
the government; such power is exercised primarily for the
peoples welfare. Those elected may be removed or retained
through periodic elections by the masses. In a totalitarian
government, power is held by a small group who rules through
coercive, not legitimate, force.

Totalitarian governments have been labeled as authoritarian,

autocratic, centralized, dictatorial, or fascist. While democratic
governments have been referred to as popular, representative,
republican, liberal, or capitalistic. At present, governments are
actually a combination of the features of the different political
ideologies, such as Englands democratic monarchy,
Scandinavias socialistic monarchies, Spains benevolent
dictatorship, and Japans capitalistic monarchy.

The Structure and Function of Philippine Politics

Philippine political institutions have undergone the experiences of

tribalism, conquest, colonization, unification, centralization,
revolution, decentralization, war, liberation, independence, and
nationalization. Leadership, at one time or another, has been
traditional, charismatic, and legal-rational. Long before any
colonizers came, there were tribes which were ruled by absolute
monarchies called barangays. These were bound by kinship ties
and the need for mutual protection. Each was ruled by either a
datu or rajah. These local rulers were in constant conflict over
territorial rights, privileges, duties, and responsibilities. The people
traded with Chinese merchants. Some Chinese intermarried with
the natives and since then had been assimilated.
388
The unification, centralization, and nationalization of the
numerous units of government started with Spanish colonization,
except for the Muslims in Mindanao and the other cultural
minorities who were pushed to the mountains.

Mass discontent with Spanish rule gave rise to nationalism, which

culminated into the Philippine Revolution of 1896. The
revolutionary leaders framed the Malolos Constitution in 1899 and
established the Republic which specified decentralization and
local autonomy as one of the national goals. At about the same
time, Spain and US signed the Treaty of Paris, ceding Spains
control of the Philippines to the US. The Filipino revolutionaries
continued to fight the new colonizers but, not long after, were
defeated. The American civil government pursued the policy of
local self-government through centralization. This system was
carried on during the Commonwealth period.

During the Japanese occupation period (1941-1945), the

Philippine Commonwealth government, de jure in Washington D.
C., US and the Japanese puppet government, de facto in Manila,
operated simultaneously. When the Philippines gained political
independence after World War II, Filipinos sought the policy of
local autonomy. Since there has been vacillation between
centralization and decentralization in attempts to tackle the
pressing problems of statehood, varied informal and formal
political subsystems had to be reckoned with (Encarnation
1957:379-391; Hollnsteiner 1963; Carroll and Salazar 1972:407-
411).

389
The Basis of Power in Philippine Politics

Filipinos have used different means to legitimize power and

influence the decision-making processes. Consensus has been
through voting, political counseling, patronage, public opinion
formation, and referendum.

Voting. Voters from the rural areas, representing 80% of the total
population, have increasingly enlisted in the electoral rosters. In
1970, only 3% of the Philippine population were qualified voters
when eligibility was based on property, education, and sex.

In 1939, voting requirements were liberalized and eligibility was

made to be based on age, citizenship, residence, and literacy.
The middle class joined the rank of voters. After World War II, the
rural masses were ushered wholesale into the electoral list in the
Magsaysay presidential bid. National politics began to focus on
the grass roots. The electoral list swelled from 2.3 million in
1946 to 6.4 million in 1961 (12.7% and 22.7%) of the total
population, respectively. Voters from the cities doubled from 1953
to 1961 and made up 15.4 percent of the electorate. Biennial
elections since 1953 indicated a regular high turn-out at the polls,
registering 75-81% of all registered voters. In the November 1967
local and national elections, 81.66% of 9,744,604 registered voted
(Commission on Elections Yearbook 1969:343). In the 1988
election, almost 95% of the voters registered and 90% of these
voted.

This development was facilitated by improved communication

facilities between Manila and other parts of the country. Other
reasons are the rise in literacy and improved mobility of the
390
people. Census figures of 1948 and 1960 indicated a rise in the
average highest grade completed (from 4.2 to 5.1 years);
increased ability to communicate in Tagalog (from 44.4% to
51.7%) and English (from 39.5% to 41.8%); and increase in the
ownership of radios from (87.3 thousand to 516.8 thousand, or a
yearly increase of 43.3%) literacy also increased from 72% in
1960 to 83.5 percent in 1970 (Yambot 1975:13). Increased
geographical mobility, urbanization, and personalized campaign
methods also improved the communication process.

Before 1940, politicians, attired in immaculate suits and well-

shined-shoes, tapped and haggled with only the local political
leaders in provincial capitals. Since the successful presidential
campaign of Magsaysay in 1953, candidates for national and local
offices used plain folks campaign tactics and contact rural folks
in more than 20,000 barangays.

Most of the rural voters are not political party-affiliated. They

personally identify with individual barrio, poblacion provincial or
regional leaders who form loose alliances or affiliate with a
national political party. No formal procedure of recruitment, roster
maintenance, or subscription issuance is maintained. Winning
over these votes demand highly organized, well-managed
campaign machinery, which is capable of handling financial
estimations. Public relations, public opinion formation, and image
building. Public relations experts are hired for these tasks.
Political parties use print and broadcast journalist and TV and
movie personalities to entice voters. In many ways, political
campaigns are similar to fiestas.

391
Political counseling. Prior to 1972, information middlemen in
cities and poblacions were consulted on political, legal, and other
technical matters by voters. This aspect of political behavior easily
provides an area for the perpetuation of the patronage system (de
Young 1962; Madigan 1962; Feliciano 1966:257-265; Byrnes
1966:242-256).

Patronage. Straight buying and selling of votes operate with a

network of personalized reciprocity. Jobs, services, and other
concessions are bartered for votes. Voters demand political
favors for support given to candidates. Patronage has more far-
reaching consequences- civic consciousness is greatly retarded;
nepotism in government flourish, causing general labor force
demoralization, insecurity, and inefficiency.

Molding of public opinion. Efforts to provide more scientific

public opinion polling are done by professional statistical centers.
Newspaper columnists, radio commentators, and political analysts
in media are tapped to do the jobs of public relations, image-
building/ breaking, and public opinion formation.

Making, Interpreting and Enforcing Laws

Legal, quasi-legal, and extra legal forces have competed and

conflicted in the making, interpreting, and enforcing of laws in the
Philippines (Villanueva et al 1966; Alfred 1962; Formalino 1960;
Olivar 1966). The worsening economic conditions of the masses
aroused some degree of political awareness among the people.
However, the electorate, needed more effective organization of
greater participation in the affairs of government. The laborers,
professionals, and government employees have better bargaining
392
positions if they are organized. Recognizing this reality, eight
labor organizations formed the Philippine Council for Agrarian
Workers, and others formed federations and alliances.

Transitions are never easy. Political transition from dictatorship to

democracy is difficult because democratic processes are usually
slow, cumbersome, and diverted by the noisy. The competing
interests of diverse groups, unequal in influence, have to be
harmonized for a policy to emerge. There is also the resistance,
including deliberate obstruction by vested interest groups and
well-entrenched power blocs, to any change that would reduce
their privileged positions.

Major political parties have been loose and weak, comprising only
of fluid alliances or electoral conditions of local, regional, and
national factions. They do not hold on to any ideology nor an
organized position on current vital political issues or social
problems, such as resolving problems regarding the peoples
basic needs water, electricity, communication/ transportation/
sanitation; the improvement of the economy; the education and
training of human resources, and the protection of natural
sources. Their membership is extremely flexible, mainly based on
loyalties rather than principles. Campaigns focus on personalities,
and are limited to the issues of graft and corruption, promises of
good and honest government, progress and prosperity, welfare of
the masses, or morality. The major parties have internal strifes
and intrigues. Intro- and inter- party wheeling and dealing is
rampant. Party turn-coatism is common.

After World War II, the adaptation of a two-party system from the
uni-party system brought about political competition and the
393
taking of turns in the power structure. However, this has not
uplifted the idealism, skills, and performance of elected officials.
Neither party was bound to policies on collective welfare nor had
a clear-cut vision of a national socioeconomic development
program. As a consequence, cynicism has become widespread,
unrelieved local tensions have erupted into violence, and people
have settled for an alienated, hopeless, and helpless outlook for
the future of the country.

Other aspects of the power struggle in Philippine politics were the

attempts of the labor sector, the young intellectuals, and a third
party to effect changes in the structure of the power elite.
Unfortunately, for the labor sector, there had been several cases
of opportunistic leadership and the lack of class consciousness
that caused some labor leaders to compromise with major parties
instead.

In the premarital rule era, the formal party system was simply a
faade of major clan alignments based on the landed oligarchy.
The parties were networks of major political clans, provincial
warlords, and their closely connected local elites. Basic logic
rested on the bonds between major power brokers. Electoral
behavior was determined neither by the party ideology, party
membership, nor party platform, but by the candidates popularity
or ethnolinguistic alignment. Party commitment was low or nil.

Religious blocks, particularly the Iglesia ni Kristo, and the

economic block, like the sugar block, played significant roles.
Neither the diplomatic corps nor the military forces were then
assertive as political forces. The landed oligarchy exceeded all
other elites in terms of importance giving rise to a social climate
394
that fostered a Marcos authoritarian regime. The traditional
process of attaining state power from the local villages was not
anymore realized. Instituted in its stead was a system where
power at all levels was attainable through the patronage of the
autocracy.

In the 1978 and 1984 Batasang Pambansa (National Assembly)

elections, the proportions of the representative base was changed
from the traditional congressional district to the regional,
rendering old political clans to independently challenge the
autocracys candidates. The centralization of patronage in the
executive branch fostered even more the strength and elasticity of
Marcoss fascistic dictatorship. Plantation-based elites were
incorporated into networks controlled by the regimes allies (David
and Okamura 1992).

Changes in the logistics of electoral financing, in the structural

arrangement of political rivalry to a dynamics of pluralism, and in
the ability of the local elite to deliver bailiwick votes, electoral
politics no longer follow the traditional pre-martial law patterns
(Magno 1992).

The mass base of independent progressive political movements

cannot be easily converted into electoral bases as they have not
been adequately oriented to get into the electoral arena. The
1992 elections were again dominated by traditional politicians and
brokers, with campaigns centering on personalities rather than on
vital national issues. Ideally, party systems should be a catalyst
for the expectations and aspirations of specific socioeconomic
constituencies, as in the creation of employment opportunities,
educational preparation to match the labor market, provisions for
395
health care, adequate stable water and energy supply, efficient
and affordable public transportation, provisions for housing,
among other socioeconomic needs. Then, elections would be the
rallying activity for party support instead of opportunities for self-
aggrandizement. Without definite and clear platform options,
elections will only intensify distrust of a disenchantment with
democracy (Magno 1992).

Philippine politics have been muddled with violence and dynastic

bossism, and tainted with money from gambling and drug lords
and corrupt officials. Notable now is a new consciousness that is
arising in the public mind- changing the existing model of central
government and transform this to a federal system; plus the need
for political and administrative competence at the lever of
barangay officials, councilors, mayors, governors, and provincial
boards.

Power Beyond the Law

Political activities sometimes exceed or do away with established

practices. Politics tend to encourage disagreement about goals
and means to achieve them. In the Philippines, the foundation of
our political system is the Constitution. There are other
regulations that guide officials from the president down to the
barangay official.

Revolution is the overthrow of one political system in order to

establish another, usually with the use of violent actions. Common
grounds for a revolution are: rising expectations, unresponsive
government, and the establishment of a new legitimacy.
396
People power

People Power does not exist in sociological or political theory.

There are, however, related concepts in the literature of social
movements, protest actions, and crowds. People power is defined
as a large gathering of unarmed people united by a set of political
calls (David 2001;242). As 3 political gathering, its objectives are
concerned with political power.

The people gather in a symbolic place and is sustained over days;

the crowd grows in size, density, and fervor. Its activities include
speeches singing, dancing, and religious rituals so that the
participants are cheerfully engaged. People Power is amorphous
and follows no definite timetable, no formal organization or
leadership, and no direction. It is a form of protest and struggle
against established authorities. The Constitution guarantees
freedom of speech and the right to peaceful assembly.

In the Philippines, People Power I was triggered by the failure of

the 1986 snap elections; People Power II by the failure of the
impeachment trial against Pres. Estrada; and People Power III by
the arrest and detention of Pres. Estrada whom participants
believed was innocent.

Corruption

A Global forum on Fighting Corruption and Safeguarding Integrity

held on 29-31 May 2001, was attended by ministers and
government representatives with the aim of preventing and
combating corruption in government and in society.

397
Alarmed by the spread of corruption, they likened this to a virus
capable of crippling government, discrediting public institutions
and private corporations. They noted its devastating impact on
human rights. It undermined society and its development,
affecting in particular the poor. Poverty reduction strategies will
never be effective when corruption is rampant. They
recommended that governments, to safeguard integrity, should
not only enact correct laws but also establish an independent,
effective, and efficient judiciary. In many cases, this presupposes
changes in attitude and in long standing practices.

Cooperation by the private sector is of utmost importance.

Independent and investigative media also has a vital role to play.
The press can raise awareness of the negative impact of
corruption; educating the youth to make them more aware
enables their future involvement.

The Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index

2002 ranked 102 countries. Seven out of ten countries scored
less than 5 out of a clean score of 10. Indonesia, Kenya, Angola,
Madagascar, Paraguay, Nigeria and Bangladesh, scored less
than 2; while developed countries namely, Finland, Denmark,
New Zealand, Iceland, Singapore, and Sweden scored higher
than 9.

Corruption is a malady afflicting both developing and developed

countries. Corruption is neutral. It is no respecter of nations, big or
small, rich or poor. The developed countries are expected to have
a special humanitarian responsibility with the resources at their
disposal. They should investigate and prosecute companies in
their jurisdictions that are usually bribing officials of other
398
underdeveloped and developing countries. Such bribes and
incentives to corrupt public officials and politicians are subverting
the orderly development of poor nations, already trapped as they
are, in a vicious cycle of poverty, hunger and disease. Corruption
impedes sustainable development, robs the children of today of
the resources they will need to survive tomorrow.

Terrorism

Terrorism may be defined as acts of violence or the threat of

violence or threat of violence employed employed by an individual
or group as a political strategy. The bombing of the federal
building in Oklahoma City, US on April 1995 first brought home to
the US the deadly nature of terrorism.

On 11 September 2001, four passenger jets were hijacked. Two

crashed into the World Trade Center; one into the Pentagon; and
the last near the White House in Pennsylvania. Everything
happened within two hours and is allegedly part of a plot by a
Muslim terrorist group. More than 3,000 innocent victims died
from this violent incidence.

It is said that terrorism is a weak organizations strategy to harm

an enemy. Although democratic societies reject terrorism,
democracies are vulnerable to terrorists.

Summary

Viewed sociologically, politics is the theory, art, and practice of

government. Students of political sociology focus their attention

399
on the complex interplay between the state and society and the
changes that continually occur in this interplay.

The state, political institutions and government may be classified

according to structure and functions or roles that they perform.
The internal structure and functions (infrastructure) of political
institutions can be understood by studying the nature of
consensus formation; making, interpretation, and enforcement of
laws; and the struggle for power among the political elite in the
government.

The external relationships with other social systems or institutions

can be studied through the legal, quasi-legal, and extra-legal
forces that influence politics and government. Sociologically, the
development of Philippine politics can be examined through its
history, the social class stratification system, leader-follower
interaction, personality structures, and the social norms and
values of the Filipino people.

STUDY GUIDE

1. Concepts to master:
Political institution Autocracy
Communism Authority
Power Socialism
State Patronage
Fascism Totalitarianism
Consensus Political Elite
Government
2. What is the focus of the sociologist when studying politics?

400
 3. How did the concepts of state and politics and their
functions arise>
4. What is the nature of people power?
5. Discuss the developments in the Philippine electoral
process.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. How does authority differ from power?

2. Is the threat of war more likely today than in the past? Why?

401
 Chapter 14

EDUCATION

The Philippines, as expected fared badly in the latest survey of

Asian Universities. Only four Philippine universities were ranked
regional comparisons, namely, UP-Diliman (48) De La Salle
University (71) Ateneo de Manila University (72) and University of
Sto. Tomas (74). The top two universities are Kyoto (1) and
Tohoko (2) in Japan followed by University of Hong Kong (3),
Seoul National University (4) and National University of Singapore
(5).

The inadequacy of Philippine institutions of higher education can

be traced to the poor quality of elementary and secondary
schools. Philippine Universities rank badly because they offer
their staff poor salaries, little research support and inadequate
facilities.

Our politicians mostly do not seem to appreciate this neglect of

education. Why is education so poorly valued in the Philippines. A
university driver in Hong Kong earns more than a university
president in the Philippines.

Dr.Raul Pertierra
The Miseducation of the Filipino
PDI ,14 July 2000:9

What is the future of education in the Philippines?

How can we be more competitive with our Asian neighbors?

402
Educational Structures

Education is defined as a preparation for effective participation in

social relations (Horton and Hunt 1972). Sociologically speaking,
education is the consciously controlled process whereby changes
in behavior are produced in the person and through the person in
the group. It is clear that education is major factor in economic
growth. A study made in Brazil showed that one additional year of
average education per person in the labor force increased output
by about 20%.

In the Philippines, literacy rate increased from 72% in 1960 to

94% in 1990. This can be attributed to the increased in the
number of schools (by 58%, with tertiary schools increasing by
362 percent) and the level of enrolment (by 120%) during the
same period. Twenty-eight percent of elementary, secondary, and
tertiary schools are public.

However, one third of students do not get to reach grade six and
one fourth of first year do not reach the fourth year. The statistics
for the elementary and secondary levels have not changed in the
past ten years. About 30% of tertiary students take up commerce
and business management courses and 19%, engineering and
technology. Graduates for commerce and business is 36% and
for engineering, 15%.

Females are highly represented in all the three levels of

education. The rates of failures, dropouts, and repetition are
higher for males than females. Female graduates also outnumber
males.

403
The reasons cited for the above are:

1. daughters receive more education but less land than sons;

2. there are more opportunities for employment for males in
the agricultural sector;
3. parents rely more on their daughters to study diligently, keep
stable jobs, and provide support in their retirement age.

Formal and Non-Formal Education

Education may be formal or informal. Informal education is

learning through interaction with others in the group. Ideas and
facts are acquired through suggestion, observation, example,
imitation, and inculcation from the family, play group,
neighborhood, or occupational group. Books, newspapers,
magazines, radio, films, and television are important instruments
through which information and attitudes are acquired or learned.

Non-formal education consists of sets of definite learning goals

and objectives, generally making use of a more flexible
curriculum, less rigid admission procedures, and more
participative teaching methods. Non-formal education is not
covered by the traditional school system. It usually runs in short
durations and, in many instances, seeks only to teach the student
a specific skill.

Social organizations, private companies, government offices,

livelihood training centers, and other institution administer non-
formal education. Some schools under the traditional system also
provide extension and outreach programs that offer non-formal
education. These are offered as supplementary or co-curricular
404
activities to regular students and/or members of the community
such as out-of school youth and adult students.

Formal education is synonymous with school. It sets definite

objectives and goals reached through systematized, formal
instruction methods. Formal education is achieved in stages:
preschool level (nursery and kindergarten), elementary level,
secondary level, and tertiary or university level. Schools are run
by the state, by private individuals or corporations, or by religious
groups. In the Philippines, public education dominates in the
elementary and the secondary levels while tertiary level education
is largely undertaken by private and religious groups and
sustained by student tuition fees and grants.

Education in Early Societies

In simple societies, the family provides education, assisted by

elder members of the community who are called specialists, like
the magicians, witchdoctors, shamans, or priests. Informal
instruction is given to prepare the youth for adult roles that will
enable them to cope with the various demands of the
environment.

With the development of language, the alphabet, and number

system, culture accumulated to a point where it could no longer
be effectively transmitted by informal education. The emergence
of a specialized agency became inevitable and the school
developed as the epitome of formal education. The first schools
were established in China, Egypt, Babylonia, India, Greece, and
Rome.

405
The widespread established of the school system was made
possible with the invention of the printing press in the mid-15th
century. The printing press became an instrument in the mass
production of reading materials, which were prepared for the
different stages of education. Learning then became a structured
and graduated experience and appropriate printed materials were
designed for purposes of this structure. The early reading
materials are the forerunners of todays textbooks.

The Functions of Education

The purpose of education varies from one society to another. For

nations which are ethnically diverse, education is a tool for
achieving national identity. In societies undergoing rapid
economic development, education becomes a vehicle for
preparing the people for an industrial life; while in a revolutionary
society, education is aimed at winning the hearts and minds to the
revolutionary cause (Bilton et al 1997:331).

The school became more important as societies began to

modernize and be more complex. But the functions of education
remained essentially the same in all societies. They vary only in
methods and emphasis (Popenoe1974:358). These functions are:

1. To transmit the cultural heritage. The transmission of the

cultural heritage remains the traditional function of
education. Cultural heritage includes knowledge, language,
mathematics, and science that are familiar to most students.
It also includes the attitudes, values, and norms of society.
For most of these, imitation and inculcation is required for its
transmittal.
406
The Samals of Siasi, Sulu learn skills by imitation. There is
a minimum of verbal instruction. Since the relationship
between parents and children is so congenial, imitation has
become a pleasant and effective process (Eslao 1962:84).
Inculcation refers to the process whereby the learner is led
to behave through social pressure, propaganda, or other
similar medium. Whether the transmission of culture is by
imitation or inculcation, this function of education is
necessary for continued survival of the society. Increased
awareness of cultural attitudes and values are important for
maintaining social order.

Different societies place various emphasis on this function of

education. In a totalitarian state, all agencies of education
aim to suppress individual judgment so that citizens learn to
conform to the doctrines of the state. In other societies
cultural transmission is left in thee hands of a few selected
individuals who have complete control of schools, such that
the outcome is the perpetuation of caste and class (Brown
1954:204).

However, to say that inculcation is not rigid in so-called

democratic societies is at the very least a myopic view. In
these societies, mass media, the government, the school
system, and business establishments interlock to promote a
culture of conformity with the consumerist outlook.
Advertisements swamp the different mass media, and
programs that do not conform to the status quo receive less
sponsorship. For the same reason, information that is not

407
 complementary to corporate interest does not find media
exposure.

2. To help individuals select social roles and to train them

for the roles they have chosen. Education is also aimed at
developing new social patterns that will bring about different
specializations. This means that schools provide not only
new experiences but also offers alternatives and a wider
selection of social roles. As soon as one has indicated a
preference, the school begins to train him or her for it.

A society undergoing rapid changes needs to adjust the

education system to adapt to the new social patterns. There
should be guidelines to ensure against waste of resources
and the displacement of many young people because of an
oversupply of trained manpower. The points to consider
when making adjustments are:

Careful planning of the subjects and courses, along with the

necessary facilities which the school should provide:
a. Training of an adequate number of people according to
the demands of specialized lobs market; and
b. Matching the talents and abilities of the work force with
the specialization needed so that there will be a
balance of people who are capable of performing the
jobs fill.

3. To integrate into the cultural mainstream the various

subcultures and identities. The function of education to
socially integrate different groups into the cultural
mainstream must be maximized as many countries with
408
 internal strife are composed of people that is diverse in
dialect, religion, culture, or social class.

These differences ted to develop antagonism and conflict,

relations and loyalties. Those tasked with administering the
Philippine educational system are cognizant of the
divergence in culture, geography, and history of its people.
They are now engaged in exploring means towards the
eliminating friction and conflicts that endanger the solidarity
of the nation.

The function of education as an integrative force in our

society calls for the teaching of a common language that
creates free and extensive communication. Philippine
schools today provide diverse opportunities for shared
experiences to promote cohesion and shared attitudes in the
society. Cultural identity is a primary element in social
cohesion. When educational institutions work towards this
end, it becomes an important instrument for the
development of nationalist sentiments and love of country.

4. To serve as source of social and cultural innovation.

School activities should be geared towards the development
of curiosity and initiative, with students learning to conduct
their own investigations, arrive at conclusions, and make
new discoveries. In the Philippines, colleges and universities
place high valuation on open mindedness and academic
freedom, because it is through freedom to express new
ideas that advances in science and technology are brought
about. When a society is dynamic and responsive to the

409
 needs of its people, it is able to produce intelligent and
meaningful changes.

In societies where there is a high degree of disparity

between economic classes, education has also come to
function as an equalizer, meaning, it becomes a means to
uplift the deprived sectors. In the Philippines, education
plays a crucial role in self-advancement as it could be a
ticket to better job opportunities.

Education in the Philippines

Educational systems reflect the economic, political, social, and

religious values of society. Before the coming of the Spaniards, a
system of writing existed among ancient Filipinos, although the
characteristics of the syllabic writing is still a subject of contention
of contemporary scholars (Jocano 1975:193-194).

Philippines education has been influenced by the Spanish and

American colonizers. They brought with them educational
materials that reflected the ideologies of their countries and the
ideas inculcated were representations of their culture. Many
problems in education today can be traced to these orientations
and did not produce satisfactory results.

The objective of education under the Spanish colonizers was to

teach moral and religious subjects, using the Spanish language
as medium of instruction. Education in the primary grades, which
was the only extensive level during that time, was largely for
religious purposes. Religion was the core of the curriculum and
schools were used mainly to spread Christianity (Isidro 1949:246).
410
Before 1863, schools setup in the barrios were small thatched
buildings called visitas. These served as schoolhouse and
chapels. The parish priest supervised the schools as part of their
duties. In the visita, there were separate rooms for the boys and
girls. The subjects of study consisted of reading by alphabet and
syllabic method, sacred songs, and music. A little arithmetic and
writing were taught to the more advance students. Required
readings were common prayers and the Doctrina Christiana
(Fresnoza 1957:246-248). The method of learning was
memorization, and the punishment meted out to those who did
not study their lessons was whipping (Blair and Robertson
1903:99-102).

Higher education placed great emphasis on virtue and letters. The

schools established during the Spanish colonial period were the
Royal College of San Jose, founded in 1605, and the College of
Sto. Tomas, established around 1610 and converted into a
university in 1645; the secondary schools were the Colegio San
Juan de Letran, Ateneo Municipal Manila, and the theological
seminaries in Vigan, Manila, and Cebu. Higher education
primarily served the upper classes, a degree being a status
symbol, a badge of social standing and prestige. The educated
class was the illustrado, which was the ambition of parents from
elite class for their children. This educated class looked on
manual labor as degrading and despicable (Aldana 1949:3-4).

The Educational Decree of 1863 provided for the establishment of

a complete system of education. It mandated for each
municipality to have elementary schools, one for boys and
another for girls. Compulsory education for children between ages
of 7 and 12 was prescribed. The curriculum for the primary grades
411
included reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, history, Spanish,
Christian, doctrine, and vocal music. Boys were required to take
up agriculture, while the girls trained in needlework. Vocational
schools of arts and trades were established in Manila, and Iloilo; a
nautical school and a normal school were set up in Manila.

When the Americans took over the reigns of government in 1899,

the emphasis on Christianity and the transmission of the Spanish
culture shifted towards the development of new social patterns.
The system of primary education was extended to all, training
students for the duties of citizenship and for the wider
participation of the population for eventual self-governance.
English was imposed as the medium of instruction.

The Educational Act of 1901 organized the general system of

public instruction and authorized the establishment of private
schools. The curriculum in the primary level consisted of the
English language, arithmetic, geography, singing, drawing,
physical education, and character training. Grammar and social
studies were included in the intermediate grades.

At the present, the Philippine educational system is bureaucratic

structure under the supervision of the state. There are three
coordinate systems: The Department of Education (DE) for
elementary and secondary levels; the Commission on Higher
Education (CHED); and the Technical Educational Skills and
Development Authority (TESDA).

The Education Act of 1982 took into account the

recommendations and findings of the Presidential Commission to
Study Philippine Education (PCSPE), which was created in 1969.
412
The PCSPE reported that the educational system was producing
college graduates in excess of what could be absorbed by the
jobs market. The body concluded that the Philippine educational
system was not responding to the demands of the economy for
national development.

In 1991, the report of the Join Congressional Commission to

Study and Review Philippine Education, or EDCOM, concluded
that the quality of education was declining and traced the problem
to two main reasons: 1) the government was not investing enough
in our education system, and 2) the education department was
poorly managed.

To improve the state of education, the EDCOM recommended the

following: stress on basic education; the development of
alternative learning systems especially for the illiterate; the use of
Filipino as medium of instruction for basic education; the
enlargement and enrichment of technical/vocational education;
the restructuring of the Department of Education. It further
recommended for the government to: ensure administrators;
support both public and private schools; involve the private
industry workers, teachers, parents, and the local government in
planning, delivery, and financing of education; ensure that
children of the poor have greater access to all levels of education;
make public tertiary education more cost effective and circular
programs more relevant to the communities they serve; and find
new sources and money to finance basic education.

413
Key issues in Philippine Education

The important issues in Philippines education that must be closely

examined and immediately resolved are:

1. Quality of Education Elementary and secondary students

scored below the mean target of 75% based on standard
tests: This score is low compared to other countries.
2. Accessibility of education Drop out rate is higher among
socioeconomically disadvantage students. On the tertiary
level, majority of the students are relatively well-off. Tertiary
schools are concentrated in the developed areas, such as
the National Capital Region. Private schools here charge
higher tuition fees.
3. Government budget for education The constitution
provides that the highest proportion of the budget should go
to education. This is hardly applied.
4. Mismatch-Training and actual jobs available are not given
due consideration. This results in the unemployment of
certificate degree holders.

Proposed Reforms

1. Upgrade the salary scale of teachers to attract more good

students to train as teachers.
2. Budget per region is based on participation and unit costs;
this system favors the more develop region. Amendments
should be so that the system will allocate more to the
regions in need.

414
 3. Expand the scholarship program to the poor students in both
public and private tertiary schools. This is seen as the better
option than increasing the subsidies to state universities.
4. Encourage the participation of the business and industry
sector in higher education. This can ease the problem
regarding the incongruence of enrollment in certain
programs and the jobs market.
5. Develop of a rationalized apprenticeship program by the
private sector. Control of technical schools should be
transferred to industry groups (Oreta 1994).

Computers and the Internet

The internet, which links computers throughout the world, has

made its impact on information technology. It makes the
accessibility of academic resources faster and more convenient.
News and discussion groups can now also be set up instantly
while opinions, ideas, and attitudes are exchanged in real time.

In 1995, the internet covered only more than 2% of the worlds

population and grew over short periods. The internet connections
over a 3-month period in 1994 grew from 2,172,232 to 2,687,288
(23%) in North America, from 730,429 to 850,993 (17%) in
Western Europe, from 15,595 to 21,041 (35%) in Africa, and
117,278 to 127,569 (15%) in Asia, or a total of 3,225,177 to
3,898,233 (21%) (Cohen, Roben and Kennedy 2000:254-255).

This rate of acceleration has grown dramatically that by early

1999 alone, the United Kingdom had8.3 million households
connected to the internet. Communication technology is still

415
developing rapidly and converging into sets of information
technologies.

Summary

Sociologically speaking, education is the consciously controlled

process whereby changes in behavior are produced in the person
and through the person in the group. Its ultimate goal is the
effective participation of the individual in social relations.

Education may be formal or informal. Formal education is

synonymous with school education. Learning through interaction
with outside of the school is informal education. The functions of
educational institutions are: preserving and transmitting the
cultural heritage; preparing an individual for the role he or she
chooses in society; integrating the various subcultures into the
cultural mainstream, serving as a source of social and cultural
innovation.

The educational system in the Philippines heave been influenced

by the Spanish and American systems of education. At the
present, the Philippine educational system is a bureaucratic
structure under the super vision of the state. There are three
coordinate branches: The Bureau of Elementary Education, The
Bureau of Secondary Education, and the Bureau of Higher
Education.

Social change has affected the educational pattern in the

Philippines. To keep up with these changes, schools have
initiated innovations in the curriculum, like the in-school off-school
approach, the opening of preschool classes in poblacions,
416
continuous progression and bilingualism, among other s. These
are intended to contribute to the goals of national development.
How these programs will help attain universal education and
achieve national development will depend on the constant study
and re-evaluation of the program by social scientists.

Access to and sharing of information though digital technology is

seen as an important factor in the advancement of education all
over the world.

Study Guide

1. Concepts to master:
Education
Informal education
Formal education
2. How do sociologists view education? What are involved in
the education process?
3. Describe the various educational structures.
4. Describe the features of education in simple societies. What
were the features of education during Spanish regime? How
have these affected the present system?
5. Discuss the functions of education.

Questions For Critical Thinking

1. Analyze the subjects and courses and the facilities which

your school offers.
2. How can we eliminate conflicts so as to enhance the
solidarity of the nation?

417
3. How can education produce meaningful changes in our
society?
4. Explain how education functions as an equalizer.
5. How have the developments in communications affected
Philippine education and society?
6. How can we improve the quality of education in the
Philippines with consideration to the development in
communications and digital technology?

418
 Chapter 15

RURAL COMMUNITIES

I grew up in a town, Bauan, where danger was a much stranger

as Martian in the next planet. I remember our house was always
open. Fresh air came in through the windows and doors, and so
did friends and sometimes farmers from nearby bukids in town for
a special church celebration. the holy cross which we lovingly
refer to as Poon attracted people from all over. May was intended
a festive month of traditions like alay, fiestas, and food galore.

It was small town populated by a group of people defined by their

common beliefs, whose lives were forever changed but
strengthen by the pain and loss brought about by war. I grew up
in this town nurtured by extended families. Everyone knew
everybody. The church was the meeting place of an entire town to
worship and pray for one another. I remember Sunday masses
with the town patio hosting bunches of multi-colored ballons, light
in its helium flight, merchants with singkamas or bibingka and
Beryongs empanada. I can still savor the home made pancit of
Ka Igil and the ice cream delight of Ka Ipe. And of course, there
was Ka Graciano who lets us ride his calesa even if we
demolished his fee and loaded his calesa with so many of us.

The homes were mostly nipa with trees and flowering plants all
around. There was an abudance of fruits like duhat, camachile,
mango, santol, and sinigwelas. The fragrance of camia and
sampaguita permeated the air. And oh do remember the walks at
night with hundreds of fireflies lighting the trees and by the
endless stream of tutubi like a canvas of a famous painter, vibrant
419
red and yellow and blue endless motion, a sight to behold and
entice the restless to stay and just be.

Yet the traditions and celebrations pale in the faces and hearts of
the Bauanguenos. The bond among the residents was the tread
in the tapestry of this town. Yet there existed some kind of
separation; the taga Aplaya and taga Bayan played at its turf
within the basketball arena and in some social events and dances
held in designated areas.

While the town proper frolicked in the sands of Aplaya, the

fisherman raked in all kinds of fish, tulingan and dulong among
others, while patiently and kindly letting everyone enjoy the
beaches. I swam in the silangan side as my uncle was there band
remember swimming with the sea horses and some tiny fish
sometimes nipping at my feet .

Today, the fish are from the shores. The foul smell of industry
took over the fragrance of our flowers, and poverty has become
the birthright of most Batanguenos. Fireflies are a forgotten lot,
and dragonflies have been neutralized by the pangs of pollution.

Today our children are in crowded classrooms that flood, using

comfort rooms that reeks of urine and muck, with books
copyrighted in the 60s and 80s if at all, but make no mistake,
these children are with razor sharp mind.

Carol Atacador
In Remembering Bauan, 2001

420
The account about Bauan highlights the nostalgia felt by Carol
Atacador as she observed the town change from a sleepy place
engaged in fishing, characterized by warmth and intimacy in
social relationships, to an urbanized town in the throes of urban
transformation. The towns rustic charm and warm intimacy have
given way to changes, with its concomitant consequences.

What is a Community?

What is a community? To the ordinary people, a community is a

place where one lives, works, and plays. The word is also used to
refer to some subgroup, as in a community of priest, or a
community of scholars, or artist. Thus, we hear about the quest
for community (Nisbet1973), which is a kind of obsession for its
values as manifested in age groups (youth, middle-aged, or
elderly) or interest groups (political, religious, or economic).

A community is a social organization that is territorially localized

and through which its members satisfy most of their daily needs
and deal with most of their common problems (Olsen 1968:91).
The community can also be viewed as a process or a movement
towards unity in the system of social life, an ongoing movement
which is never completed or finished (Martindale 1984:11).
According to the Calverts (1992:50), the concept of community is
not as broad as the concept of society. Communities occupy
particular territories, share and display common values such as a
mutual sense of dependence, identify of interests, a sense of
belonging , and an expected pattern of behavior. The essence of
community is the feeling of belonging or the we.

421
Culled from different definitions of community are certain
elements like a population or groups of people, an area of
territory, a sense of interrelatedness or social interactions, and a
sharing of common ties or bond. The essence of a community lies
in the relationships within it. As a social organization, the
community has a structure and a dynamic phenomenon within an
array of interrelated statuses and roles. Each role is patterned to
fulfill a special function. The members interact and share common
services. They carry on their respective roles to enhance their
common goals of fostering solidarity.

The community is a localized group, whether the term is used to

described a neighborhood, a barangay, a town, a city, or a nation.
There are also communities within a community, for communities
are types of social groupings of families. They vary in many ways:
in size and population density, in occupation and specializations.
Some like barrios, are very small and consist of millions of people.
Some communities are highly specialized, while others performs
multi-services for the inhabitants.

While conditions, like climate, available natural resources, and

plant and animal life, affect the community, the chief interest of
sociologist is to understand the influence of culture on the
community, the social life and social interaction taking place, and
the social organization and social roles played. Some sociologists
are interested in the study of ecology of the community, i.e., of the
individuals and their facilities in relation to the environment.

Human ecology refers to the study of the development and

organization of the community and the spatial distribution in
relation to the environment (Hawley 1950:77). The assumption is
422
that groups cooperate and complete with each other for the use of
environmental resources. The interplay between social and
environmental forces determines what happens to the
environment and society (Curry, Jiobu, and Schwirian 1999:138).

The basic unity of ecological investigation is the community; such

an investigation looks into the structure of functional relationships
through which local population provides its daily requirements.
More people are now aware of the ecological problem. With
flooding, pollution, drought, and other disaster brought about by
environmental destruction, they are now working to preserve the
balance between the natural resources and the needs of the
people. There are present several advocacy and peoples
organizations for the protection of our environment.

The Rural-Urban Community Dichotomy

Communities may be classified according to function and

specialization. These represent ideal types and it is difficult to
draw the precise dividing line between them. Sometimes, one can
make use of the census definition, but this is limited to the
quantitative measure. For lack better classification, the rural-
urban dichotomy continues to be used.

Some sociologist have related the rural communities to familistic

Gemeinschaft and the urban community to the Gesellschaft.
Among the indices used by sociologist to show rural-urban
differences are occupation, size, and density of population,
homogeneity or heterogeneity of culture, social differentiation and
stratification, social mobility, type of social interaction, and
solidarity. In some Western societies like the US, the distinction
423
between rural and urban communities is becoming blurred with
the growth of suburbia and the increasing urbanization of rural
life. Improved transportation and communication are breaking
down the differences between rural and communities.

Rural Culture and Social Structure

Rural communities are not all alike, but they have some common
features. Rural communities are usually small, and people are
engaged in agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining, food gathering,
and peasants. Peasants are rural folks who produced their own
food for subsistence and sell their surplus in the towns and cities.
They are source of labor and goods of landlords and officials of
the state. Peasantry is associated with commercialization.
Peasants differ from farmers in industrialized societies who rely
upon the market to exchange crops for almost all the goods and
services they need (Ember and Ember 1977:256, 463-437).
Peasants are not only rural cultivators; they may also be
fisherfolks, artisan, and workers who share the same way of life of
cultural orientation as the cultivators.

Population density is low and the human-to-land ratio is small, an

aspect which affects the natures of social interaction. Although
there are few contacts, primary group relations prevail and
relationships are personal and intimate. The family and the
kinship group play a dominant role. Communal activities are
common , and cooperation, both informal and formal, is shown in
being helpful to a neighbor and sharing each others work.
Informal borrowing and lending of both cash and materials goods
is still practiced. Strong mutual aid relations and neighborliness
the Gemeinschaft spirit prevail.
424
Competitions may be seen among those jockeying for political,
religious, or cultural positions, or in the struggle for control over
land. Cleavages and factionalism also present, and conflicts
occasionally breakout in the interfamily and interpersonal strife.

The low population density affects the rural institutions. Social

institutions are generally small in membership, not highly
specialized, and less distinct. The activities of the family, school,
economic institutions, and the church are usually interrelated.
Locals leadership is influenced by the size of the rural group in
that the leaders are usually chosen with reference to personal
qualities that conform to local values (Nelson 1955:22). Low
population density and cultural homogeneity result in less urban
counterparts. There are fewer social classes and no extremes of
wealth. Social differentiation is slight, as individuals and families
come in contact with members of the occupation and religious
groups. Social status is determined by birth and by the personal
qualities of the individual. Horizontal mobility or migration to urban
areas is evident, especially of young people and of females. This
deprives the area of the creativity, vigor, and industry of the youth.

Social control operates through folkways and ores, and is

commonly used in the form of gossip, public opinion, and social
ostracism. Members of rural communities are more dependent on
traditions and cultural heritage than those from urban areas. The
cultural advantages are few; art centers, museums, universities,
and theatres are rare. Modern facilities, such as running water
sewage disposal, electricity, and communications, are limited if
not absent in some remote places. On the whole, it may be said

425
that the rural culture is homogenous and that culture change is
slow in the rural areas.

Rural Communities in the Philippines

The Philippines is divided into 16 administrative regions, 79

provinces, 113 cities, 1496 municipalities, and 41,994 barangays.
As of year 2000, the population was estimated to be 52.4% of the
total population, with the remaining 47% assumed by the urban
population (NSO). The Philippines is, thus, still predominantly
rural. As Gelia Castillo (1979) put it, the Philippines is a land of
barrios. These barrios are considered the backbone of the
nation, because they provide urban areas with food and raw
materials for industry.

The term rural community is usually associated with the barrio of

yore. The images that comes to mind are the idyllic scenes of
rolling hills, majestic mountains, meandering streams of rivers,
swaying bamboo and coconuts, verdant forest, somnolence and
monotony, and simple, unassuming, gentle folks. But such picture
is not anymore true. Social changes are taking place in the
barrios, and in some places barrio life is not as peaceful as it used
to be. Mountains and forest have been denuded, rivers and
streams silted and polluted, and birds and animals decimated by
hunters. Since the Commonwealth period, the thrust of
government administration has been the development of the rural
communities; yet, until now, majority of rural folks remain poor.

In the past, houses in the barrios were mostly made of nipa and
bamboo, which were raised about two to three meters from the
ground. At present, most of the houses have galvanize iron roofs
426
and wooden or concrete walls. Water either comes from a spring
or an open or artesian well. Piped water is available in barrios,
especially those near the poblacion. The fuel used is firewood,
kerosene gas, or electricity. Toilet facilities may be an open pit, a
public toilet, or the flush or water sealed type.

The barrio is people by simple folks, characterized by primary

group relations and Gemeinschaft interactions. Although usually
characterized as well-knit and having a high degree of group
feeling, there also exists intergroup or interfamilial rivalry and
factionalism. The unifying force in the barrio is maintained by
attitudes, personality traits and habits developed within the family.
The clustering of homes in some communities strengthens groups
consciousness and kinsfolk, usually work together in the fields
and embark on collective projects, such as the construction of
local school building or community centers (Abueva 1969:22)

In the contrast to city folk, rural people have closer contact with
the soil and other forces of nature. Their existence comes from
their closeness to nature, whose vicissitudes, like typhoons,
drought, or plagues they have to meet. They usually attributed
calamities to a supernatural power beyond their control. They
have rites before planting, to ensure a bountiful harvest, and after
harvesting, to thank the Almighty for the crops produced.

Recreational facilities and cultural activities are limited. The usual

leisure activities of men are drinking tube or beer and gambling.
Young men play basketball, baseball, or sipa, or also engage in
drinking. Occasionally, there may be a pool or billiard table. The
elder men usually engage in cockfighting; some of them own and
train fighting cocks. Women and girls usually visit their
427
neighbours, do needle work, read books, and magazines, or play
bingo and checkers. People also bet in jueteng.

Communication media consist of newspapers, magazines and

comics, and radios. The few wealthy residents own television
sets. Many roads are dirt and feeder roads covered with gravel
and sand; now and then, one finds asphalt or concrete roads.

Lynchs (1975) study of a barrio in Bicol showed two social

classes; the upper and lower classes. The upper class, which
constitutes a small portion of the population, is made up of the
wealthy landowners, the patrons, and some barrio officials the
big people. The lower class which constitutes the bulk of the
population is made up of the workers and laborer or the small
people. Lynch points out that a kind of symbolic relationship
exists between the big people and the small people, with the
wealthy playing the paternalistic role of providing the material
needs of the latter , and the poor giving in return loyalty and
manual service. This functional relational relationship works to
maintain community stability.

Jane Margolds (1989:38-45) study of Awanen, a farming and

fishing community in a coastal municipality in the Ilocos Region,
revealed a class hierarchy with the villagers stratified into three
levels of poverty: the least poor, the moderate poor, and the
poorest. Eight families, considered as least poor, were described
by other villagers as rich. The criteria used were land tenure,
degree of access to the means of making a living (land, cash,
labor, livestock, farming, or fishing implements, and technical
skills), house ownership or rental, and possession of consumer
goods (radio, clock, television, and a store).
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Despite their unassuming ways, most barrio folks goal and
aspirations center on education, lands, jobs, animals, crops, tools,
and peace (Pal 1973; Guthrie 1970; Castillo 1979). Most would
like to see their children finish schooling, find a job, have their
own home lot, get rich, and gain some recognition. A few do not
have aspirations, because they it is hopeless to aspire for
anything since they are in such a miserable condition

Spatial Patterns of Philippine Communities Settlement patterns, in

a way, reveal the human being. This is the relationship between
the natural environment and the social structure resulting in an
arrangement of dwellings, buildings, and other physical structures
related to their social life. In the Philippines, the general
Settlement pattern may be divided into two: the nucleated type
and the dispersed type (University of Chicago Philippines Studies
Program 1956:376-382). The nucleated type is shown in the
poblacion with the agglomerated barrios. This is common in
Central Luzon where the people are engaged in wet-rice
agriculture. Also using wet-rice agriculture are the segmented
lineal communities found along roads and rivers in Luzon and the
sugar haciendas, which are large communities with a population
of over five million. The pineapple plantations and mixed garden
farms of Bulkidnon and the Lake Lanao areas are another type of
nucleated community. Common here is the data-centered pattern
com-posed of small groupings built around a mosque. They
engage in dry upland agriculture and follow the data. The
dispersed type of settlement consists of a cluster of sitios, where
houses are dispersed along the rivers or in the middle of the field.
This pattern of settlement is common in the Visayas, especially in
Southern Negros and Iloilo. Settlement patterns are affected by
the terrain, the type of crops raised, and the social organization.
429
These patterns are now undergoing subtle but far-reaching
changes. Gradually, internal migration trends have led population
treks from small rural areas to the urban areas.

The Rural Family The family is the basic social unit of society and
an important socializing agency. In the rural areas, there are more
nuclear than extended families (Chapter 10). A newly married
couple may stay with either family for a while, until they can stand
on their own. The family continually relates to the couple by
offering guidance and ad-vice. The family of orientation is held
together by strong blood ties. This influence is considered
important in the choice of marital partners, friends, or even
godparents. Genealogical ties are looked into for possible signs of
weakness, 'immorality, and other defects in the family (Medina
1991:18). The family is bilateral, with close ties usually maintained
with both sides of the family. The couple can choose where to
reside after marriage, either with the bride's or the groom's family,
or independently of either family. Hence, in terms of fesidence,
the family is either bilocal or neolocal.

While the husband and wife have more or less equal authority,
the man is considered the head, the guardian, the breadwinner,
and protector, while the mother is the keeper of the house, the
treasurer, and manager of domestic affairs. Children are within
the protective mantle of the family. Children are expected to love,
obey, and respect their parents. All children, irrespective of sex,
inherit property equally, although there are cases where
offsprings experience conflict over the division. Joint decisions by
husband and wife are usually made on issues such as children's
schooling and discipline, house improvement, purchase of
appliances, family business or investment, and choice of vocation
430
(Porio 1974; Mendez and Jocano 1974; Gonzales and
Hollnsteiner 1976). The family has immediate neighbors or
kapitbahay to which they have interlocking social interactions.

The magIcapitbahay help each other in times of crisis, economic

needs, and social and religious activities (Imam 1998:49). An
individual also has a circle of effective or potentially effective
relatives, or magkamaganak, who play a vital role in their life. The
individual and siblings are linked to kins coming from both their
paternal and maternal sides. People are related to one another in
some kind of kinship or blood ties. The membership is not stable
but changes at times as in the case of death; others may move
out of the barangay or town. The relations are familistic, and there
is strong dependence on the family. The strong feeling of family
loyalty usually leads to nepotism, lack of self-reliance, and
indifference to welfare institutions or parasitism.

However, the kin relationship is characterized by the traditional

obligations and expectations. Castillo (1979:17) holds that the
extended family serves as the basis for social interactions, as well
as social insurance for family members. Assistance given by
family members can be in the form of farm work and household
chores, financing the education of children, extension of cash
loans and aid in times of family illness, and sharing rice and other
farm products. Norms govern these relationships, and assistance
takes place on a reciprocal basis. Social sanctions are applied on
parasites, whose life can be made un-comfortable.

Some of the traditional practices regarding courtship still persist,

although changes have taken place. Serenading, a traditional
practice to court a girl, is gradually disappearing. Calling on her is
431
a more accepted practice. Chaperoning is still observed, as
chastity is a trait highly valued among unmarried woman. An
illegitimate birth will bring scandal and shame to the family. The
giving of dowry (bigay-kaya) and parental arrangement, which
had their beginnings in pre-Spanish timer, still exist in some form,
although they are no longer rigidly observed in many areas. The
bigay-kaya may consist of money, a piece of land, or a gift given
by the man to the girl's parents. It usually entails some kind of
negotiation and bargaining. In case the man cannot afford to give
what is asked of him, he renders service in the girl's house for a
period extending from a few weeks to a few months. This is a
gauge of his industry.

Rural Economy

The 2000 Philippine Census counts the total population at

76,498,735. Of this number, about 27.6 million or 36% live in
poverty. The government estimates the per capita poverty
threshold to be P13, 823 per annum. Majority of the poor people
live in rural areas and squatter settlements in urban areas. The
2000 Family Income Expenditure Survey (FIES) revealed that the
total number of families in the country increased to 15.26 mil-lion
from 14,19 million in 1997. According to Castillo (1993:67) most
poor households live in the rural areas and are engaged in
agricultural enterprises. Remittances from overseas workers have
emerged as a source of income for 88% of families.

This shows the important role played by rural-urban, rural-rural,

and international migration of male and female household
members in search of economic opportunities. The farmers are
the poorest in the country, and there is a large economic gap
432
between the farmers and non-farmers. Not readily discernible
among the farming population is that many do not have a rural
residence; they live in the urban areas, probably the poblacion.
So, if there is a rural non-farming household, there is also an
urban farming household. Farmers have an average of 6.5
children. Parents like to have many children as they are sources
of labor. Children help their parents in various chores at home
and in the farm. They also provide support during old age.

If they had a choice, parents would prefer their children not to be

farmers. Instead, they want their children to have a college
education as a way out of farming and into white-collar
occupation. Despite the economic growth in the 1970s, there
were no substantial, gains in the rural areas. The massive
investments in industry and infrastructure facilities, the locus of
administrative and political power, and the broader environment in
the cities attracted labor and deprived rural areas of development
resources. The adoption of modern technology in agriculture
benefited mainly the middle-level and large farms. Small farmers
are left behind, and their principal occupation is limited to
subsistence food crop production. Those who could not find work
migrated to the cities (Lewes 1979:19). The plight of small
fisherfolks is no better than those of the small-scale farmers.

A study made by Ardales and David (1986:62-63) of small-scale

and subsistence fisherfolks in Iloilo province revealed conditions
of dire poverty. Their median income was only P218 per month.
Among the poorest of the poor, the monthly income was P65.
Their daily food consisted of rice and fish. They were engaged in
fishing seasonally and irregularly, and used traditional fishing
techniques. Their household was large, averaging 7 members,
433
living in poor housing conditions. Their low educational attainment
contributed to their poor quality of life.

Tacio (2000:25) gives an account of poor people occupying up-

land areas in Mindanao. These areas are slopes ranging from 18
and above where both agriculture and forestry are practiced.
Their homes are made of bamboo and tree barks, with roofs
made of grass. They get water from mountain springs or streams.
The poor farmers have insecure land tenure and have become
victims of powerful outsiders seeking cheap labor, land, minerals,
and timber resources. The influx of people to the uplands has
depleted forests and degraded the upland economic system. To
augment income, some rural folks take on a second job or trade.
The nomenclature for this is 'moonlighting' or 'occupational
multiplicity'. Costello (1997:64-88) reviewed studies on
occupational multiplicity and analyzed these within the context of
rural development patterns in the Third World. However,
occupational multiplicity is also practiced in the more developed
countries and not only by the lower classes.

Farming and fishing are the common occupations in the rural

areas; but the income they derive from this is meager. Farmers
and fisherfolks are among the poorest in the country. The study
by Kerkvliet (1980) of Bukiran, a village in Central Luzon,
revealed that very few households rely on the meager returns of
their farm. The well-to-do, as well as the poor, besides planting
and plowing, also forage, buy and sell, hire out as laborers, raise
and sell pigs, and find other ways to earn cash. Data from the
Philippine Census of Agriculture show an increase of the
percentage of farmers employed in non-agricultural jobs, from,
17.7% in 1970 to 59.9% in 1980. Ecological settings and time
434
periods encourage occupational multiplicity. In Negros and
Panay, recession ensued when the sugar prices plunged. As an
adaptive response, workers searched for additional employment.
However, occupational multiplicity is not limited to the rural poor.

As Kerkvliet (1980:33) pointed out, the poor get other jobs to get
by day-to-day or week-to-week. The wealthy have diversified jobs
in order to accumulate wealth. Fegan (1982: 43) wrote that farm
workers have an insecure life. In colloquial Filipino language, this
existence is isang kahig, isang tuka (literally one scratch, one
peck or hand-to-mouth existence). Family members take on any
job possibleas vendors, number runners in jueteng; selling
fodder to buffalo owners, and/or combing watercourses for fish,
frogs, crabs, and snails. Some get jobs as drivers, policemen, or
road workers. Women, aside from household work and work in
the fields, raise chickens, pigs, or goats. They hem handkerchiefs,
sew shirts, weave fishnets, or vend on borrowed capital for a
small profit. Some sell their produce in the city. These are the
multiple jobholders of the adaptive type.

Usually, these persons are better educated, possess some

financial capital, and have hopes of upward mobility. According to
David (1979:51), the various "coping strategies utilized by lower
status house-holds are not adaptive mechanisms but they are
what the poor are mercilessly driven to do." Since the 1970s,
foreign and local agribusiness corporations expanded from rice,
coconut, and sugarcane to include other cash crops such as
banana, pineapple, and coffee. Thus, choice agricultural lands,
especially those in Mindanao and Palawan, passed into the bands
of agribusiness corporations. The increase in production has not
benefited the rural masses, many of whom lost their land. Farm
435
mechanization has displaced a significant number of farmers. The
high cost of farm inputs like fertilizers, insecticides, farm tools,
and machinery has resulted in low farm profits. All these inputs
are manufactured by transnational agribusiness corporations. A
study of Del Monte and United Fruit, two major transnational
corporations in the banana industry, showed that the penetration
of capitalism into agriculture has led to the subordination of small
land-owners (Rivera 1983:27-30). With the concentration and
centralization of large contiguous fertile lands, the peasants,
cultural minorities, and tenants were relegated to a position of
subordinates who lost control over any phase of the production
process. Hence, the expansion of agribusiness has led to the
polarization and wider differentiation between the social classes.

Agribusinesses have expanded in some parts of the country; but

this has not Rural Cooperatives In 1951, a program on the
formation of cooperatives was instituted to help poor farmers. The
operation of a cooperative is based on the principle of mutual aid
and self-reliance, with members pooling their resources for the
common benefit. It is people binding them-selves for a common
cause by putting together their money and energy and helping
one another. According to Encamacion (1992:7), cooperatives are
rural organizations to improve the plight of the farmers in the
countryside. As government-initiated organizations, they were
seen as channels for government assistance to the rural areas
and to serve as instrument for counter insurgency.

In 1952; the Agricultural Credit Cooperative Financing

Administration (ACCFA) was created primarily to assist small
farmers get liberal credit; it subsequently became the Agricultural
Credit Administration (ACA) in 1963. To help farmers sell their
436
products without having to employ agents, the government also
established Farmers Cooperative Marketing Associations
(FACOMA). These associations, failed because of weak
government supervision and management; many loans were not
paid and, hence, the cooperatives lost money. Other farmer
cooperatives were organized since the 1950s but only a few of
these still exist. With the Agrarian Reform Program revitalized in
1972, the cooperative movement was revived. The Samahang
Nayon, a barrio association of farmers registered with the Bureau
of Cooperatives Development, was envisioned to be the building
block of full-fledged cooperatives. As years went by, the
proponents of the cooperative movement and the farmers
gradually lost interest in the program. Again, during the term of
Pres. Aquino, cooperatives were given a boost. She encouraged
people's participation, and 'empowerment' became a buzzword in
government policies and programs. Non-government
organizations (NG0s) were allowed to participate in the
conceptualization and deliberation of the 1990 Cooperative Code.
Cooperatives were envisioned to promote self-reliance and
harness people's power for economic development and social
justice. NGOs assisted people's organizations (POs) in setting up
cooperatives by providing training and lending seed money in
order to facilitate social transformation and empowerment
(Afionuevo 1992:44).

The Cooperative Code of the Philippines (enacted March 10,

1990) offers incentives to cooperatives and sets up mechanisms
to ensure their success. Foremost among these incentives are tax
exemptions, exemptions from payments of court and sheriff fees,
and exemptions from putting up an appeal bond when appealing
a decision of an inferior court.
437
Despite some achievements during the past 15 years, the
cooperative movement is still far from being successful and
stable. This may be attributed to the following reasons: weak
institutional structures for providing sustained cooperative
education and training; absence of a formal system to meet the
financial growth needs of cooperatives; lack of qualified
cooperative managers and a system for recruiting and training for
such positions; lack of a long-term capital buildup program;
inadequate incentives from the government to encourage
cooperative extension; and the negative effect of government
policies particularly in delivering agricultural credit and pricing
policies (Rolda 1991:98-100). Moreover, the government policy
allowing NGOs to organize cooperatives without outlining
appropriate policies and regulations has hurt the movement.

In some cases, NGOs organized cooperatives as an excuse to

get foreign grants. However, there are also success stories of
cooperatives. Ac-cording to Ernesto Bautista (quoted in Miralao
1992:104), certain factors for a successful cooperative include: 1)
Business orientation: cooperatives which are more oriented
towards the business side of their activities tend to become more
successful; 2) Diversification in activities: cooperatives which are
more diversified tend to be more successful than those with
limited activities; 3) Leadership: a competent leader is one who is
dynamic and charismatic; 4) Sufficient internally generated funds:
this allows the cooperative to function on a long-term and
sustainable basis; 5) Correct policy environment: this includes
credit assistance from the government and economic policies
conducive for the development of economic activities.

438
Rural Government

The barangay, or balangay as it was originally called, has its roots

in pre-Spanish times. The barangay, later called barrio, was the
basic political unit during the Spanish colonial period. It
implemented the rural communities programs, policies, plans, and
activities of the central government. This arrangement was
continued during the American colonial regime. The barrio was
under the charge of a member of the Municipal Council. Political
autonomy was extended with the passage of the Barrio Council
Act of 1956 and the Revised Barrio Charter of 1963. The Charter
provided for the formation of a barrio council, with a barrio captain
and six councilors functioning as an executive and legislative
body. This aimed to facilitate direct participation of the rural
masses in local and national politics. During the period of Martial
Law, Pres. Marcos decreed the creation of barangays or citizen
assemblies in every barrio, municipality, and district in chartered
cities. The objective was to broaden the base of citizens'
participation in the democratization' process and in the discussion
of national issues. However, Pres. Marcos used the barangay to
strengthen political structures, particularly during election time.
Rola - (1991:71) observed that the barangay became executive
centrist. Decisions were made by the barangay chairperson and
councilors, landowners, or agency representatives. People were
merely consulted, or sometimes just informed of decisions made.
During the May 11, 1987 election, a change in the voting behavior
was noted. Some observers pointed out a reduction in the
practices of vote-buying, political patronage, and of ward leaders
fetching their followers from their homes to vote. There was a
considerable increase in the percentage of the voting population,
which may be an indication of the growing political awareness in
439
the barangay level. This phenomenon was referred to as the 'new
politics.' In the election of May 11, 1992, what was noticeable was
the tendency of some voters to break away from the traditional
candidates and favor those from the entertainment industry.

In fact, three personalities from the entertainment industry

garnered top places in the 1992 senatorial election. However, the
practice of patronage politics continues, and grease money is still
used. Vote-buying is still practiced; voters are still swayed and
entertained. More than ever, political campaigns are designed to
have a fiesta atmosphere. In the 1998 elections, most of the
ruralites voted for Joseph Estrada for president. He was hailed as
a movie hero and they identified with him in his various roles.
They looked at him as simple and approachable, and sympathetic
to their plight.

In a study of Azanza, entitled Dynamics of Choices among Voters

in the Lakeshore Barangays of Laguna (1990), the following were
observed:

1. Except for members of the Iglesia ni Cristo, voters will not

be swayed by the sect or church to which they belong in the
choice of their candidates.
2. The financial or economic status of a candidate is a factor
considered by voters. Since political leadership in the rural
areas is considered as taking charge of the people as a
whole; one who is not an economic success, is viewed as
running for employment and not for service.
3. About one-third of the respondents answered that they
would accept money from a candidate. This implies that two-

440
 thirds or the majority of the respondents cannot be bought
and are aware that it is wrong to sell their votes.

Referring to the 2002 barangay and Sangguniang Kabataan

elections, Roces (2002:9) wrote, "i.e barangay elections are very
important. For the barangay is the original cradle and home of
democracy. It is our republic in miniature." This is a tribute to the
local folks who, even if they are poor and unlettered, can select
their local officials and put democracy to work. A boon to the
barangays and other local units is the passage of the Local
Government Code in 1991 Considered a landmark legislation, the
law transfers to the local government some powers of central
government which relate to agricultural finance, health, education,
public works, and peace and order. It provides for the formation of
Pambansang Katipunan ng Barangay. (PKB) or National
Federation of Barrio Councils as umbrella organization of the
country's 42, barrio councils.

The PKB's development programs and projects wit be

implemented, monitored, and evaluated through the barangays.
Resources are provided for provinces, cities, municipalities, an
barangays. The share of local governments from the national
even during the Marcos era was 7%. This was increased to 11%
by the Aquino administration. The new Code authorized a further
increase to 30% in 1992 and to 40% in 2000. Local governments
are entitled to an equitable share of the proceeds from the use
and development of national wealth or natural resources located
in their respective areas. People are also empowered to recall
inept or corrupt locally elected officials. They have the right to
initiate legislation and participate in local special bodies such as
health boards, school boards, and award committees.
441
The devolution of central government powers to local officials was
designed to strengthen democracy and contribute to the
modernization of the nation. Through this Code, local
governments are to be 'liberated' from the central government in
Manila and can now under-take development projects and
programs suited to their needs and explore the economic
potentials of their locality. The creativity, local initiative, and self-
reliance of the barangay will be brought to a test. However, after
over a decade of implementation, the process of decentralization
is slow. Papers for some projects still have to be fol-lowed up in
Metro Manila. Decision-making on funds for local projects has
been slow, and funds are usually inadequate.

Rural Education

Most people in the rural areas dream that their children will
achieve a college education, as they believe that a college degree
is the means for a better social status and life. It is a sad
commentary that education in the rural areas cannot guarantee
this. Usually, one finds only a six-grade elementary' school or, at
best, a community high school in the barangay. For a college
education, one has to go to the poblacion or a major city. Many
elementary schools are not accessible to pupils in rural areas.
Some remote barangays have no school at all. School buildings
are small and dilapidated; often, these can accommodate only
Grades 1 and 2 school children. Rural areas lack teachers; and
some assigned there appear incompetent and conduct lessons in
uninteresting ways. Various programs and measures have been
undertaken to improve the quality of education in rural areas. A
significant move was the development of the community school,
which was intended to meet the people's needs and problems
442
through the integration of learning with living. At the elementary
level, there is school and community work and school and home
gardening projects. At the secondary level, there is an expanded
version of the cooperative scheme. The model is the school and
farm family projects. Most of these linkages at the elementary and
secondary curriculum are done informally and are loosely
organized (Carillo 1992:30). Changes in the elementary and
secondary curriculum have been made with the intention of
inculcating a healthy sense of work values.

In 1969, barangay high schools were instituted to provide high

school education for all. The program aimed to solve the problem
of dropouts due to the distance between school and home. Thus,
the barangay council was authorized to organize a low-cost
secondary school whenever at least 40 students in the barrio are
available to constitute a class. The new Barrio Development
School was organized so that the graduates and the school can
formulate and enact programs that would contribute to improving
rural life. This was intended for youths who decide to stay, live,
and work in the barrio. The curriculum includes supervised
farming programs as the core of instruction, supplemented by
subjects on production and agriculture, tool subjects (language
us-age, applied arithmetic, applied science, and farm economics),
and citizenship subjects.

Another type of high school offers the 2-2 plan curriculum, where
students take the same subjects in the first two years and select
between a college preparatory or a vocational curriculum in the
third- and fourth-year levels (Castillo 1979: 164-166). In particular,
Muslim and cultural minority communities suffer from neglect.
Madrasa schools have low quality education, and their textbooks
443
and instructional materials are irrelevant to their culture: These
schools lack funds and teachers. Tribal Filipinos' need for
education has hardly been met due to irrelevant curriculum and
instructional materials and teachers who are unfamiliar with the
ways of the tribal groups.

For the majority of the rural youth, a high school education is a

cul-de-sac. A select few pursue college in urban centers and then
stay there as no job opportunities exist in their home barangay.
Consequently, rural areas lose their college graduates. More, the
school calendar does not take into consideration the planting or
harvest season and the market days when all of the community's
human resources are not attended. Unless these deficiencies and
shortcomings are corrected, the rural populace will continue to lag
behind their urban counterparts.

Rural Religion

Majority of the people in rural areas are Roman Catholics but

people of other religions concentration in some regions. In the
north, a large number adhere to the Aglipayan religion and, in the
south, to the Islam faith.

Many Catholics do not understand the church's doctrines and are

more interested in its rituals, symbols, and artifacts. Christianity
has not been accepted en-toto but has been fused with
indigenous belief systems. This situation, called 'Folk
Catholicism,' is discussed in the chapter on Religion. Among the
Muslims in Mindanao, like the Jama Mapun, the official Islamic
doctrines and practices have been modified to suit local practices
and rituals. These rituals and ceremonies relate to the life cycle of
444
birth, baptism, circumcision, marriage, and death. In addition, the
rituals connected with the annual cycle of planting and harvesting
persist.

The traditional system of ethics, legends, and ritual observances

continue to exert influence upon the general system of morality
(Casino 1967:34-48). In some places, the church has embarked
on social action and the promotion of rural development. Pacho
and Mariano (1975:113-135) cite the case of the Abra diocese
which has cooperated with the government in putting up rural
projects such as drinking water and irrigation systems, rice and
corn mills, and a suspension bridge. This work is in consonance
with the church ideal of human development by satisfying the
basic human needs. In some rural communities, Basic
Ecclesiastical Communities (BEC) have been organized. These
are groups composed of about 10 to 100 families, or even a
whole barangay, en-gaged in community prayers and worship
through a mass or a priestless Sunday service. Other activities
include catechism, family life pro-grams, and concerted actions
for justice, ecological preservation, and peace (Bacani 1988:
75276). To the rural folks, religion is a means of coping with life's
problems and major crises. It also offers opportunities for
socializing and engaging in social action programs.

Rural Recreation and the Fiesta

In rural communities, leisure time consists of visiting and chatting

with friends. Panguingue and other card games are common
diversions for women, cockfighting and jueteng for men. Mahjong,
bingo, arid checkers are becoming popular in barrios near the
poblacion. Young boys engage in competitive games like
445
basketball, baseball, volleyball, and sipa. Sungka is played by
girls and young women. Marriage, baptism, and death provide
occasions for people to gather. Movies popularized by
commercial mobile units are sometimes brought to the barrios.
Otherwise, the folks go to the poblacion to see a movie.

A number of families have transistor radios, and the more affluent

ones own television sets. In 1987, 78% of residents in the rural
areas had radios, and 24% owned television sets (Jamias
1991:135). The fiesta is a socio-religious activity which is always
looked forward to by rural folks. It is an annual celebration in
honor of the local patron saint. Preparations for the celebration
perks up the people and breaks the humdrum life in the barrio.
The community buzzes with activities centering on the nine-day
novena and masses, preparation for stage shows, the selection of
a barrio queen, and possibly a dance.

The chapel is spruced up or a temporary structure is built with

some families contributing money or other material goods.
Houses are re-paired, cleaned, and decorated. Curtains,
cushions, and the best china are brought out. To top all these, a
lavish feast is prepared to which families and friends from near
and far are invited. In addition to its religious and social functions,
the fiesta serves as an occasion for a merrymaking. Fiestas and
weddings become occasions for merrymaking as well as family
reunion. The fiesta is a status symbol the more lavish the fiesta
and the more important the guests, the higher is the status
conferred to a barrio family. However, it can be dysfunctional as it
drains the economic resources of the members of the community.
Nevertheless, when the fiesta is over, the people look forward to
the next one in the following year.
446
Rural Health and Nutrition

The barrio has been rhapsodized as a healthy place to live in

because of its fresh air, open spaces, and its fresh fruits and
vegetables. However, the state of health and nutrition in rural
areas shows a different image. Children, as well as adults, die of
respiratory, gastrointestinal, and communicable diseases; there is
an alarming incidence of malnutrition despite the increase in food
production. Food and Nutrition Research Institute surveys in
1960, 1970, and 1982 reveal that pre-school children suffer from
severe malnutrition. A joint study on the situation of women and
children made by the Philippine government and the United
Nations Children's Fund revealed an increase in poverty rate
among Filipino families, from 49.3% in 1971 to 59.3% in 1985.

The rural incidence was at 64%. Since low food consumption and
the consequent malnutrition are related to poverty, the number of
rural people nutritionally-at-risk is estimated at 5.7 million. These
house-holds were below the $1-day per capita food threshold.
The nutritionally-at-risk rural households are those of the hunters,
loggers, the small-subsistence or hired fisherfolk, and the
seasonally hired farm workers. These families live in substandard
dwellings, with unsanitary surroundings and unsafe water supply
(Dacanay and Corcolon 1991:169-170 175). Health services are
concentrated in the cities, to the neglect of the rural areas where
majority of the people live. There is a low ratio of doctor, midwife,
and dentist per resident in the remote barrios. In far flung areas,
greater trust is placed on herbolarios (herbal medicine
practitioners) and faith healers. People who live near the
poblacion arrange for exposure programs so that medical
practitioners are ex-posed to the essential aspects of rural health
447
delivery services. However, these have been mere palliatives
rather than a real and positive approach to improving the
country's rural human resources (Reforma 1977:156-175).

The tradition of Philippine health care was patterned after the US,
which is characterized by a low budget government sector to take
care of a large number of indigent and the commercial private
sector to provide services to the rich. Rural Health Units (RHU),
composed of one doctor, a nurse, a midwife, and a sanitary
inspector, constitute the principal arm of the Department of
Health. There is one RHU for every 30,000 rural inhabitants.
Health NGOs have been engaged in providing health services to
the poor (Tan 1993:111). The martial law period ushered in a
wave of radicalization in viewpoints. NGOs questioned the
traditional approach to correct the increasing social inequalities.

The Rural Missionaries of the Philippines, together with health

professionals in three Catholic dioceses of Ilagan, Tacloban, and
Iligan, set up the first community-based health program (CBHP),
using China's barefoot doctors as a model. Health professionals
were persuaded to change the elitist, Western-based health care
system to one which is mass-based, nationalistic and democratic.
They held the view that ill-health is due to social inequality which,
in turn, arises from imperialism, feudalism, and bureaucratic
capitalism. Primary health care (PHC) was an extensive strategy
to direct energies to the social, economic, and political aspects of
poor health. It also stressed community participation in the
primary health programs involving the training of barangay health
workers. In 1980, the Council for Primary Health Care was
established as a national coordinating body for the 86 CBHPs and

448
the diverse health workers dealing with the many issue's of health
and development.

Innovations in health practices and the use of medicinal plants

were advocated. During the term of Pres. Aquino, NGOs
supported the Generic Act which was intended to lower drug
prices. A National Drug Policy was crafted. There are also Rural
Improvement Clubs, composed of mothers who are actively
involved in farm management, nutrition related pro-grams, health
care, and education. They are oriented to utilize indigenous
resources and institutions in supporting intervention programs
(Iglesias et al. 1985:25). In the 1990s, there were renewed efforts
to restore health care to the people. Organizing activities in the
villages continued and, in the process, raised the issue of whether
to use the comprehensive or vertical approach. The vertical
approach focused on particular ailments such as acute respiratory
infection, diarrhea, or HIV/AIDS prevention. There were also
debates on issues such as the responsibilities and roles that must
be taken by the government, commercial private sectors, and
NG0s. Activist health NGOs have introduced many changes.
Whether they will remain effective and maintain their position in
an era of rapid and political changes remains to be seen.
(Excerpted from Michael L. Tan, The Development of Health
NGOs in the Philippines: A Socio-Historical Review. Philippine
Sociological Review, 41 [Nos. 1-4] Jan. Dec. 1993: 111-122.) In a
research to determine availment of maternal health care services
on three barangays a farming community, a fishing community
and combination farming and fishing community in Leyte,
Lamberto (1991:56-82) found out that residents utilized health
care services especially those provided by the public sector. They
frequented the rural health units (RHU) for preventive health care
449
and treatment. They also received immunization, family planning
methods, medical advice, pre-and postnatal care. Most expressed
satisfaction with the services because of the perceived
competence of RHU staff, especially the midwives, as well as
their accommodating and nurturing approach. A few expressed
dissatisfaction with the lack of the available medicines or drugs at
the RHU and the inaccessibility of the doctor. Very few consult
the herbolarios, but a considerable number sought treatment from
the hilots. The middle and upper classes availed of the services of
private doctors.

Rural Change and Rural Development

Rural development has been an area of concern of both

government and non-government organizations for the past four
decades. The bulk (63%) of the total Philippine labor force, which
includes workers in mining, transport, and market enterprises in
agriculture, forestry, and fishing areas, are based in the rural
areas. However, rural areas continue to lag behind Metro Manila
and other urban centers. In the 1950s, community development
programs were initiated to uplift the rural areas and bring about a
change in the people's attitudes an way of life. As conceived by
the government, these would create conditions of economic and
social progress for the whole community, largely upon the
initiative of the people. The essence was self-help in order to
increase productivity. The Presidential Ann on Community
Development (PACD), the Philippine Rural Reconstruction
Movement (PRRM), and the International Institute for Rural
Reconstruction undertook community development programs.
The PIRRM was established as a volunteer organization by Dr.

450
Y.C. James Yen and an influential group of private citizens during
the period of Huk uprisings in the 1950s.

Yen called for service to the people and nation-building through

the upliftment of rural communities. Most volunteers were
idealistic young people who worked in the barrios to help the
village folks organize associations, cooperatives, and health
centers. The PRRM emphasized the role of the people as agents,
of change in their own lives and of the nation. Agricultural
extension services were used to stimulate change by
disseminating information on practices and skills. Cooperative
and credit movements were also undertaken. PRRM later
developed alternative mechanisms for technology transfer, which
combined livelihood, education, health, and self-government in an
integrated program for people empowerment (Morales 1989 cited
by Jamias 1991:131). In the 1960s, the focus was on single
community programs, which were production oriented. The Green
Revolution was launched with experiments on new rice varieties.
This involved the shift from the production of traditional varieties
of rice to high-yielding varieties. The primacy of technology was
the main characteristic of the program. The Masagana 99 rice
production was initiated in the late 1960s and showed the
package program approach. It consisted of packages of inputs to
increase farm output. Performance was well-monitored. This
approach achieved self-sufficiency in rice and was applied later to
corn, livestock, and other commodities. However, this approach is
considered a short-range and expensive response to crises such
as a commodity shortage. Farm efficiency can be achieved only if
the farmers are educated or skilled and self-reliant. In the 1970s,'
the Integrated Rural Development (IRD) used strategies to-
enhance and integrate programs and projects in an area having
451
functional linkages, resource utilization, access to basic services,
and local participation in the planning and implementation process
and integrated with the national goals and objectives (Lawas
1979:21). The integrated rural development concept focused on
the development of planned settlements which contained facilities
and services to enhance people's well-being and answer their
basic needs.

Notable examples are the River Basin Development Programs,

such as the Upper Pampanga River Basin Project, Bicol River
Basin Development, the Cagayan Valley Project, the Job o
Resettlement project, the Mindoro Integrated Rural Development
Project, and the Second Rural Development and Settlement
Project in Bukidnon. " In 1978, the College of Agriculture of the
University of the Philip-pines in Los Banos launched the
Countryside Action Programs which pilot-tested extension models
for agriculture and rural development. These were supported by
the National Food and Agricultural Council (NFAC) of the Ministry
of Agriculture and Food. New varieties of rice and corn, improved
animal production system, better techniques for soil testing, pest
management system, appropriate hilly land farming technology,
improved seed support technology, and market systems were
developed and disseminated.

However, most people were un-prepared to accept and adapt

some of the technologies. The program also suffered from the
lack of strong local institutions to implement the project. In 1986, a
modified extension program, the Agricultural Development
Program for the Countryside, was introduced. It was based on
self-help and people-oriented community development and aimed
to improve the quality of life of the rural poor through
452
socioeconomic projects, increased farm productivity, improved
health and nutritional status, and the involvement of rural folks in
the projects (Davide 1991:179-181). Various government
agencies aim to support rural development: to increase the
productive assets of the poor in the rural areas; to increase the
flow of income to the people; to provide social services and satisfy
basic needs, and; to promote people and community
empowerment. However, because these agencies operate
independently of each other, their capacity to achieve success is
not maximized (De Guzman, Carada, and Brillantes 1991:191). In
1998, the Department of Labor and Employment launched the
Rural Works Program through which infrastructure and
reforestation jobs are given to the poor in the rural areas: This is
done with the help of the local government units, NG0s, socio-
civic groups, and trade unions. During the term of Pres. Gloria
Macapagal-Arroyo, GMA programs (Ginintuang Masaganang Ani
- Countryside Assistance for Rural Employment and Services)
were launched to assist agricultural workers and empower small
farmers and fisherfolk. The program centers on job creation and
credit provision without requiring collateral. Despite all these
attempts, however, the gap between the rich and the poor is still
wide. Most people in rural areas remain poor. Much is still to be
done to raise the people's quality of life.

Summary

People have always lived in communities. A community may be

viewed as a social organization or a social process. A community
is a social grouping where members carry on a common
interdependent life and share commodities or bonds. One can
look into the ecology of the community, i.e., the study of
453
individuals and their facilities in relation to the environment and
the spatial relationship between them. Communities are usually
classified into rural and urban. In highly industrialized societies,
the distinction between the two becomes blurred Sociologists use
other criteria like occupation, population density, social
interaction, social stratification, social differentiation, and social
unity. Rural communities are often small. The occupations of the
people are farming, fishing, forestry, supplemented by cottage
industries.

There is low person-to-land ratio; which affects the type of social

interaction, social institutions, social stratification, and unity. The
Philippines is predominantly rural and consists of barrios (now
barangay), considered as the 'backbone of the nation.' The
general patterns of the rural communities are of the nucleated and
dispersed types of settlement patterns. In rural areas, families are
usually nuclear consanguine, bilateral, and either bilocal or
neolocal. A high incidence of poverty prevails. Despite the
introduction of modern technology, the lot of most farmers has not
changed. An emerging issue in Philippine agriculture is the
expansion of big agribusiness corporations whose increased
production and profit sometimes come at the expense of small
farmers. Cooperatives have been established to help poor
farmers, but these did not fare well.

Agrarian reform has also been instituted and was considered the
centerpiece of both Marcos's as well as Aquino's administrations.
Despite some success stories, the programs have been severely
criticized for its slow implementation. Political autonomy was
given to the barrios with the passage of the Barrio Council Act
and later the Revised Barrio Charter. Substantial gains in
454
autonomy have been realized with the adoption of the Local
Government Code in 1991, which devolved powers to local
governments. In education, elementary schools are not
accessible to many pupils in some barangays. Dropout rates are
higher in the rural than in urban areas. Many college graduates
eventually migrate to the urban areas. Majority of the people are
Roman Catholics, with the Aglipayan religion predominant in the
north and Islam in the south. The fiesta is a socio-religious
activity, which breaks the monotony and drabness of barrio life.
Health wise, nutrition conditions of the rural folks are deplorable.

A great number of children suffer from severe malnutrition. In the

past four decades, reforms have been instituted to alleviate
poverty in the rural areas. Community Development Programs
were initiated in the 1950s to improve conditions for economic
and social progress. In the 1 960s, the focus was on production-
oriented and single community programs. The Green Revolution
was launched, and Masagana 99 rice production was introduced.
In the 1970s, the Integrated Rural Development approach was
introduced, with the intention of integrating programs and projects
in the planning and implementation process. These were later
followed by the modified extension program of the Agricultural
Development Program for the Country-side. NG0s, private,
nonprofit groups, also strive to bring socioeconomic development
and service to the rural areas. Dpi .e these, a lot still has to be
done to improve the conditions of rural community

Study Guide

1. Concepts to master Community Rural community Human

ecology
455
 2. What is a community? How is a rural community
distinguished from an urban community?
3. Discuss the relation between rural culture and social
structure.
4. Describe the spatial patterns of rural communities. How
does the pattern of Philippine communities fit in?
5. Discuss the characteristics of the various social institutions
in the Philippines
6. What is the implication of agrarian reform on rural
development?
7. What are the various changes and reforms taking place in
rural communities? How have they affected the people?

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What can the youth do to uplift the condition of the rural

masses?
2. Should the barangay be given more autonomy? Why?

456
 Chapter 16

URBAN COMMUNITIES

Most models used in studying urban communities are derived

from the West and are, therefore, difficult to comprehend when
applied to Third World countries. Urbanization in the West is
different from that in Third World countries, not to mention the
differences in cultures and historical experiences. Western cities
were established along trade routes, which mean they anticipated
population growth and the need for economic goods. Third World
urbanization, on the other hand, did not anticipate population
growth. In effect, the food resources needed by the growing
population were not part of the plan for urbanization. The latter is
often referred to as the New Urbanization, where one of the
consequences is the growth of slum dwellers who were forced to
migrate to the cities because of unemployment. Migration,
underemployment, and unemployment are some of problems
associated with urbanization.

Realidad S Rolda
December 8, 2002

Basic Concepts

The excerpt above is a commentary on the emergence of a new

kind of community called urban community or city. The terms
city and urban are sometimes used interchangeably, but the
two concepts are distinct. In social science, urban is used to refer
to a quality of life that is typically found in cities. In realty, urban is
both a process and a place, as the urban process cannot occur
457
without corresponding resources, population, and economic base
(Hawley 1971:8). Urban embraces the whole of organization that
is based upon a settlement, which may be a city or something
closely resembling a city. Louis Wirth (1938:124) defines a city as
a relatively large, dense, and permanent settlement of socially
heterogeneous individuals. Cities cover a large area, which
means that good roads and a public transport system are
necessary to enable people to commute from one place to
another. Because the area is vast, once cannot meet or know all
the other people. Moreover, population density is high, resulting in
problems such as traffic congestion, housing shortage, pollution,
and garbage disposal. On the positive side, there are amenities
like shopping places, pubs, cinemas, restaurants, cafes, clubs,
and amusement halls.

Cities are made up of people from different ethnic and racial

origins, social classes, and religious organizations. This social
heterogeneity can create hostility, but it can also create a rich,
diverse environment (Calvert 1992:152). Martindale (in Iverson
1984:9) defines city as a geographic area designated by a special
name, compromising a large aggregation of people engaged in
non-agricultural pursuits, and recognized by its inhabitants and its
chartering authority as a city. It is a legally chartered subunit for
the contemporary nation state and is characterized by the
political, legal, and police powers granted to it. Urban embraces
the whole of the organization, which is based upon a center of
settlement; it also refers to a process in which special quality of
relationships is generated. Raymundo (1983:64) uses the concept
or urban in terms of the function in which the rate of urban growth
is greater than that of the rural population.

458
The definition of urban area is closely bound up with historical,
political cultural and administrative considerations. An area may
be defined as urban depending on its size, which varies from one
society to another. Other criteria are occupation, density, legal
community status, socioeconomic status, and cultural
heterogeneity. The culture of the people un urban areas, their
patterns of behavior, and their manner of doing things are far from
homogenous, and will not likely be so, even with the onset of
global communications. They are melting pots of diverse groups
and contradictory interests. (Bautista 1998:22).

In the Philippines, the National Census and Statistics Office

(NCSO) defines urban areas on the basis size and population
density. In 1970, the NCSO included other criteria such as distinct
street patterns, non-agricultural occupation, and the presence of
public and economic establishments. The Local Government
Code (1991) refers to urban areas as cities and government
centers in municipalities labelled as poblacion. A poblacion is an
area of not less than 5,000 square meters where the government
center is located. The municipal hall, government buildings,
market site, schools, plaza or park, and cemetery are located in
the poblacion. The city is composed of more urbanized and
developed barangays, which are created, divided, merged, or
abolished by an Act of Congress. A city may either be a
component or a highly urbanized one. A component city has an
average annual income of at least P20,000,000, a population of
not less than 150,000, and a contiguous land area of at least 100
square kilometers as certified by a designated office. The territory
need not be contiguous if it comprises two or more islands. Highly
urbanized cities have a population of at least 200,000, as certified

459
by the National Statistics Office, and an income of at least
P50,000, certified by the city treasurer.

What is Urbanization?

Urbanization is the process of concentrating people within a

relatively small geographic area. It is related to social change and
growth. From a demographic perspective, it refers to an increase
in the number and size of population centers. According to
anthropologists, urbanization involves the transfer of tribal,
peasant, and other rural populations to urban life-styles. But the
transfer from rural to urban communities alone does not make a
ruralite an urbanite. It requires a shift in values, attitudes, and
behavior that are compatible with local urban patterns and,
therefore, requires a long period of time for peasants to internalize
an urban life-style. In effect, it is the impact of urban life-styles
that enables a migrant to become an urbanite (Rolda 2002).

Related to this is what Wirth calls urbanism, which is a way of life

and a form of social existence found in cities. Its complex of traits
includes a high degree of impersonalism, apathy, cultural
heterogeneity, predominance of secular values, and extreme
division of labor. In cities, people live in close physical proximity
without knowing most of other directly. The contacts between the
residents are usually fleeting, superficial, and characterized by
competitive relationships, which lead to a sense of alienation and
powerlessness (Barker 2000:297-298).

Impersonality and secondary relationships do exist in the cities,

but studies show that primary relationships and personal
integration also develop between kin and non-kin. Urban
460
researches show that physical proximity (neighborhood) is not the
important basis of intimacy. Rather, people form intimate
networks on the basis of kin, friendships, and work groups. They
keep in touch by telephone rather than relying solely on face-to-
face communications. When they need help, they call on their
parents of children. Urbanities have intimates, but they do not
necessarily live in the same neighborhood (Brinkerhoff and White
1988:543). Anthropological research demonstrated that while
migrants retained their ties with their kin, they also formed groups
based on ties of origin, kinship or ethnicity. Migrants often remit
their earnings to their families in rural areas who use the money
for the education of their siblings, install electricity or construct
wells.

Urbanization is brought about by the growth of cities. As such,

cities are viewed not only as the a dwelling place and workshops
of urbanities but also as the initiating and controlling political,
cultural, economic, and educational centers. The centers and
services offered by the cities have attracted the ruralites.

Urbanization in a Historical Perspective

The first cities appeared about five or six thousand years ago in
the Middle East in Mesopotamia (now Southern Iraq) and Egypt.
In Asia, cities were formed in Northwest India in the Indus River
Valley (present-day West Pakistan) and in the Yellow River basin
in China about 2400 BC. Cities developed in Europe about 2300
BC and the 1900 BC, with Rome as the greatest city. In the New
World, cities emerged about 300 BC in Central Mexico. It may be
said that cities are a recent development and experience,
considering that human beings have been on this earth for the
461
last million or more years. As pointed out by Davis (1980:143), the
appearance of cities marks a revolutionary change and the
beginning of civilization, as these lay the foundation of later-day
civilization.

The pre-industrial cities were limited in size. Crowded housing

conditions and the lack of adequate sewage facilities made the
area susceptible to plagues and fire, resulting in high death rate.
Moreover, there was limited food supply due to the difficulty of
getting food from the rural areas. Migration to the city was limited
due to the existence of serfdom, slavery, and the caste system.
Nevertheless, many pre-industrial cities had a sense of
community. Although the city was full of people from diverse
backgrounds, there was a high degree of social integration
(Kendall 2000:440-441).

The ancient and medieval cities served as defense and refugee

centers as well as trading centers. These were probably the
products of war and violence (Martindale 1984:14). From the 10th
century onwards, urban settlements were more or less self-
governing cities controlled by feudal lords. They did not resume
their function as centers of trade and manufacturing until the 15th
and 16th centuries, with the onset of the industrial revolution and
the growth of modern states. The Industrial Revolution altered the
nature of the city. Industrialization led to large-scale mechanized
production, which required big capital. It spurred population
growth, migration and concentration of people in cities, changes
in the economic system. The number of specialized jobs and
services increased. Industrialization has also its bad effects. With
the growth of industries, the demand for raw materials increased,
even as the supply of non-renewable resources such as minerals
462
and fossil oil diminished, along with rapid deforestation ad the
resultant air and water pollution.

Urban development in the West, especially in England, was

brought about by several factors, including (1) improvements in
transportation, roads, and canals; (2) agricultural innovations and
commercialization; (3) the emergence of the factory system with
industrial production derived from steam power; and (4)
infrastructure technology. As a result, contacts between urban
centers and the hinterlands improved, markets were expanded,
activities became highly specialized, and migration to the cities
was encouraged. The innovations prompted a change in the
structure of social organizations, which had to be extended
beyond that of family and kin. Other developments were the
mergence of more complex social organizations, efficient social
political mechanisms, effective working arrangements, some form
of exchange among the emerging specialists, and increased
division of labor and specialization. Cities also became the major
site of politics, with corrupt power seekers and greedy
entrepreneur looking for plunder opportunities (Martindale
1984:29). Cities were also the center of concerts, plays, and other
social activities. Since then, the cities have grown rapidly. In the
20th century, urban growth was further hastened by technological
development. Travel from rural to urban areas became faster,
population and industry were re-concentrated, and metropolitan
communities emerged.

Some countries like the U.K., U.S., the Netherlands, Belgium,

Switzerland, Germany, and Japan are moving toward a saturated
urbanization. This is a situation where the population has so
diminished the there is little or no migration to the cities. In these
463
countries, the future growth of the cities depends on natural
population increase of the balance of births over deaths (Gist and
Fava 1974:104; 135-139).

In the 1950s, post-industrial cities emerged in the U.S. with the

shift from secondary (manufacturing) to tertiary (service and
information processing) production. Post-individual cities have
light processing services such as airlines and hotel services,
educational complexes, medical centers, convention centers,
retail trade and shopping malls. Advances in communications and
transportation technology made it possible for middle and upper
income groups to live farther from their place of work. The rural-
urban differences have since been diminished, and society has
adopted a common way of life called urbanized social
organization. The ways of life and social institutions have become
so intertwined that any institutional structures will be manifest in
the same way on all people regardless of their residential location.
People are reached by mass media, and no precise distinctions
exist between the ways of life in the cities from that of the farm.

In the 1980s and 1990s, capitalism was restructured on a global

scale following a global recession. Through information and
communications technology, capital was decentralized through
globalized production, financing, and distribution. A small number
of centers emerged and dominated the world economy. Among
these are London, New York, Tokyo, Seoul, Los Angeles,
Frankfurt, Paris, and Singapore. These centers act as command
and control points for an increasingly dispersed set of economical
activities. They became the sites for the accumulation,
distribution, and circulation of capital where information and
decision-making is made. Citing Harvey (1973, 1985) and
464
Custelles (1983), the reorganizing of the city is an aspect if the
restriction of capitalism on global scale, illustrating the place of
urban life in the long line of dependency and exploitation
constitutive of worldwide capitalism (Barkers 2000-299).

The post-industrial city is characterized by high-rise, high-density

offices in the central business district. These buildings represent
technological advances and the power exercised by large
multinational corporations. In contrast, are the outlying districts
where the physical and cultural presence of ethnic communities
represents the other aspect of globalization (Barker 200:301).

Urbanization in Developing Countries

Urbanization has taken pace in the developing countries of Africa,

Asia, and Latin America. A number of cities were founded as a
result of colonialism and imperialism in order to serve as
administrative centers and sources of raw materials for the
colonial power. Unlike the industrialized societies of the West,
these developing countries are dominantly agricultural and are in
a stage of transition to an industrialized economy.

Prior to the 19th century, European interest in the wealth of Asia

prompted radical changes in the structure and independence of
Asian states and their urban settlements. It became essential to
control established port cities and found new ones to direct trade.
Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras in India, Jakarta in Indonesia,
Singapore, Hong Kong, and Manila were all creations of the
mercantile interests of Europeans. The port towns became
colonial capitals. Colonial powers encouraged the indigenous
inhabitants to develop commerce and provide services instead of
465
manufacturing. Major differences arose between the large capital
cities and the provincial towns. In some cases, the differences
were so marked that they were called primate cities; examples
are Bangkok in Thailand and Manila in the Philippines. The
centers attracted people from the rural areas. Rural-urban
migration became the trend in Asia, except for China under ma
Zedong who emphasized rural development and encouraged
urban youth to return to rural areas.

During the period of colonial expansion, there was rapid growth

due to the lure of employment. After World War II, many colonized
countries, which gained independence, experienced rapid
urbanization, industrialization, and urban popular growth.
However, unlike in the West, industrialization did not keep pace
with urbanization. In North America and Europe, cities have jobs
for the rural migrants. In the developing countries, the supply of
labor from the rural areas exceeded the demand for labor in the
rural areas. This resulted in a high unemployment rate and
inadequate housing for the migrants. Another difference is that
cities in industrialized countries form a pyramid with few large
cities at the top, followed by medium sized cities in the middle,
and the bulk of the small cities at the bottom. In developing
countries, there is often one enormous big city that dwarfs the
villages (Shepard 1999:460).

Economic development does not go hand-in-hand with rapid

urbanization. Former colonies retained the colonial power
structure and are dependent on the exportation of raw materials
to their former colonial masters.

466
Developing countries have manifested a form of urban
underdevelopment that has been called pseudo-organization,
where growth is not synonymous with urbanization it is a situation
where redistribution of population form the rural to the urban
areas is not occurring and which is not conducive to economic
growth (Iverson 1984:237).

Cities in underdeveloped and developing countries are the

centers of power and privilege. Concentrated in the urban sector
are big shares of investment and consumption. Urban residents
enjoy higher standards of living than their rural counterparts. The
cities also receive a bigger share of the funds for public works,
while the rural areas are generally neglected. Although
unemployment and underemployment rates are high, most urban
dwellers somehow manage to survive, often with the help of the
underground economy (Guggler 1988:85).

Urbanization in the Philippines

The studies of Laquian (1966), Poethig (1969), Mijares and

Nazaret (1973), Pernia (1976), Lawas (1979), Raymundo (1983),
Bautista (1980), Costello (1988), Berrner (1998), and others
present similar trends of urbanization in the Philippines. Bautista
(1998:25-26) cited the following factors for urbanization: 1) The
attractiveness of urban life strengthened the stream of migration
from the rural areas. The Perceptions by the ruralites of better
employment opportunities and accessibility to services and
facilities in urban areas bolstered the desire to start a new life in
the city. 2) The existence of social networks in the migrants
destination. The perceived risks of migration are lessened with
the assurance of kin and friends who help upon their arrival in the
467
city. Other networks not based on kinship ties have recently
emerged. 3) Natural increase. i.e., increasing births and declining
deaths of the populace in the city.

The country was at an early stage of urbanization in 1903, with

13.1% of its population residing in urban areas (Raymundo
1983:64-68). Compared to the other Southeast Asian countries,
the Philippines had an early start at urbanization. This may be
due to the resettlement plan and the centralized form of
government during the Spanish regime. From 1903 to 1918,
urbanization slumped; this could be attributed to the uncertainties
during the early part of the American regime.

After World War II, there was a marked increase in urbanization

brought by the industrialization and Filipinization programs. From
1948 to 1975, the pace of urbanization was slow. Pernia
(1976:197ff.) points out that urbanization, which he defined as a
socioeconomic phenomenon involving a rise in the proportion of
the countrys population in urban places, has not been actually
rapid. What actually took place was a growth from accelerated
natural increase, aggravated by the over-concentration of growth
in the Manila area. From 1975, when the level of urbanization was
33.4, there was a rapid increase in the pace f urbanization; by
1980, the level was 37.3 in 1990, the level of urbanization was
48.6. Like other underdeveloped and developing countries, the
Philippines manifest over-urbanization, where the economic
development is slower in pace than urban concentration. (Table
16.1)

Rural folks are lured to big cities like Manila, Davao, Cebu, and
Zamboanga. This migration has resulted in an unbalanced growth
468
pattern. This has created problems like the increase in
unemployment and underemployment. This situation has forced
professionals to look for the proverbial pot of gold in foreign
countries. Moreover, the raising population has strained water
and power resources to breaking points; garbage disposal has
become a problem, and so has the proliferation of squatters.

In an exploratory study, Wilfredo Arce (1987;104-107) delineated

four patterns to characterize urbanism, namely: economic
complexity, household stability, ethnic diversity, and cultural
complexity. Economic complexity consists of the population
component represented by density and urban residents residing
in the urban part of the city. Household stability emphasized a
nuclear family-centered household and size and stability of that
household. Ethnic diversity referred to language diversity and
cultural complexity centered on literacy and education. Arce
examined how the 60 chartered cities stood on these four
selected urbanism patterns.

He found that four Metro Manila cities (Caloocan, Manila, Pasay,

and Quezon) scored high in all the factors but were not
consistently at the top in all of them. The cities which ranked high
on economic complexity were Manila, Quezon City, Cebu,
Bacolod, Dagupan, Dumaguete, Iloilo, Marawi, Naga, Tacloban,
and Tagbilaran. The cities which were high on level I for
household stability were Pasay, Caloocan, Batangas, Calbayog,
Cavite, Danao, Lucena, Olongapo, Mandaluyong, Ormoc, San
Carlos, Negros Oriental, San Pablo, and Toledo. For ethnic
diversity, Angeles, Baguio, Butuan, Cagayan de Oro, Cotabato,
Davao, Gen. Santos, Iligan Puerto Princesa, Surigao, and
Zamboanga ranked high. For cultural complexity, the cities which
469
ranked high were Manila, Quezon, Pasay, Caloocan, Baguio,
Batangas, Cavite, Lipa, Olongapo, Tagaytay, and Trece Martires.
An important dimension in the Philippine cities is administrative
function as, according to their characters, cities are considered
centers of political administration.

Urban Culture and Social Structure

Urban communities have a complex social structure which

influences the social behavior and values of their inhabitants.
Research by prominent academicians, among them Robert E.
Park, E.W. Burgess, R.O. McKenzie, and Louis Wirth from the
University of Chicago, points out that a city is a natural ecological
system consisting of natural area or subareas such as business
district, residential areas, industrial zones, ethnic neighborhoods,
slums and shanty towns that are in dynamic interaction with each
other.

Louis Wirth (1938:1) dwelt on urbanism \as a way of life

characterized by a complex of traits, such as a high degree of
cultural heterogeneity, predominance of secular values,
impersonalism, and extreme division of labor. The size of the
population affects the character of urban social relationships. The
bonds of kinship, neighborliness, and intimacy have declined,
making the city potentially alienating. He comes segmented and
fragmentary. Relations become impersonal, superficial, transitory,
and segmental. Pronounced segmentation is accompanied by a
high degree of individualization.

Bautista (1998:21-22) posits that the culture in urban

communities- norms, language, values, and feelings- is far from
470
homogenous, even with the onset of global communications.
Rather, urban communities are melting pots of diverse cultures
characterized by cultural hybridization, contrasts, and varying
traditions and modern ideas.

A study made by a team of statisticians in 1990 divided Metro

Manila households into five social classes: A, B, C, D, and E. The
AB classes who make up the cream of the upper upper class and
lower upper class constitute less than 1% of all barangays. Their
life-styles compare with that of the elite in other parts of the world.
They own grand mansions, operate several companies, have
extensive landholdings, and send their children to exclusive
schools here or abroad. Their homes have security guards. The C
class is made up of the middle class that constitutes 46% of all
Metro Manila villages; it is divided into upper C and lower C. the
upper middle C lives in a single detached houses in subdivisions,
some of which are as grand as upper class homes. They send
their children to private schools and have networks of relatives,
officemates, or friends in other parts of their village. They own
cars and telephones.

The lower C class have single detached homes or apartment

units located in relatively congested parts of the metropolis. They
send their children to public or less expensive private schools.
They have networks of relatives and officemates elsewhere,
although those with small-scale businesses in the neighborhood
maintain the established locality-based networks. Residents of
subdivisions delineated from surrounding areas have attended
security concerns as well as access to water and garbage
collections. The lower class is made up of the D and E barangays

471
which are found in squatters and slum areas. Although, squatters
also occupy land in C and AB barangays.

Rapid social change is brought about by the introduction of new

technology and the continuous migration of various ethnic groups.
The coming together of various ethnic groups creates great social
differentiation, developing sophistication, cosmopolitanism,
individuality, reserve, loss of traditional ways, a blas attitude, and
at times, a feeling of loneliness, despair, and anomie as well as
personal and social disorganization.

Living in the city requires unusual skills and the competitive ability
to adjust to rapid social change. More social classes develop
because of the great inequality in the distribution of wealth. The
great social mobility results in greater uncertainty. One has to
study how to manipulate others, however, cohesion and solidarity
result despite disparity in social economic, cultural and political
life. These views are held by the Chicago School and have been
questioned. Anthropologists have criticized these findings as
applicable only to urban areas in a Western society and not
necessarily to cities of developing and underdeveloped countries.
They cite that tribal people and peasants who migrate to the cities
surrounded themselves with migrants form similar cultural and
economic backgrounds, and integrated with them in order to
develop cohesive groups of kin and friends.

In the Philippines, the study of Arcinas and Angangco (1971:72-

19) showed that migrants consulted relatives and friends
regarding family, financial, and employment problems. Family
matters are regarded as too personal and too private a matter to
be discussed even with family counsellors or social workers who
472
are regarded as strangers. However, an impersonal, detached
and nonchalant attitude maybe observed in urban areas in the
country, particularly Metro Manila. In many instances, people
would not go to the rescue of a person being assaulted or robbed.
The diverse cultural groups also contributes to the impersonality
and anonymity of city living. Aloofness and nonchalance may be
observed in offices, factories, and even in the church.

Social disorganization and deviance are higher in urban than in

rural communities. Its rate depends on the complexity and size of
the city. A study by Marsella and Escudero (1970:69-75) on
interpersonal stress among males in Sampaloc, Manila showed a
high frequency of interpersonal stress. The most frequently
reported stress is not being understood by the family. Among
lower class males, stress is caused by their inability to meet
family obligations. Among the upper class, stress is caused by
saying things to the family that they later regret.

Urban Ecological Processes

Urban ecologists monitor the physical changes in the city and the
way an individual adapts to the changing urban environment,
which in turn influences the way the ecological process functions.
A few of these ecological processes will be discussed here.

Concentration occurs with the growth of towns and cities.

Concentration refers to population increase in a given area, as
determined by population density. People tend to cluster in certain
areas to satisfy some of their needs or interests or to fulfill certain
designated social or economic functions. All cities are functions of
population concentration. The opposite tendency is dispersion or
473
the outward spread of population to outlying sections, as seen in
the movement of the upper and middle classes to the suburbs.
This is observed in the growth of population in Metro Manila,
Davao, Cebu City, Baguio, and others.

One area in the city tends to have a controlling social and

economic position in relation to the other areas. This condition is
called dominance. The central business district, which is the hub
of economic activities in any city, is the dominant area. It also
commands the highest land value.

Gradient refers to the condition of receding degrees of dominance

from a selected dominant center. Usually a city has a high-value
residential area with a cheaper prices in the adjoining areas. The
same may be said of the central business district which has an
adjoining business area where prices of land are lower.

Various institutions and establishments are drawn together along

lines of transportation and communication. This condition is
referred to as centralization. People performing the same function
reside together in a given area. Specific types of institution and
business cluster along the same street or the same area. For
example, in Manila, the university belt us the area around
Mendiola, C.M. Recto, Morayta, and Espana. Hardware stores
are in Binondo district. Some streets specialize in specific
activities; Carriedo for shoe stores; Raon, electronics and music
stores; Tomas Mapua, car spare parts; and Remedios-Adriatico,
restaurants.

As land value goes up and competition becomes keen in the

central district, some business establishments are pushed toward
474
the outlying areas. This process is known as decentralization
the scattering of functions from the main districts to the outlying
districts. Facilities such as banks, malls, or shopping centers,
hospitals, and moviehouses, transfer to the suburbs in response
to economic and social needs.

Invasion occurs when new types of people, institutions, or

activities enter an area previously occupied by a different type.
For example, some residential areas are invaded by business or
industry, such that residents are forced to move. Ermita, once a
prestigious residential area, has been invaded by business and
entertainment enterprises. Complete invasion is called
succession, a phenomenon which occurs when the new
population or new function gains dominance. In Manila, old
houses along Legarda and Claro M. Recto have been replaced
with stores or shopping centers. The old Assumption Convent at
Pedro Gil was demolished to give way to a hotel and shopping
complex.

Ecological segregation arises from the fact that people differ

according to ethnic grouping, religion, social class, or occupation.
People of the same socio economic levels or ethnic
characteristics tend to live together. The development of exclusive
suburbs for the elite, medium-cost housing areas for the middle
class, Chinatown for the Chinese, the area around the mosque in
Quiapo for the Muslims all illustrate ecological segregation. The
motives differ from one individual to another. Some may choose
to live in an area because of the prestige such residence gives;
while lower income groups choose low-cost housing projects. The
location of residence tends to limit interaction among people of
various social classes or ethnic groups.
475
The Metropolitan Region

The metropolitan area is an urban phenomenon emerging in

different places around the world. The availability and mass
marketing of cars and buses was largely responsible for the
expansion of cities into surrounding areas.

As a city spreads out, it coalesces with other towns and cities.

Altogether, they become a region composed of a central city with
outlying areas linked to it socially and economically. The central
city is the integrating and dominating force, but it has no power to
dictate the outlying districts. In the U.S., there is the phenomenon
of one metropolitan area expanding and overlapping with another
metropolitan area, forming a megalopolis.

The negative factors that push people out of the central city are
overcrowding, crime, high taxes, and civil disorders. The factors
that lure people to relocate in the suburbs are more plentiful land
and open space, the possibility of expanding businesses, the
desire to give children more space for movement, and, in what
Rober Nishbet terms as, a quest for community or a place where
one can have greater community involvement and feel that he or
she belongs. Suburbs are considered the new frontiers where old
values can be retained and new ones developed.

Fava (1956;34-37) characterizes the suburbs as one where a high

degree of neighborliness exists because of selected demographic
and ecological characteristics, as well as selective migration to
the suburbs. There is a large proportion of young married couples
and their children, showing the dominance of the reproductive and

476
child socialization functions. The population is made up largely of
upper and middle class families.

In recent years, a new life-style has developed in the suburbs.

Industry and commerce followed peoples movement and
acquired chap peripheral property where they have put up
shopping centers or malls. Increasingly, the suburbs have
become main manufacturing and retail trade centers; while some
are basically education and recreation centers. The growth of the
suburbs is also facilitated by planned suburban development.
These are the residential suburbs where the bulk of the residents
commute daily to work outside their community.

The Growth of Metropolitan Manila

Manila was formally founded by the Spaniards in 1571 and made

it the seat of government; its original site being the walled city
called Intramuros. It grew through a process of accretion
southward and northward. Lying at the mouth of the Pasig River
and fronting Manila Bay, it enjoys a vantage position as trading,
industrial, and commercial center. It also became the seat of
education and religion. It is the meeting ground of the East and
West, showing the fusion of its various cultural influences.

The steady increase in population is due partly to natural

increases, but a significant portion is due to migration. Table 16.2
shows the steady growth of the population of Manila from 1903 to
2000. There was decline in the rate from 1980-1990; it is not
possible that during this period there was an out-migration to
foreign lands.

477
When the central city became congested, it pushed the residents
farther from it. The upper and middle income classes set up
income status residential units, which resulted in the proliferation
of villages and upper class divisions. Model class subdivisions
were also developed. These planned communities tend to be
economically homogenous and reflect as well as sustain the
social stratification system. The government has also set up
housing projects. However, squatter communities still sprout
along the fringes and interstices of the city like the near railroad
tracks, riverbanks, and seawalls.

The city has expanded into a metropolitan area: north to

Valenzuela, Bulacan, south to Las Pinas and Alabang, and east
to Antipolo; it continues to sprawl further. Metropolitan Manila has
developed into a primate city which dominates the whole country
in terms of the economy, culture, and politics. It is the most
modernized and industrialized region of the country and is the
focus of national dominance, just like Bangkok, Karachi, and
Cairo in their respective countries (Lacquian 1966;1-2).

Makati City is the center of business and commerce. It is the

headquarters of most of the top corporations in the country , 84%
of all commercial banks, and 46 foreign embassies. Its daytime
population is close to a million, which is double its resident
population (Gloria 1995:1).

A referendum held on February 27, 1975 approved the

establishment of the Metropolitan Manila Commission. The
commission exercised jurisdiction over the cities of Manila,
Quezon, Pasay, and Caloocan and the municipalities of Makati,
Mandaluyong, San Juan, Las Pinas, Malabon, Navotas, Pasig,
478
Pateros, Paranaque, Marikina, Muntinlupa in Rizal province, and
the municipality of Valenzuela in Bulacan. The commission was
the central governing authority in the planning and delivery of
basic services.

The commission was reorganized and renamed the Metropolitan

Manila Authority (MMA) in 1990 through an Executive Order
issued by Pres. Aquino. The functions of the MMA was rescinded
and transferred to the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority
(MMDA) in 1995 by virtue of Republic Act No. 7924. The policy-
making body and governing board of the MMDA is the Metro
Manila Council, composed of the mayors of the cities and
municipalities in Metro Manila and other department heads. The
services under the MMDA include development planning,
transport and traffic management, solid waste disposal and
management, urban renewal, zoning, land use planning, shelter
services, health and sanitation, urban protection, pollution control,
and public safety (Metro Manila Journal 2000).

The Urban Family

The changes brought about by urbanization and industrialization

is reflected in the family. In the Philippine urban areas the
extended family household is more of a phenomenon than the
nuclear family which is more common in rural areas. In the city, it
is more difficult and costly to build a separate house. Ruralites
who go to the city to work or study tend to join their wealthy
relatives. In fact, household size increases with the increasing
level of urbanization of the area. The source of this increase is not
natural increase but the arrival of relatives and non-relatives in the
household (Medina1991:17).
479
In a study of households in Malate, Manila, Eslao (1966;199-208)
found an overwhelming proportion of extended households and a
low proportion of the nuclear type as families had to accept
relatives, ritual kin, friends, and acquaintances from the barrio
who could not afford to rent a place of their own. The study of
Mendez and Jocano (1970:262-264) of Project 2 revealed the
prevalence of the extended family, also due to housing difficulty.
In her study of Barrio Escopa, a slum community in Quezon City,
Rolda noted that extended families persisted on account of the
economic convenience derived from such a familial structure.

In addition, the larger kinship network has a kind of stabilizing

influence. AS Arcinas and Angangco (1971-72:19) found out in
their study of migrants in Pobres Purok, Quezon City, migrants
consulted relatives and friends regarding family, financial, and
employment problems. However, observations reveal that the
younger members of the community preferred the nuclear families
because of the valued independence.

Arce (1970) and Hollnsteiner (1970) point out that the economic,
political, religious, and educational functions of the family are
being taken by other entities as another consequence of
industrialization and modernization. The socialization function is
diminished as children are sent to day care centers and nursery
schools.

Among the middle and upper class families, the care of the child
is usually left to a maid or yaya. The economic function is taken
over by the workplace an office, factory, or business firm. A
function still considered important in urban families is that of
providing emotional maintenance and childcare. The degree to
480
which these conditions are satisfied is dependent on the society.
Rural-urban differences in family structure and function are
unique from country to country.

Norms of courtship and marriage practices have changed in

urban areas. Young people tend to choose their mate on the
basis of romantic love, although parental approval is sometimes
considered. With the children going off to colleges and
universities and parents and work, the children are removed from
the watchful eyes of parents and are introduced to more
contemporary ideas of individual freedom, sex, love, and
marriage.

Engaged couples decide on the wedding arrangements and at

times share in the expenses. The wedding reception is family held
in a restaurant or hotel. Another trend noted among urban family
members is to do things together and share in the domestic
chores and baby care. There has been an increasing number of
live-ins and extramarital births over the last few decades. Marital
indefinitely is on the rise on account of the increasing
permissiveness, availability of contraceptive devices, and the
presence of hotels and motels where illicit relations can take
place (Medina 1991:245).

Traditional value patterns, which have changed in the urban

areas, refers to the childrens attitude toward their aging parents
and grandparents. Medina (1991:227-228) says that despite
some decline in the closeness of patent-child relations in urban
areas, the care and support of parents is still assumed to be a
moral obligation and responsibility. The elderly are not usually
included in decision-making as their wisdom is no longer relevant
481
to the fast-changing times. Not committing the aged to nursing
institutions merely complements the welfare function of the family
and is done only as a last resort. It is not necessarily an indication
of neglect or indifference, but an involuntary reaction to poverty.

With regards to the attitude of children towards their

grandparents, Chen (1985:263:271) found that a majority of high
school students retain the traditional value orientation of love and
respect for the elderly. This strong positive attitude is shown to
both paternal and maternal grandparents, suggesting that the
bilateral kinship system is still very much in existence. However,
although a great number of respondents considered these
grandparents as members of the family, they were not prepared
to have the old folk live with them.

Studies reveal that there are more working wives in the rural
areas compared to those in urban areas. Bautista (19776:2-22)
disclosed that, contrary to the popular belief that urbanization and
economic development provides liberation from household work,
the urbanization of society has relegated women more to the
home. In fact, in Western countries, the economic value of woman
declined in the process of industrialization.

Upper class wives take pride in their homes, and most dedicate
themselves to full-time housekeeping. The aspiration to manage a
home of her own has filtered to the middle-class women and, to a
certain extent, to the lower class. The aspiration has also spread
top urban women in colonized nations, as can be seen in some
middle and upper class Filipino families where women engage in
full-time home management.

482
Poethig (1968:377) wrote that in Philippine society, the family still
occupies a central position, even in urban areas. The family
continues to play a role in determining the members behavior and
provides the mechanism to guide its members as they enter into
the process of socialization in urban society. The family is still the
source of security and comfort. Obedience can still be imposed by
the parents on their children. Family solidarity is also evident in
the development of business corporations, as nearly as 90% of all
Filipino corporations are family-owned.

Work in the Industrial Urban Setting

Of the 24,525,000 workers composing the labor force in 1990,

15.1 million, or 62% were in the rural areas and 9.3 million or 38%
were in the urban areas (NCSB, 1991). Of those in the urban
labor force, 8.3 million (9%) were employed and 1 million (11.6%)
were unemployed.

The great diversification of occupations is a characteristic of work

in the urban areas, which attracts a number of able bodied men
and women. With advances in science and technology, white-
collar jobs expanded. Automation and computerization have
speed into the industries, requiring new specialization vis--vis
knowledge, skills, and attitudes. A new work ethic characterized
by industry, thrift, frugality, and innovativeness has emerged;
consumer behavior has been altered as factories produce goods
at moderate prices which are within the reach of the masses.
Various types of banks and credit and financial facilities have
developed. Business establishments have become more
democratic. With the rising cost of living, the so-called
underground economy developed. Also known as informal
483
economy, it is manifested in the sale of a variety of commodities
like flood, clothes, jewelry, insurance, and educational plans in
offices and schools; and side walk food stalls. Trade, both
domestic and foreign, has been enhanced and expanded. Labor
has become more organized and more cooperatives have been
formed.

Wages is a serious issue between workers and management in

industry. There has been an incessant clamor for wage increases
from the labor sector to adjust wages to the rising cost of living.
While industrial establishments position is that increase in wages
will negate their business viability.

Elections in Urban Areas

The election of May 11, 1987 was generally peaceful with some
perceptible changes for the better; but the subsequent elections
reverted to traditional patronage politics. Money was used to put
up campaign gimmicks, buy votes, and pay off some lection
watchers. Some mayors or barangay chairpersons built strong
machinery and employed dubious strategies to win.

The result is a multiparty system that enabled persons with vested

interest to run for public positions. The political party has no
platform and no card bearing members. Parties are not distinct
from each other on their stand regarding national or local issues;
political turncoats are common. Unscrupulous politicians with
connections to high government officials took advantage of their
position for gain and power. The patronage system with its
patron-clients system became the rule. Patronage politics has
institutionalized nepotism and favoritism.
484
Political campaigns take on a fiesta atmosphere. Movie and TV
personalities are invited to add glamour and attract voters to
attend the meetings. National figures can be seen dancing,
singing, or even clowning to sway votes. Voters are entertained
instead of enlightened on issues. As campaign propaganda.
Pictures are posted on billboards, posts, trees, and other public
places. Other practices are the hakot or bringing voters from their
houses to the polling places, disenfranchisement of voters, vote-
buying, giving food to the voters, boycotting, or terrorism. During
the counting of ballots, dagdag-bawas (miscounting of votes) is a
common occurrence.

Urban Social Problems

Cities have certain magnetic powers that attract people. There is

a perception that it is a place where one can find a job and
improve ones social status. Cities are centers of art, fashion, and
learning. On the other side of the ledger, it is a place where one
gets pangs of loneliness and feelings of alienation because of the
impersonal and contractual relations found here.

Manila has aged and has become decrepit, with unabated

migration and tremendous strains on public services like housing,
water supply, garbage disposal, sewerage utilities, no top mention
education and health. The city is likewise a focal point for social
disorganization and social problems. Some problems which beset
Metro Manila and other congested cities in the country are the
following.

Pollution. Metro Manila is one of the most polluted areas in the

world. Air pollution comes mostly from fumes and smoke from
485
motor vehicles, factories, and other industrial establishments.
Pollution causes respiratory illnesses, headaches, cough, eye
irritations, or allergies.

Water Pollution results from indiscriminate dumping of garbage

into creeks, rivers, and lakes. An example is the Paranaque River
which is being used as a sewerage system by the riverside
residents. The rice paddies, fishponds, and salt beds have
consequently disappeared. Compounding this is the massive
conversion of land into roads, highways, and subdivisions. The
result is massive flooding during the rainy season (Mayuga
2001:A9).

Environmentalists have waged campaigns against toxic waste

and malpractices related to environmental protection. Congress
passed the Clean Air Act (RA 8749) which bans waste burner and
all forms of garbage incinerators and imposes emission standards
on vehicles to lessen the degree of pollution. This is opposed by
industrialists as large amounts of money are needed to upgrade
their machineries.

Garbage and Traffic. Garbage is another serious problem in

Metro Manila. As of 2001, a total of 10 million tons of solid waste
were collected daily; is generated in Metro Manila alone (David
2001:A70). Garbage, aside from being a eyesore, contributes to
flood during the rainy season. The passage of RA 9003, the
Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000, provides for an
integrated national framework for environmentally-friendly solid
waste management. But how this will be implemented remains to
be seen.

486
Traffic causes headaches to those who have to spend hours
commuting to and from work. The tremendous increase in motor
vehicles, cars, buses, jeepneys, not to mention tricycles,
motorcycles, and bicycles clog the streets of the metropolis and
other urban areas. Other causes of the traffic jams are the lack of
a master plan for traffic, malfunctioning traffic lights, inefficient
traffic aides, violations of traffic rules by some motorists,
indiscriminate diggings and repair jobs, and flooding. There is a
great need for discipline among the motorists, as well as among
traffic aides and cops.

Squatters and Slums

A consequence of the rapid growth of a city is squatter

settlements and slums. This is considered a feature of the Asian
primate city, although the West has not been spared of slums
either. Squatters are persons who occupy vacant lots owned by
the government or private persons even without legal rights to do
so. What exacerbates the problem is the activity of professional
squatters who make a living out of squatting.

Some of Manilas prime areas where the rich lived in the 50s and
60s are now the poor districts of the city. Since the 1970s, a
process of local fragmentation occurred with the emergence of
enclaves and small, cramped shantytowns in contrast to the
polyglot centers with skyscrapers and mansions. Access to land
became the most basic human need in urban areas. Slums and
squatter settlements constitute much of the citys low wage
earners who cannot avail of basic services with their meager
wages. Strong community traditions and family or neighborhood
alliances enable them to survive.
487
As of 1987, Metro Manila squatters constituted about 32% of the
total population (NHA). By 1992, they were estimated to comprise
40% of the total number of households. Because they have lived
there for a long time, squatters feel that they have already earned
the right to own the land they occupy (Laquian, 1969:88). A
number of networks based on marriage, baptism, neighborhood,
and other functional relations become the basis for networking.
These networks became the core for the formation of organized
groups which develop a common identity and we-consciousness
as a group.

Some squatter areas have developed into slums. Slum is the

term applied to residential areas characterized by overcrowding,
filth, and squalor. Slums are blighted areas, eyesores with houses
falling into ruin, and lacking in facilities for a healthy and
comfortable life. Having deteriorated physically and aesthetically,
the area has a negative effect on the quality of life of its
inhabitants. In his study of Mexican slums, Oscar Lewis, an
American anthropologist, describes life there as a culture of
poverty characterized by economic deprivation. For parents,
slums are like a dead-end to their mobility; they tend to pass on
such a view to their children.

In a study of one of Manilas largest squatter settlements, Pinches

(1985) found that residents, whom he called the urban poor,
made up Manilas cheap labor force. The upper and middle
classes associate these people with crime, gang warfare,
prostitution, begging, scavenging, and other unsavory or illegal
activities. However, it is also from among the urban poor that the
rich secure the services of maids, drivers, workers, utility persons,
factory workers, and suppliers of commodities.
488
Guerrero (1973:215), who studied three low-income
neighborhoods in Metro Manila, found that majority of the
residents were below 40 years old with limited schooling. Hence,
they lacked work skills and were fit only for service-oriented jobs.
One fourth were unemployed. Of the unemployed, about one-third
were self-employed and earned very little. Life was miserable as
they led a hand-to-mouth existence (isang kahig, isang tuka).
Two-thirds did not specify any desire for a better life, but a few
aspired for such things as owning a house, being able to send
their children to good schools, having better paying jobs, and
attaining physical and emotional well-being. Almost one-half
expressed optimism about the future.

Among the proposals to solve squatters problems are: in-city

resettlement so that squatters are close to their places of work,
multistory low-rent housing, provision of transportation lines to the
sites of employment and services, relocation of squatters and
resettlement, industrial decentralization and dispersal, urban land
reform for equity and social justice, and subsidized return fare to
the province.

Urban Planning and Renewal

Urban planning and renewal are needed to improve the living

standards of people in Metro Manila. Urban planning is a means
of directing the citys physical and social growth to provide a more
healthy, pleasant, and prosperous environment (Gist and Fava
1974:642). Implied here are not only structural and spatial
arrangements but also provisions for employment, education,
health and comfort.

489
This concept of urban planning is not new. Even in the past, there
were attempts at zoning, improving basic services, slum
clearance, better housing, and other aspects of urban renewal.
Reams of paper have been used to plot urban planning programs
or projects that aimed to bring about an orderly and harmonious
city growth. Most plans remained only in paper; they have never
been implemented or at best were halfheartedly carried out.
Projects have been initiated, but the results have not been
substantial.

During the administration of Pres. Fidel Ramos, plans for urban

renewal included beautification and greening projects, garbage
disposal, housing projects, slum improvements, provisions for
livelihood and revenue-generating projects, and infrastructure
projects. There was also the P2.7 billion project for Smokey
Mountain in Tondo, Manila which aims to convert the dumpsite
into a housing and industrial center. The Housing and Land Use
Regulating Office is drafting an urban development plan and
reviewing existing town and land use plans and housing programs
of the government and the private sector in order to formulate a
National Urban Development and Housing Framework.

Another issue is the preservation of buildings and houses with

historical and architectural importance. When the Jai Alai building
in Taft Avenue was demolished, a furor was raised by the
Heritage Conservation on Society and other people who claimed
that such buildings should be preserved for its cultural value.
Another site for conservation is Intramuros, which is the center of
Spanish colonial heritage. They content that Intramuros should be
viewed as a monument rather than a part of the living city and a
tourism center (Villalon 2002:D6).
490
Architect Palafox (2002:B4) presents New Urbanism which is an
urban design movement addressing the ills accompanying the
current expansion development in many cities. Among its
important principles are: 1) cities or municipalities should be in the
form of compact, walkable neighborhoods. Its center would have
a public space and public buildings, including a library, medical
clinic, and a playground or sports center. From this center, streets
are laid out and with public transportation which connects
neighborhoods to each other. Within the neighborhood, there is a
wide spectrum of housing that would cater to people of different
incomes, ages, and family types. 2) the cities should be where
one can have a pleasant walk from ones home to any of the
clustered establishments.

To complement walkable cities is a transport-oriented

developments which would connect communities to transit and
intermodal terminals and ports. The task of urban renewal is
enormous as difficulties arise on account of the complexities of
city life. Planning has to take into consideration not only the
physical and aesthetic aspects of the city, but also the values and
patterns of life of the people. Questions related to the
management of the resources to finance the programs, source of
employment, the cultural and social values of the people, and
monitoring of the projects have to be considered.

Summary

Urban communities arose from the concentration of people within

a relatively small geographic area in a process called
urbanization. The urban community may be a city or something
resembling a city, which is relatively large, dense, and permanent
491
settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals. The occupations
are usually non-farming and non-fishing. In our Local Government
Code (1992), urban refers to highly urbanized cities and
governmental centers in municipalities called poblaciones. The
definition of an area as urban is linked with historical, cultural, and
administrative considerations. The culture of the people in urban
areas is heterogeneous. There are diverse groups and
contradictory interests.

Urbanization refers to the transfer of people from rural to urban

areas and involves the internalization or urban life-style. Related
to this urbanism, which is a way of life with its complex traits like a
high degree of impersonalism, apathy, secular values, and
extreme division of labor.

The first cities appeared in Mesopotamia (Southern Iraq), Egypt,

the Indus River Valley, and the Yellow River basin. Urban
development is marked in west and was brought about by
improvements in transportation, roads, canals, agricultural
innovations, increasing commercialization, and the emergence of
the factory system. Urbanization also took place in the developing
countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America. But in these areas,
urbanization did not go hand-in-hand with industrialization and
agricultural productivity.

Urban communities have a high density, a socially heterogeneous

population and a complex social structure which influences social
behavior and the inhabitants values. Although some sociologists
used to think that secondary groupings in urban places dominate,
studies have revealed that many cliques and social networks
involving close kinship and personal ties are formed in the cities,
492
enabling the members to be oriented and adapted to the urban
setting.

The growth of the cities is accompanied by the ecological

processes of concentration, dispersion, gradient, centralization,
invasion, succession, and ecological segregation. Notable also is
the emergence of a metropolitan region which is composed of a
central city and outlying municipalities of the suburbs, united
socially, economically, or event politically.

Urbanization affects the structure and functions of the various

social institutions. Another consequence is the sprouting of slums
and squatter areas. Other problems relate to food, employment,
education, health, infrastructure, traffic, garbage disposal,
pollution, crime and juvenile delinquency, drug abuse and
prostitution.

Attempts have been made at urban planning and renewal which

were designed to manage the physical and social growth of the
city and provide a wholesome environment. However, these were
never fully and effectively implemented. The task is enormous
and requires a holistic approach as well as the whole hearted
cooperation of all sectors of the community.

Study Guide

1. Concepts to master
Urban Community Concentration
City Centralization
Urbanization Decentralization
Urbanism Invasion
493
 Human Ecology Succession
2. What is considered an urban community in the Philippines?
A city?
3. Give a historical account of urbanization in the world.
4. How does urbanization in developing countries differ from
that in industrial countries?
5. Describe urban society and culture.
6. What are some of the ecological processes discernible in
urban areas? Cite examples of each process taking place in
the Philippines.
7. What is metropolitan area? Describe the relation between
the central city and the suburbs.
8. Give some characteristics of Metropolitan Manila.
9. Describe the urban family and urban economy.
10. How did slums and squatters sprout in urban areas?

Critical Thinking Questions:

1. Is urbanization a blessing or a curse?

2. Are squatter communities and slums a dead-end or a way
up?
3. Are you in favor of clearing the cities sidewalks of vendors?

494
 Chapter 17

POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Notwithstanding these important policy and institutional changes,

the government is fully aware that the Philippines has one of the
fastest growing population in the Asian region. This is validated in
the 1998 National Demographic Survey which indicated a very
high fertility rate of 3.7 children.

Given this trend, the present population of the Philippines of 68.6

million is estimated to double in size in thirty years. By the year
2050, it is projected by the Population Division that the Philippines
will rank number 2 among the countries with the highest
population growth.

Unless drastic changes in child bearing practices and

reproductive goals are attained, the distribution of Philippine
population will continue to be dominated by the younger age
groups, implying increasing demand for basic education and jobs.

Taking into account these findings, the newly elected government

has formulated a revised population program, which gives
emphasis in helping couples achieve their fertility goals within the
context of responsible parenthood as well as in preventing
teenage pregnancies, among others.

Ofelia Templo
Philippine delegate to the 32nd Session of the Commission on
Population and Development,1999

495
Are there too many people in the Philippines? What do we
foresee if the current trend of population growth rate continues?

Population and Development

The issues on the relation between population and development

have been raised several times. Demographers have warned of a
crisis pending the rapid population growth vis--vis the limits of
the earths resources and the depletion of non-renewable
resources.

The consequences of overpopulation are: climatological changes;

coastal flooding; desertification; alteration of the patterns of
diseases; water shortages; and consequential poverty and the
lowering of standard of the quality of life. These will exacerbate
the gap between the rich and the industrialized nations of the
North and the poor of the South. It has been calculated that an
increase of 3-4% in population impedes the growth by a similar
rate of gross national product.

However, some economists and experts believe that the problem

lies more on the uneven distribution of wealth and access to
resources. Alternative resources, such as nuclear, solar, and wind
resources, can be utilized and enough food can be produced to
accommodate the increasing population with the right technology.

The differences in views regarding the relation between

population and development continue to date. Demographers
thus persist to analyze the demographic data and its
consequences of rapid population growth.

496
The Study of Population

The study of population is the concern of sociologists and social

scientists. Population refers to the number of persons occupying a
certain geographic area. The rate of population growth is the net
annual increase in population, which is computed by getting the
difference between the number of births and the number of
deaths. A 2% annual rate means that, in a year, two persons per
thousand are added to the population.

Demography is the study of size, distribution, composition, and

change in population. Demographers study birth, death, and
migration data and how these affect the composition, size, and
distribution of the population. They analyze the factor which
causes the increase or decrease in population. The
characteristics of the population, like occupational groupings,
marital, religious, educational, and ethnic status, are also
gathered. They use statistical methods.

The main sources of demographic data are:

1) The population census, with data on age, sex, occupation,

employment status, and migration;
2) Vital registration statistics like births, deaths, and marriages;
3) Sample or special surveys on household;
4) Data gathered and processed by government agencies.
The data obtained is important for the formulation,
implementation, and evaluation of plans, policies, and
programs.

497
Population Growth of the World

Human population grew slowly. It took more than a million years

to reach one billion people at the beginning of the 19th century. A
second billion was reached after 130 years, a third billion in the
next 30 years and the fourth billion in 15 years (McNamara 1992).
By the 1990s there were more than five billion people worldwide,
and at the end of the 20th century the population was six billion.

Malthusian Theory

Two centuries ago, English economist Thomas Malthus argued

that the population grows geometrically, which add more people
every year. While increase in food supply is arithmetic, whereby
the food supply is limited by available land, soil quality, and the
level of technology. Malthus believes that the increase in
population outgrows increases in the food supply. Thus, there is
need to keep population growth in line with food supply.

Malthus presents two solutions: (1) positive checks to

overpopulation by increasing the death rate; which include war,
famine, pestilence, and disease; (2) preventive checks to prevent
overpopulation by limiting the number of live births; which include
abortion, infanticide, sexual abstinence, delayed marriage, and
contraceptive use.

World population is still growing. In Central America, women

average six children, while a more modest number of four children
is common in Southeast Asia, the Islamic world, and parts of
Africa. In the Philippines, women average 3.7 live births during

498
their lifetime. In 30 years, the current world population of 6 billion
will be 3 billion larger.

With overpopulation, there will be an accompanying shortage of

non-renewable resources, such as land, fresh water, petroleum
fuel, and minerals needed for manufacturing. Population growth
slows down economic development. The need to spend more on
education, health and welfare grows, thus consuming a large part
of the national budget.

Population and Economic Development

The consequences of population growth are the following: high

fertility societies are not able to provide good health, education,
and welfare programs; the process of industrialization is slowed
down technology is costly and uncertain consumption pattern
destroy the eco system as technology depletes the national
resources and environmental problems are accelerated, it
contributes to social inequality, it reduces the country ability to
solve problem peacefully.

The reason for slow economic growth are global, competition

shortage of capital, competing economic and social goals, poor
corporate planning, poor political leadership, exploitation by
foreign investors, and internal conflicts (Cohen 2000.233). With
new technology, however, the economy is expected to develop.
With this, the demographic transition of lower deaths and birth
rates take place.

499
Reducing the Rate of Childbearing

In England, birth rates where reduced through a volunteer model.

Fertility fell without government interference. Improvements in the
medical field and public sanitation brought down the death rates
and economic growth resulted with people themselves deciding to
have fewer children.

China represents the involuntary model of fertility reduction. When

the communists, led by Mao Ze Dong, gained control in 1949,
China was a poor, agricultural country with a huge population.
When it implemented its program for modernization and
industrialization, included were policies to control the rate of
population growth. Laws that gave equal rights to women and
changed the conditions of work and marriage were enacted.
Couples to be wed were obliged to get marriage permits and
permits to bear children. In 1971, the government launch the
Later, Longer, Fewer campaign, where people were encouraged
to marry later, leave a longer space between births, and bear
lesser children.

In 1980, the government legislated the one child per couple

policy. Those violated are meted with community disapproval and
employment, housing, and other social service incentives were
remove or lessened. In 1983 survey, statistics showed that the
age of marriage increased from 19 to 23, revealing that the
Chinese became used to late marriages and total fertility rate
dropped from 6.1 to 2.2 children. In a single generation, the
Chinese changed their marriage and fertility patterns. China was
the success story of the world, producing an economic miracle

500
and now places among the Pacific Rim tigers together with
Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Korea, and Singapore.

Process in Population Change

Three variables are involved in population change fertility,

mortality, and migration. These variables influence changes in the
demographic structure which, in turn, influences the social,
economic, and political structure of society.

Fertility refers to the actual number of children born to a woman.

To measure this, the crude birth rate is computed: the number of
registered births per 1,000 of the population in a given area at a
specified time.

The age at marriage and the number of those who marry affects
fertility. Early marriage means higher fertility, while delayed
marriage cuts down the number of children one can bear.

The knowledge and practice of birth control is another factor that

affects fertility. Birth control through contraceptives is not
acceptable to all. This value affects the number of children
Filipinos have.

Mortality refers to the number of deaths per 1,000 of the mid-

year population in a particular place at a specified time. This is
measured by the crude death rate. Mortality rate has dropped
because of the advancement in science, particularly in the
medical field, improved medical services, extension of vaccination
and inoculation services, the adoption of public health and
sanitary services, better nutrition, and the use of antibiotics. With
501
the improvement of mortality conditions, life expectancy
increased. The increase can be traced from infancy, such that
more babies survive to adulthood.

Life expectancy refers to the average number of years a person

is expected to live from time of birth. Our population growth rate of
2.2% annually may be viewed s the result of the big difference
between the birth rate and the death rate in our country. However,
it is hard to determine this accurately because local statistics on
birth and death rates are incomplete and inadequate because
some data are not registered.

Migration

Population change is affected by migration, which is the

movement of people for permanent residency. Immigration poses
an economic problem in a slow growing economy and produce
problems of assimilation and cultural unity. Some countries do not
have a rapid rate of population growth. But these countries have
recently experienced an influx of immigrants which has become
an explosive political issue.

The International Labor Organization proposes aid instead of

migration. Those who argue against migration point out the
economic, cultural, and social issues. If the host countrys
economy is slow-growing, immigrants take away jobs from the
present population.

People migrate for economic, political, social, psychological,

religious, educational or medical reasons. A person migrates for
economic security and the desire to improve ones standard living;
502
or forced to move because of overpopulation and resource
pressure. At times, the attraction is the opportunity offered by the
more developed societies.

Migration involves the push and the pull factors. Push factors are
unfavorable or unattractive conditions which are the reasons for
moving, such as dissatisfaction with the natural conditions or
natural disasters like famine, floods, or volcanic eruptions; racial
discrimination or persecution; or internal disorders or war. Pull
factors refer to the corresponding conditions or attractions of a
locality. Among these are a favorable climate and good
topography, employment opportunities, cultural facilities, political
freedom and peace.

Migration is internal or international. Internal migration is the

spatial movement of people within a country. International
migration is the movement from one country to another.
Immigration is leaving ones country for another for permanent
settlement.

In the Philippines, younger age groups migrate more than those in

older age groups. At present, females outnumber males.
Overseas Filipino workers working as domestic helpers in Hong
Kong, Singapore, and Brunei are mostly females, and so are the
entertainers who go to Japan. The preferred countries of
destination are the US, Australia, and Canada.

Many professionals, such as physicians, nurses, chemist,

engineers, teachers, accountants, and dentists migrate. This
trend has brought about our so-called brain drain. Lately, a
number of skilled workers, like electricians, carpenters, masons,
503
plumbers, and tailors, have also been attracted to migrate
because of higher wages. Most of them left for the Middle East
countries.

Age Structure

This refers to the proportion of people at the different age levels. It

is affected by the rates of fertility and mortality. When the larger
portion of the population is below age 20 years, the population is
said to be young, when the population is mostly age 20 years and
above, it is said to be old.

A country with a young population needs to make provisions for

the youths needs like food, education, and health facilities. With
an older population, the need is for pension plans, senior citizen
privileges, retirement communities, and institutions and
recreational programs for the aged.

Sex Composition

Sex ratio is computed by counting the number of males per 100

females. When the sex ratio is 100, this means that the number of
males and females is balanced. If the sex ratio is more than 100,
there is a predominance of females. In the Philippines, there are
more male babies born than female babies. However, females
outnumber males in later years because men are more exposed
to danger.

Sex composition affects the social and economic conditions of the

society. A high proportion of men means more workers for
farming, mining and forestry, and heavy industries. Cities provide
504
more opportunities for females who work in the service industries.
That is why there are more females in the cities.

The Philippine Population

The Philippines, with a population of 79.34 million in 2000, is a

fast growing country in terms of population. In 1990, the Philippine
population was more than 66 million, up from 48 million in 1980;
the growth rate was from 2.5% to 2.6%, down from more than 3%
in 1960.

In 1990, the birth rate was 29 per 1,000 and the death rate was 7
per 1,000. There was a decline in the death rate in the Philippines
after World War II. This was due to improved public health
measures and other rural health programs.

With a growth rate of 2.2%, the Philippine population of 77million

(year 2000) will double every 29 years. By year 2050, the
Philippines will be the 12th most populous nation with a population
of 146 million. The Philippines ranks as the 13th largest population
in 2002.

The Philippine population is characterized as young since 57%

are under age twenty. Considering this, there is a need to double
the amount of housing, schools, and health facilities if the
population doubles every 29 years. Even if our population growth
declined to 2.2% (year 2002), this is not enough to remedy the
growing unemployment rate.

Population density increased from 160 per square kilometer in

1980 to 220 in 1990. In 2000, the national density is 210 persons
505
per square kilometer (considered as densely populated). The
National Capital Region is the densest area, with 17,467 persons
per square kilometer. Density is brought about by socioeconomic,
geographical, and climatic factors.

Implications of Philippine Population Growth

Even if the rate of population growth decreased from 2.3% in

1990 to 2.2% in 2000 the figure is still considered high and does
not speak well of our population program. This rapid population
growth has contributed to the slow social program. This rapid
population growth has contributed to the slow social and
economic development.

The rate of population growth has placed a strain on the national

budget. Funds that should have been allocated for investment
were spent instead in infrastructure, transportation and
communication, housing, waste disposal, police protection, power
resources, etc. (Concepcion 1966). Even education and health
services have been limited by the number of children in the
Philippines.

However, the Catholic Church and other pro-life proponents

assert that the problem is not in the number but in the
misdistribution of resources. NEDA contends for this debate to
continue but the social indicators can still be best analyzed in
terms of our capabilities to maintain quality health and nutrition,
housing, education, employment, and social security.

506
Population Policy and Program

It was in the 1960s that the Philippine government began to show

concern over the rapid population growth. In 1971, the Philippine
Congress passed R.A. 635, instituting a national policy on
population and created the Population Commission (POPCOM). It
eventually became an integral part of the economic development
plan of President Decree 79 after Martial Law was declared.

The POPCOM became the policymaking, coordinating, and

monitoring agency of the Philippiness family planning program.
Its goal was to enhance national development by meeting the
social and economic challenges of population growth.

A program was formulated for population education and was

embodied in the Philippine Development Plan for 1984-1987.
Emphasis was placed on achieving demographic goals and
efforts on development strategy on population. It called on a
strong advocacy of family planning but respecting sociocultural
values and religion. The reduction of fertility was a program
promoting the use of all legally and medically approved
contraceptives.

From the 1970s up to the present time, there have been

inconsistencies and lacked a clear government agency in charge
of our population worries. As a result, there is no coordinated
family planning program and not a single centavo is spent on
artificial birth control. The weak population policy has increased
the number of those in the lower class. It is estimated that, of the
80 million Filipinos today, 40% are living on less than $1 a day
(World Bank 2000).
507
The National Demographic and Health Services stated that about
20% of married Filipino women do not want any more children or
want at least two years before having another child. This means
that about 2 million women have an unmet need for family
planning. According to the United States Agency for International
Development, the Philippines registers a high rate of abortion per
year, with 400,000 or more about16 per 100 pregnancies.

On the other hand, the Catholic Church and other religious groups
blame moral decay and the proliferation of contraceptives for
productivity, abortions, and illegitimate births. According to
Catholic doctrine, the sexual act should always be for the purpose
of procreation and taking place within the context of marriage.
The Church recommends only one method of birth control
natural family planning, which helps the couple to develop
patience, self-control, and responsibility.

POPCOM Program officials believe that this is not practical for a

poor country like the Philippines. The population policy from 1969
to 2002 offers contraceptives as the most important factor in the
population policy. A study on Philippines population policy in the
same period showed the Catholic Church hierarchys persistent
and consistent opposition to the government policy of reducing
population growth through the promotion of artificial family
planning methods. Many think that the influence of the Catholic
Church regarding artificial methods has contributed to the failure
of the country to reduce population growth rate at a substantial
level.

508
Summary

There are several factors to consider when studying population

growth in the context of the Philippine experience. We cannot
depend on mere equality, better government, or new technology
to sustain our growing population.

Childbearing contributes most to the rapid population increase. As

seen in the China model, their program has brought about the
rapid fall fertility. China encouraged their citizens to marry later,
wait longer between births, and bear fewer children.

In the Philippines, couples are given the choice. A one-child policy

to reduce fertility will not pass enactment in our country. Our
culture, principally religion, does not allow abortion or the use of
contraception.

A voluntary program of family planning is seen to work more

effectively albeit slowly but hopefully bringing with it the economic
development we have long aspired for.

Study Guide

1. Distinguish fertility from mortality. How do these affect

population?
2. What is migration? What is its significance to the
population?
3. Describe the sex pyramid of the Philippine society today and
in the coming decades.
4. What are the views of Malthus with regards to population
growth?
509
Critical Thinking Questions

1. What programs should young people follow to bring about

the reduction of population in the Philippines? Why will that
program be workable?
2. Consider a study in your community showing the
relationship between population and development.
3. Do you think Chinas later, longer, fewer campaign will
succeed in the Philippines? Why or why not?

510
 Chapter 18

WOMEN AND CHILDREN

Policies that improve the status of women enable communities to

alleviate poverty, develop local economies, expand the number of
educated and healthy citizens, sustain the environment and
strengthen families.

Elizabeth Fisher
Gender Justice: Womens Rights are Human Rights 1996
Mankind owes to the child the best it has to give.
Preamble, Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948

Can increase social participation of women and children

contribute to the alleviation of poverty? How?

Why there is a need for a specific study?

This section focuses on gender studies to better understand the

sociological issues involved in being a male or female in our
culture. The terms sex and gender have different meaning.
Sex refers specifically to ones internal and external sexual
organs. There is no social or cultural component to sex. Gender is
the personal, social, or cultural assignment of being male or
female.

Sex is a purely physical determination of whether one is male or

female. If one has a penis and testicles, then that persons sex is

511
male; if a person has a vagina, fallopian tubes, and ovaries, then
that persons sex is female.

Personal perception and ones self-dignity do not factor into the

determination of ones sex. The only exception is in people known
as hermaphrodites, individuals with the rare type of birth defect
that lives them with the sex organs of both male and female. A
hermaphrodite may have a penis and a vagina, or a penis and
ovaries, or any other combination of the male or female sexual
organ.

The hermaphrodites sex is determined by the sex chromosomes.

If the persons chromosomes are XX, the hermaphrodites sex is
considered female; if the persons chromosomes are XT, the sex
is considered male. Sex is bases exclusively on ones series of
labels that people apply to themselves and what others base on
them.

Sex belongs to the disciplines of biology or anatomy, while gender

falls under the purview of sociology and psychology (Klein 1992).
Sociologist is interested in gender not sex. It is believed that men
and women behave as a result of process of gender role
socialization. Individuals internalize social roles. We are shocked
when these roles are transgressed, like when a female is a
plumber, surgeon, or engineer or when a male is a nanny or a
beautician.

Gender role socialization is carried on by parents who choose

blue for boys (strong cold color) and pink for girls (weak, warm,
delicate). From birth, boys and girls are handled differently. Boys

512
are encouraged to develop physical strength and girls to be fragile
or weak.

Girls are encouraged to do domestics roles and are pressure in

romance, marriage, and motherhood. Girls are generally made to
give up school early and marriage is made an important role.
Social expectations are for them to sacrifice their careers to bear
children and look after them. To reject this role is seen as
defiance. On the other hand, these social expectations are not
imposed on males.

The inclusion of the unique role of women has made an

afterthought. The emergence of gender sociology is to make up
for the omission of women studies from sociology.

Gender Role of Identity and Expectations

Cultures have various norms regarding male and female

behaviors. Culture, through the socialization process, teaches
individuals the behavior that is expected or not acceptable.
Gender role identity is a personal belief and attitude system that
shapes and guides and individual tastes and actions.

Gender role expectations are the dos and donts which society
imposes for male and females. These expectations are shaped by
the social and cultural belief and attitude system and guide a
members preferences and behaviors. Nevertheless, gender role
identity operates at the individual level. For example, Tony
believes that boys dont cry and it is a mans responsibility to earn
money. While he sits and watches television on weekends, the
wife is expected to clean the house, do the laundry, and take of
513
the childrens needs. These represent is gender role identity.
When what we believes in and his behaviors adheres to societys
expectations, and it is said that the gender role expectations is the
same as is gender role identity.

Gender influence may be seen during infancy when baby boys

are wrapped in blue blankets and new born females in pink
blankets. These differences lead to the later life tendencies for
men and women. In childhood, there are stereotype notions on
what toys are proper for boys and those for girls. The toys for
boys are action oriented, such as toy guns, cars, etc. Girls toys
are usually domestically related, such as dolls, kitchen tools, play
houses, etc. These have a cumulative effect that sends messages
to the children about the differences between boys and girls. This
is further reinforced during adolescence.

Gender Inequality

The term gender inequality is the systematic difference between

the life experiences, social expectations, and opportunities that
are presented because one is male or female. Although women
comprise a larger proportion of higher education enrollment than
men, women are likely to work on a part time basis or not work at
all as they are mothers, wives, and homemakers first.

Women who work at home are not counted in the labor force.
Thus, statistics show a higher unemployment rate in women than
men. In terms of income, women earn less money than the men.
In terms of occupation, the number of women is less in
architecture, engineering, scientists, physicians, lawyers, etc.

514
Furthermore, women have less opportunity in terms of career
placements, job security, prestige and good salaries.

Women are over represented in technical, sales and

administrative support or service occupations. They are in jobs as
secretaries, clerks, bookkeepers, childcare workers, and cleaning
and servant workers (Barnard and Burgess 1996; Klein 1992)

A document issued by the United States State Department in July

1995 declares that: In the United States, women make up too
large a percentage of those in poverty and constitute too small a
percentage of those in power. These inequities exact an
unacceptable cost in human potential and in the wellbeing of
individuals, families and communities. They therefore warrant our
attention and action.

Sadly, the state of women mentioned above is also true in other

nations around the world. It has been about eight decades since a
worldwide increase in the assertion by women on full equality with
men, yet international womens movements are still strive to
explain and remedy the plight of women who have fought for food,
shelter, health care, schools, rape crisis centers, shelters for
battered women, abortion rights, legal services, equal pay for
equal work, educational and training opportunities, day care, land,
family planning services, access to political influence in their
societies and an end to violence against women, forced
marriages, sexual slavery, sexual harassment, and environmental
degradation (Fisher and Mackay 1996:xviii)

Globalization of the world economy did not help in improving the

situation of women. Globalization is based largely on exploiting
515
flexible markets of underpaid workers; womens participation as
workers in this new world economy is not a sign of progress. The
global gap between rich and poor has widened and there are now
more people living in dire poverty than a decade ago and women
remain in the poorest of the poor, everywhere (Seager 1997:9).

The existing view on the discriminatory and oppressive

conception on women comes from societys assessment of the
biological (sex) and cultural (gender) differences between men
and women. The role of women in childbearing automatically
limits their employment opportunities. The failure to train women
for non-traditional trade (e.g. welding, technician, construction,
miner, etc.) is an example of gender bias against women doing
work. On the other hand, children were considered adjuncts of
women under our customs and laws (Feliciano 2000:41).

Before the adoption of the United Nations Declaration of Human

Rights, the plight of women and children were ignored or
dismissed completely. During the Spanish colonial era in the
Philippines, the Spanish Civil Code even classified them along
with the deaf-mutes, insane and imbeciles, who were
incapacitated to perform certain acts (ibid).

Many changes have traversed the international community since

then, yet dominance of men and their preferred status in nearly all
accounts of the economic and social inequities between men and
women, together with reposts of grave injustices on children,
permeate even in the most industrialized of nations.

516
Women at Home

Development processes are reshaping Filipino families that have

become smaller in size and more nuclear in composition. Filipino
women now marry at later ages, thus delaying the onset of family
formation.

In 1998, data from the Social Protection Bureau of the

Department of Social Welfare Development (DSWD) indicates
that, or women aged 25 49 years, the median age for first
marriage was 22.1 years. In 1993 it was 21.6 years.

The economic role of women has been increasing. Data shows

that the average number of female-headed families has risen from
10% in 1970 to 11.3% in 1990, then to 12.2% in 1995. These
households are average for members, while male-headed
households average 5.2 members. As of 1994, the annual income
of female-headed households was P92,526; male-headed
households, P91,491. However, the traditional sex role that
assigns homemaking only to women still holds despite the fact
that women are increasingly economically active.

Present economic conditions make matter more difficult for

Filipino women as they have to take on the traditional role of
raising the family and homemaking, while also having to partake
economic task due to persistent poverty condition. This situation
forces a number of women to leave home to earn a living, losing
the traditional support available to early generation of Filipino
families. The added migration of family members, including
children and adults, men and women alike, compounds and
dilemma as well.
517
Since there are more responsibilities now imposed on women
upon marriage, motherhood, and employment, gender inequality
in the home and society are more manifest. One of the challenges
facing women of contemporary families is the redefinitions and re-
calibrations of gender roles within the home, as well as the
equitable redistributions of household chores among co-family
members.

Women at Work

Since the 1970s womens economic activities have risen steadily

everywhere in the world except Africa. Mens economic activity
rates declined. Locally, women have been joining the labor force
party out of economic necessity and partly in response to
economic opportunities. There remains a wide gap in female and
male labor force participation and employment levels although
they have both grown in actual numbers.

Filipino women in productive work still have to approximate the

employment levels and labor force participation rates of the men.
Whereas in 1999, 81.8% or eight out of ten men in the
economically active age group (18 and up) are in the labor force;
the figure for women is only 15% or five out of ten. In fact, two-
thirds of the countrys entire labor force is composed of men.

The lower rate of women in the labor force reflects the preference
given to the employment of males over females and the
constraints imposed by domestic responsibilities on women to be
able to enter the labor force. Moreover, women spend more of
their time in informal-unpaid- and household work than men. The
October 1990 NSO labor force survey showed that men made up
518
most of the Philippines workers at 66.3%, as well as the wage
and salary workers at 62.3%. Women topped the list of unpaid
workers at 52.9%. This means that most of womens labor,
primarily informal and household work, neatly go invisible in
conventional economic measures.

Health and Motherhood

Health refers not only to the absence of disease or disability but

encompasses a persons state of complete physical, mental,
emotional, and social well being. Womens health in all stages of
the life cycle is of immense importance, not only because it
affects the health of the next generation through its impact on
children, but also because women are half of the countrys human
resource (NCRFW 2000).

Even if data reveals that: women tend to outlive men; that

womens mortality rate is lower than men; that maternal mortality
rates decreased from 200 deaths per 100,00 live births in 1993 to
172 in 1998; Filipinos men still slightly outnumber women. The
past decade witnessed slow but steady progress in the overall
situation of Filipino women. They appear to have gained more
from national health improvements, as gleaned from health
indicators such as life expectancy and mortality rates.
Nevertheless, a look at womens health situation in the areas of
nutrition, childbearing/reproductive, and other health concerns
indicate that much remains to be done in returns to be done of
addressing womens generally poor state of health. (Ibid.)

519
Women and Public Life

There was an unprecedented increase of women in the political

arena during the 1980s, particularly when Ms. Corazon C. Aquino
became president. Generally, however, womens participation in
politics and governance continue to be limited. Filipino women at
both the national and local levels remain largely unable to
influence legislation. Chief executive and other top administrators
are mostly men. It is not surprising henceforth that there is no
significance increase in the number of women running for elective
posts, much less those who actually win.

In 1995, there were only 6 females out of the total 28 candidates

who ran for senator (or 21.4%). In 1998, out of the 6 females
candidates who run for the senator, only 2 were elected; for
congressional seats, 25 out of 207 (12.1%); for the gubernatorial
posts, 13 out of 75 (17.3%); and for vice gubernatorial posts, 9 of
the 75 (12%).Although a few women have held top public
positions, including the residency, they still comprise a very small
percentage of major office holders. By 1997, the government
bureaucracy as a whole has women accounting for the majority,
at 53.81% of the 1.38million total government personnel.
However, they dominate only the second-level positions at
72.26%. In first and third (highest) levels, they accounted for 34%
and 32.5% respectively.

Education

Compared to other developing countries, the Philippines ranks

high in terms of literacy and other educational indicators.
Educations policies are very liberal and expansionary.
520
No marked differences exist in the education between Filipino
women and men. Nationally and in both rural and urban areas,
literacy rates have been on the uptrend, particularly for women.
NCSO data reveals that in 1990, literacy rates among Filipino
men and women stood at high and nearly equal 94% for men and
93.2% for women. However, a stricter definition of literacy, as
employed by the Functional Literacy and Education Mass Media
Survey (1989), yielded moderately higher national functional
literacy rates for women (74%) than men (72.9%)

However, the bigger issue regarding gender is the stereotyping in

the fields of study and specialization and its translation into the
world of work where men generally occupy the highest paying
position. Moreover, womens larger responsibility for housework
and the family impedes their ability to use their educational
training and skills for remunerative work.

Child Workers

The Filipino children work. This fact is useful in realizing that, in

both the cities and the rural areas, children do work as a form of
socialization or because the parents view this as a training of
children to value work. Generally, children are forced to work due
to family expectations that everybody should contribute to the
family income or to help support their educational aspirations
because their families cannot afford to send them to schools.

Working children are those aged fifteen and below who work in a
public or private establishment where they are not directly under
the responsibility of their parents or guardian or where the latter
employ other workers apart from their children. They are
521
considered working or economically active if, at any time during
the reference period, the child engaged in an economic activity for
at least one hour. The child may be studying, looking for work,
and/or housekeeping while working (NEDA and NSO 1998:5)

Although the practice is condemned by developed nations, child

labor is intrinsic in the economies of underdeveloped and
developing countries such as Philippines. Here, it is widespread,
particularly in six-member households or more. The 19959 NSO
survey reports that, of the 9.6 million households, 56% or 5.3
million households were engaged in own-households-operated
activities or businesses. Twenty-eight percent of these, or roughly
2.6 million, have children working in their own-household-
operated activities and/or in other households business. Poverty
is a big reason for this occurrence as most of the said households
had incomes of only P3,000 to P4,999- 32% were among those
with working children.

Several concerns arise with child labor, such as unacceptable

20% of child workers are rated to be working under hazardous
situations. Article 32 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the
Child recognizes the right of the child to be protected from
economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely
to be hazardous or to interfere with the childs education, or to be
harmful to the childs heath or physical, mental, spiritual, moral,
and social development.

Effects of child labor

Physical harm- when any part of the physical body of the

working child are affected directly or adversely leading to
522
 conditions that may require immediate medical attention.
Physical effects include malnutrition; skin disease;
permanent or temporary physical disabilities; unexplained,
unusual and periodic bodily injuries; lacerations, bruises,
burns, sexually transmitted diseases or death.
Hampering the childs education- when the child is
exposed to work in exchange for the time that he or she is
supposed to be in school. The work may force the child to
stop schooling, or be dropped or fail in school. It is a major
concern that working childrens educational attainment is
hampered because of frequent absences, lack of time to
study, and monetary constraints that originally obliged them
to work. In 1995, of the 3.6 million children who worked, only
68.9% were reported to have attended school. Boys
outnumbered girls at 62.2%.
Emotional/Psychological harm- when the manifests
withdrawal syndrome, learning disabilities, extreme
depression, emotional breakdown, sense of alienation,
suicidal or self-destructive tendencies, aggressive behavior,
low self-image, relationship problems, rejection, fear,
absentmindedness, and/ or confusion.

Violence against Women and Children

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination

Against Women (CEDAW) and UNICEF were created to develop
programs and promote actions worldwide to end the long-
standing mistreatment women and children have endured
throughout history. These entities are committed to protect
womens and childrens rights, ensure their provision of clean
drinking water, adequate shelter, appropriate clothes to wear, and
523
all other necessities to survive. More importantly, their mandate is
to advocate an environment which is free of violence.

The UN and womens movements all over the world have helped
to get attention for gender violence. The International Womens
Year in 1975 and the United Nations Decade for Women (1976-
1985) paved the way for the CEDAW to facilitate a resolution
declaring State Parties to take appropriate actions to address the
problem. This effort pushed the passage of the Declaration on the
Elimination of Violence Against Women in December 1993. Article
2 of the UN/CEDAW Declaration cited the Physical, sexual, and
psychological violence occurring in the family; within the general
community; and those perpetrated or condoned by the State as
issues for concern.

Local effort towards the elimination of violence against

women and children

The family is regarded as a basic social institution that must be

cherished, preserved, and protected. The Family Code of the
Philippines states that no custom, practice, or agreement
destructive of the family shall be recognized or given effect. The
premise is that the family is a haven where spouses and children
expect protection and security, a place of nurture and growth, and
certainly not that of abuse.

However, the concept of the family as all important, as upheld in

the Family Code, has been misused and distorted to justify an
endemic Filipino culture or tradition of keeping it intact at all
costs, purportedly for the sake of the children. A restrictive culture
maintains that, whatever occurs in a marriage- even if it takes on
524
a violent, criminal nature- is a private matter between husband
and wife. It is culture that tolerates violence against children, and
considers it within a parents right to enforce discipline.

In the Philippines, nature of violence against women and children

within the home is usually covered by a culture of silence,
underscored by lack of information and proper understanding of
the phenomenon. Revelations of intra-family violence bring
shame and scandal to their victims, and they are continually
under tremendous pressure to bear the fear, pain, and rage in
silence for the sake of family honor.

Compounding the situation is the fact that domestic violence

happens inside the home and, such as, keeps it hidden and
unrecognized. Laws created to eliminate domestic violence, such
as Republic Act 7610, as amended, also known as the Special
Protection Act on the Children Against Abuse, Exploitation and
Discrimination, still need improvement. The criminal justice
system, for instance, lacks the proper perspective in the treatment
of child abuse cases. Notably, in most cases of child abuse,
particularly child sexual abuse, there is little evidence to prove the
commission of the offense aside from the child victims testimony,
in which case the abusers absolutely deny the abuse (Lao ed.
1997:30). This tends to make criminal proceedings less in
handling courtroom interrogations, they are traditionally
considered to be incompetent, un reliable witnesses with high
imaginative and exaggerated narrations of the circumstances of
the case. (Ibid 1997:28)

Emotional trauma is the commonly perceived consequence of the

domestic violence. About one-third of the victimized wives were
525
institutionalized and another third separated from their spouses;
four-tenths of victimized children had to be institutionalized.
Obviously, the actual extend of psychological damage incurred
has been established. Some common effects agreed upon by
social workers and therapist are stunted emotional growth, low
self-esteem, the inability to make simple decisions, depression,
and helplessness in the face of everyday problems. (UPCWS
Foundation, Inc. et. al. 1996:15)

Rectifying the Social Inequities on Women

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination

Against Women (CEDAW)

The CEDAW is the product of years of womens organizing efforts

within the United Nations and several nations around the world. It
was adopted in 1979 and enforced in 1981. The final impetus for
drafting the treaty was the 1975 UN Womens Conference in
Mexico. CEDAW is not the first UN treaty concerning the status of
women; several earlier treaties on marriage rights, political rights,
and trafficking remain important in themselves and it is these that
set the stage for CEDAW.

CEDAW establishes a set of standards and principles- in some

cases, specified in detail- that are intend to a serve as a template
for shaping national policies toward the long term goal of
eliminating gender discrimination in every country. States that
have signed and ratified CEDAW are committed to pursue
policies that eliminate discrimination. Moreover, they must report
progress once every four years to a CEDAW Committee (Seager
1997 : 104) many, though not all, UN member states have ratified
526
CEDAW and it prevails an important document being studied by
governments willing to undergo specific changes to address the
concern of half their constituencies.

Local initiatives

Philippines laws are in the process of adapting to CEDAW

policies. This entails the passage of major legislation that
addresses discrimination, domestic violence, as well as other
crimes against women. An instance would be the Anti-Rape Law,
or Republic Act No. 8353, passed on September 30, 1997, which
broadened the definition of rape to include: when man has carnal
knowledge of a woman through force or, threat, or intimidation;
when the offended party is deprived of reason or otherwise
unconscious of fraudulent machination or grave abuse of
authority; and when the offended party is under 12 years of age or
is demented, even if none of the circumstances mentioned earlier
are present. If further provides that rape is committed by any
person who, under any of the circumstances mentioned
previously, inserts his penis into another persons mouth or anal
orifice, or any instrument or object into genital or anal orifice of
another person.

The main dilemma previously encountered with the old law has
been rectified. Before, the Revised Penal Code declared that rape
is a crime against chastity and is committed against women,
thereby giving the victim the burden of prosecuting the rapist. It is
now classified as a crime against persons and is to be prosecuted
by the State itself.
Other penal statues concerning women are: R.A. 6955 (1990)
which outlaws the practice of matching Filipino women for
527
marriage to foreign national either on mail order basis or through
introduction for a fee; R.A. 7309 (1992), which compensates
victims of violent crimes, including rape and unjust imprisonment
or detention, with amounts of not more P10,000; R.A. 7659
(1993), which imposes the death penalty on heinous crimes,
including rape, when committed with certain attendant
circumstances and protection to rape victims.

Caring for the Future Generation

The United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF), created in

December 1946, is a special program of UN which aids States
efforts in improving education, health, nutrition and the general
welfare of children. UNICEF was originally established to give
relief to children in countries devastated during the Second World
War. In 1950, it was redirected to generate programs aimed to
improve childrens welfare and to cope with various emergency
situations especially in less developed nations.

Foremost in the aims of UNICEF is the promotions and

recognition of the rights of the child, which are, the right to
equality, regardless of race, color, religion, sex, and nationality;
grow up in a family environment with adequate means of survival,
food, clothing, shelter, and medical care; special care for the
handicapped; freedom of expression; immediate aid in the event
of disaster and emergency; protection from cruelty, neglect and all
forms of exploitation; freedom from prosecution; and to an
upbringing in the spirit of worldwide brotherhood and peace.

The declaration of these rights was signed by the Philippine

government at the UN Convention on the rights of the Child in
528
1989; and was ratified on July 1990. However, it is still in the
process of full integration within the government structure and is
yet to be imbibed in Filipino culture.

Among others, there is a need for a comprehensive juvenile

justice system that is pro-children, which protects them from
exposure to hazardous environment and detrimental occupation,
and which will implement information drives on childrens rights.
The primary laws on child protection are Republic Act 7610 and
Presidential Decree 603 (Child and Youth Welfare Code); while
Executive Order 209 (Family Code of the Philippines), the
Revised Penal Code, and the Labor Code of the Philippines
contain most of the others.

Summary

WOMEN IN THE Philippines appear to occupy a more favorable

position as compared to their counterparts in many other
countries, but complete equality with men is yet to be achieved.
Organizations created for womens welfare, both public and
NGOs, such as the NCRFW Gabriela, Womens Media Circle,
Third World Movement Against Exploitation of Women, to name a
few, have made an impact on the rise of a growing awareness
towards rectifying this inequity.

Philippine laws pertaining to women and children are ample by

most measures. What is lacking, however, is the implementation
of these laws. The hiatus between law and practice has to be
examined and remedied in accordance with the present social
and economic realities, (Feliciano IBP Law Journal 2000:78).
Given the current trend, there is still much to be done to hurdle
529
the obstacle that limits the maximization of half the populations
potentials.

Children need to be loved, cared for, nurtured, and protected to

enable them to grow and develop normally. Parents are expected
to be the primary source of such needs since it is their foremost
responsibility to provide a supportive and secure environment for
their children. It is unfortunate, however, that many of todays
children are in vulnerable situations; poverty, urbanization,
industrialization, and social unrest compound this condition. In a
situation where in both parents are forced to work, children are
likely to be neglected or left to care for themselves. This
environment makes children susceptible to abuse and
exploitation. The presence of many street-children in the
metropolis is one obvious result of the social problems besetting
our children.

Study Guide
1. Why was the plight of women and children ignored before?
2. Discuss the economic role of women.
3. Who are the working children? Why is child labor predominant
in underdeveloped countries?

Critical Thinking Questions

1. What techniques do mass media use to sell women?
2. How can we create a perspective for the working women at all
levels of organization?
3. What is to be done to ensure the normal growth and
development of Filipino children?
Chapter 19

530
 SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

On April 10, 1912, the ocean liner Titanic slipped away from the
docks of Southampton, England, on its maiden voyage across the
North Atlantic to New York. A proud symbol of the new industrial
age, the towering ship carried twenty three hundred
passengers; some enjoy luxury than most travellers today could
imagine. By contrast, poor immigrants crowded the lower decks,
journeying to what they hoped would be a better life in the United
States.

Two days out, the crew received radio warning of icebergs in the
area but paid little notice. Then, near midnight, as the ship
steamed swiftly and silently westward, a lookout was stunned to
see a massive shape rising out of the dark ocean directly ahead.
Moments later, the Titanic collided with a huge iceberg, almost as
tall as the ship itself, which split open its starboard side as if the
grand vessel were nothing more than a giant tin can.

Seawater surged into the ships lower levels, and within twenty-
five minutes people were rushing for the lifeboats. Bye 2:00 in the
morning the bow of the Titanic was submerged and the stern
reared high above the water. Clinging to the deck, quietly
observed by those in the lifeboats, hundreds of helpless
passengers solemnly passed their final minutes before the ship
disappeared into the frigid Atlantic (Lord 1976). The tragic loss of
more than sixteen hundred lives made news around the world.

Looking back dispassionately at this terrible accident with a

sociological eye, however, we see that some categories of
531
passengers had much better odds of survival than others. In the
age of conventional gallantry, women and children boarded the
boats first, so that eight percent of casualties were men. Class,
too, was at work. Of people holding first-class tickets, more than
sixty percent were saved, primarily because they were on the
upper decks, where warnings were sounded first and lifeboats
were accessible. Of the thirty-six percent of the second class
passengers on the lower decks, only twenty-four percent escaped
drowning. On board the Titanic, class turned out to mean much
more than the quality of accommodations. It was truly a matter of
life or death.

John Maciones, Sociology 6th ed, 1997

The tragedy that beset the Titanic illustrates the consequences of

social inequality. Why?

Defining Social Stratification

Social stratification in a society may be defined as its internal

division into a hierarchy of distinct social groups, each having
specific life chances and distinctive style of life. The sociological
emphasis on class can be traced to the ideas of Karl Marx, who
analyzed the history of all societies as marked with the struggles
of social classes. Weber and Durkheim believed that the centrality
of class conflict is likened to the struggles of their times.

American sociologists place less emphasis on class that their

European counterparts, reflecting a popular view that American
society is more open and less divided by class. In an open
society, there is opportunity to move up or down the social
532
hierarchy with great ease and with no marked differences in
culture or lifestyle (Scott 1996). Social stratification refers to a
system by which a society ranks categories of people in a
hierarchy (high, middle, or low)

The following are the basic principles in social stratification: 1) It is

characteristic of society. Neither rich nor poor people create social
stratification but the system shapes the lives of them all; 2) It
persists over generations; 3) It is universal but variable from one
society to another; 4) It involves not only inequality but also
beliefs.

The concepts that define social stratification are social

differentiation and social inequality, Social differentiation refers to
the distinct conditions of individuals which does not necessarily
imply unequal treatment or ranking in society. Social inequality is
the condition of unequal access to what is valuable in a society.
Both social differentiation and social inequality are preconditions
for social stratification.

All societies past and present are characterized by some kind of

inequality. There are people who are hunger, more intelligent, or
have more of what is considered important in a society. The
distinction of social rank is based on wealth, biological
characteristics, social skills or money. This differentiation of a
group is inevitable.

Among tribal groups, the division is along the line of gender.

Social divisions establish framework of social relations, where the
individual is presented with what he or she sought to expect from
life. Sociologists call this social stratification. When focusing on
533
larger groups, sociologists call these social classes which are
determined on the basis of income, education, and occupation.
The higher the income and education, the higher the prestige.
The lower the income, education, occupation and prestige, the
lower is the social class.

Objective Dimensions of Stratification

The dimensions that govern stratification are economic, political,

and social. The economic dimension of stratification is measured
based on the distribution of income and wealth of the citizenry in
relation with the Gross National Product (GNP) and GNP per
capita.

The political dimension of stratification deals with power

inequalities. The social dimension refers to the degree of
openness or closeness of societies by analyzing the intra and
inter generational mobility and the patterns of changes in status
or positions in an individuals lifetime. Ones position in the social
stratification tends to be transmitted from one generation to
another. The family members have the same social position in the
hierarchy; this condition opens or limits the range of resources
and opportunities available to them.

The Basic Components of Social Stratification

The basic components of social stratification are social class,

status, and roles. Social status is the social standing of a person
within a social class or in the entire social stratification system.
Roles pertain to the expected behaviour patterns that correspond
with a status. Such status bears measure of superiority, equal
534
standing, or inferiority. It is either ascribed or achieved. If
ascribed, the role is assumed through heredity, sex, race, or class
at birth. If achieved, it is attained through effort or marriage.
Table 19.1 Philippine Profile 1998
Size 300,000 sq km
Population 74 million
Population Density 210 per sq km
Urban Population (1991) 43 %
Life Expectancy (1991) 65 years
Population under 15 (1991) 40 %
Infant mortality rate per 100 births 42
Adult literacy rate 90 %
Labor force involved in
Agriculture 41 %
Industry 19 %
Services 40 %

GNP per capita (1991) $730 US

Population in absolute poverty (1980 1989) 58 %
Total external debt (1991) $32 billion US
Percent of government expenditures
allocated to debt servicing 40 %
Sources: UNDP, NEDA

In the Philippines, the groups are divided into three social classes:
upper, middle, and lower. The upper class refers to the very rich.
They consist of elite families who are successful in agriculture,
industry, or government. This class is of two types: the new
(noveau) rich and the traditional upper class.

This class can be further subdivided into the: 1) Upper-upper:

have huge amount of wealth; 2) Lower upper: new money,
sometimes lacking in breeding and proper social background and
may not have the ability to go up the ladder of the upper-upper so
they can send their children to the best schools or marry into
upper-upper class; 3) Upper middle: professionals or high-level

535
management personnel like, doctors, lawyers, dentists, and
corporate personnel, whose incomes are more than adequate for
their needs.

The middle class includes small business and industry owners

and managers, professionals, office workers, and farm owners.
To them, education is the main indicator of social status since
majority has less personal properties. There is a strong
preference for less-paying white collar jobs to higher-paying but
less honorific manual jobs. Child-rearing practices generally
revolve around the inculcation of orderliness, conscientiousness,
initiative, self-reliance, and responsibility. Conformity to
conventions, like citizenship rights and obligations, religious
virtues, and sex morality, is given much weight. A subdivision of
the class is the lower middle, which includes the low level
managers, white collar workers, skilled blue collar workers.

Comprising the lower class are the farm workers, unskilled and
skilled artisans, service workers, the underemployed and indigent
families. They are the largest in number and live on a substance
level. They lack certain qualifications which are necessary for
upward mobility like income, education or training,
acquaintanceship and communication, and family background.
Social participation tens to be more confined within the kinship
group or to religious and labor union activities. They generally
acquire their education from public and non-exclusive private
schools.

There is relatively greater laxity in sex morality, a tendency to

become easily prejudiced, and inclination for authoritarian and
corporal punishment in child-rearing techniques, and a belief in
536
limited social mobility. Attitudes and behavior toward religion
range form indifferences to fanaticism. The government is
regarded either as a remote third party or a paternalistic body
which takes care of peoples needs.

The lower class can be subdivided into the: 1) Upper-lower:

known as the working class; blue collar workers; education is
limited and little prestige is attached to their work; and 2) Lower-
lower; at the bottom of the ladder of social inequality, they get
worst of what society has to offer; have the least education and
the least income; their jobs are seasonal, like the farmers and
fisherfolks.

Factors Affecting Social Mobility

Social Mobility. This refers to the movement of individuals or

groups within a small system wherein a degree of openness or
closeness exists. Intra and inter-generational mobility represents
the patterns of changes in status or position during the individuals
lifetime and may be carried on the next generations. Changing
labor markets, increased geographical and horizontal mobility,
changing patterns of fertility, and greater emphasis on education
bring about social mobility.

Social mobility is a continuous process that involves motivations,

cooperation, competition, and conflict. Equalizing opportunities
are positive motivations, whereas, unsatisfactory primary group
relationships are negative motivations. The overall consequence
of social mobility may be a gain or a loss of power or authority,
prestige, and/or esteem. A highly dynamic society brings about

537
comparatively greater role differentiation and specialization,
conflict, and social insecurity.

The degree to which children succeed their parents in their

occupations is an important indication of social mobility.
Industrialized societies create a number and variety of jobs and
tend to make stratification systems open. It is bound to offer more
opportunities for mobility than an agriculturally dominated
economy. However, this condition accompanies competition
towards the top, which requires greater costs for higher training
and education attainments and more complicated societal
connections

Education is a big factor in an occupational mobility but the quality

of education generally depends on the parents socio-economic
status. Horton and Hunt (1984:376) state that, for majority of
people, education is a significant mobility ladder but that is
possibly less necessary for all kinds of career that has generally
been assumed.

Mobility may be horizontal, which is the movement from one

position to another with the same ranking or vertical, which is the
upward or download change in rank (Ingang 1969).

Geographical mobility and horizontal mobility usually go hand-in-

hand and can be prerequisites to vertical mobility. Job
opportunities from one location to another can be unfold
population movements from farm to city, from city to the suburb
or to a new frontier or vice-versa. More than a call for adventure,
these movements present possibilities for upward mobility

538
Studies show that high fertility hinders upwards mobility especially
for the very poor. Early marriages and lack of family planning
makes it difficult for lower-class members to complete their
studies and later compete for good jobs. Low socio-economic
position perpetuates or even worsen itself (Hauser 1964:76)

The varied agents socialization, among which is the school, tend

to extend more opportunities for children of the upper and middle
classes. On the other hand, these tend to limit the chances of
children of poor families because of lack of encouragement in the
home and inconsistencies between norms and the behavior at
home and in the school itself. National values emphasize
movement within blue collar and white collar ranks; those at top
and the bottom tend to remain where they are.

The drive for vertical, upward mobility underlies the explosions of

rising expectations, calling for change in the social stratification
system in developing countries all over the world. Land reform
programs and community development and organization
programs make the government agents of social change and
social mobility.

Whether vertical social mobility is upward or downward, it has

consequences. A rapid rate of upward social mobility can cause
people to breakdown under the pressures of striving for success,
which brings about feelings of loneliness, rootlessness, anxiety,
frustrations, and various types of social disorganization. It can
cause the loosening of family ties and old friendship, departing
from former places of residence, making ew but often-casual
friendship. Downward social mobility brings about loss of self-
confidence, social isolation, formlessness, desperation, and
539
diverse types of emotional, social , and cultural maladjustments
(Coser and Rosenberg 1957: 476-504)

Stratification and Technology

It has been observed that there is a relationship between a

societys technology and its social stratification. Situating social
stratification in a historical perspective will help in understanding
why there are varying degrees of inequality worldwide. Simple
technology in the hunting and gathering stage provide only what
was necessary for day-to-day living. The group was secured by
sharing what people gathered.

Social stratification gets more complex in societies with more

advanced technology. Technological advances create surplus
products, thus making social inequality more pronounced. In
agrarian societies, small elite controls most of the surplus.
Industrialization reverses the historical trend whereby there is a
decrease in serial inequality. Education gives the individual more
opportunities. With industrial technology, the living standard of the
poor majority was improved and the rate of illiteracy. When
society is more literate, the population is likely to press for grater
voice in political decision-making. This could contribute in
reducing social inequity.

Summary

Social stratification refers to categories of people that are ranked

in hierarchy or layers. It denotes the division of society into social
classes and statues of varying ranks of superiority and inferiority.
It reflects the degree of specialized division of labor.
540
A social class is a stratum of society and represents a group of
families that are equal and occupy a common social economic
standing and subculture. Status is a social position with is
corresponding roles. The social classes are identified in terms of
landholding, income, occupation, ethnic and family background.

Social stratification may be closed or open. A scribed status is

inherited inequality. This system is relatively closed. When
status is achieved, social opportunities become equal and bring
about greater social mobility. Stratification which is open is called
class system. Social stratification is characteristic of society and
persists over generations. It is universal but varies in form and is
supported by cultural beliefs.

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Is social stratification present in your campus? Why?

2. How has industrialization shaped social stratification in your
community?

Chapter 20

541
 RACE AND ETHNICITY

Wiping out the Abu Sayyaf

Ninety days to wipe out the Abu Sayyaf? The military could
grumble all it likes at the capriciousness of the directive but an
order is an order, especially if its one coming from the
commander-in-chief. The soldiers will just have to give it a try.

Days after Gloria Arroyo came to power, we recall her boasting

that finishing off the Abu Sayaff was as good as done (isang bala
ka lang). That was two years ago. The Abu Sayyaf is still there,
although sharply reduced in number and cornered in Sulu if we
can believe military claims.

So what has markedly changed since then that gave Arroyo the
confidence to give military a deadline? The promise of the United
States to send in combat troops is probably the answer. The
United States has committed 350 Special Forces operatives to
work with the Marines standing offshore as a fast reaction force.
This additional striking force, added to the 8,000 soldiers and
policemen already on the island, perhaps is more than enough to
track down and smash the remaining 250 or so bandits.

But what is this flap over the role of American soldiers that
emerged during the current visit of Defense Secretary Angelo
Reyes in Washington D.C.?

542
Reyes insisted the Americans would stay as trainers. That would
not engage in combat so their presence would not run afoul of the
Constitution.

US Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, however, maintained

that the operational scope earlier agreed upon provided for
combat support. Rumsfeld refused to describe this as training.

We can do training operations. But whatever is we do, we

describe in language that is consistent with how we do things.
And we do not intend to train people in combat, if you will.
Rumsfeld said.

Rumsfeld is certified hawk. But he has to regularly watch his

back. If an American soldier is killed during operations, he would
have a lot of explaining to do to the US Congress and the
American public. Why, say, a boy from Iowa supposedly on a
training exercise bought the farm in some island called Sulu.

The Diplomats from both sides, we understand, are scrambling to

craft an agreement that would be acceptable to the publics on
both sides of the Pacific.

We have no idea how long this would take. But the deadline is
running. The military now has only 89 days to smash the Abu
Sayyaf.

Malaya Editorial, 2 March 2003

543
Would you consider the Abu Sayyaf as bandits or an ethnic
group?

Is there a need to talk with them so that we can attain full unity in
the Philippines? Why?

Meaning of Race and Ethnic Groups

Race and ethnicity may be thought to mean the same thing but
these are not interchangeable. Race refers to the classification of
humans according to physical characteristics. Ethnicity refers to
culturally defined differences between ethnic groups in society.
(Johnson 2000)

Race refers to physical characteristics transmitted at birth to a

group of people. This is manifested in the shape of the head and
face, the shape and color of eyes, the shape of the nose, lips, and
ears, the texture and color of hair, the skin color, height, blood
type and other biological characteristics. Race as biological
concept is determined on the basis of a groups blood line.
Different racial groups are the result of long-term processes in
which characteristic conditions caused specific physical traits to
develop in a certain group of people. Once these traits develop,
they become part of that peoples gene pool because the
individuals tend to marry one another and have the children with
one another.

Dark skin is a physical adaptation that peoples ancestors bodies

made under the conditions in which they lived. Tens of thousand
years ago, their ancestors lived in the tropical and subtropical
parts of Africa where sunlight is very strong all year round. As the
544
result of the prolonged periods, on a daily basis of the exposure to
sunlight, their bodies underwent a change in order to keep them
protected.

Through an evolutionary process their bodies produced larger

amounts of melanin, a substance that darkens the skin and
protects it from some of the suns damage. This physical change
becomes part of their gene pool. As the individuals married and
bore children, the darkened skin color is passed down to the next
generations. In the process, the black African race was formed.

In other parts of the world, the sun is much weaker so that their
skin tone evolved in such a way as to appear very light. Because
they live a place with a different climate and face different
environmental conditions than those living in the equatorial areas,
the Caucasian or white race was formed in the northern regions of
the world.

When sociologists talk about race, they refer to a large number of

people who, for social or geographical reasons, have tended to
intermarry and interbreed with one another over a long period of
time. As a result of these marriages and child-bearing patterns,
these people have developed physical characteristics that are
passed down from generation to generation in the gene pool.

Sociologists take the concept further- race involves a labelling

process and an identification process. Race is rooted in biological
characteristics. Ethnic groups, on the other hand, are identified by
their cultural traits. Ethnicity is rooted in characteristics associated
with culture and heritage. Ethnicity involves a sharing of culture
and certain cultural traits. (Hugh 1992)
545
An ethnic group refers to a group of people with common cultural
background. G. Thomas (Timasheff 1967:151-153) theory of the
definition of the situation in ethnic groups implies that, what is
important is not the physical characteristics that identify a group
but how such relationship determine the feeling o belonging to
each other. When the definitions of physical characteristics affect
the relationships of people, this becomes linked to cultural
differences.

Minority group refers to a group of people that is numerically

lesser than the rest of the population. These groups are in non-
dominant position, whose members possess ethnic, religious, or
linguistic characteristics which distinguish them from the rest of
the population. Its members share a sense of solidarity and a
desire to preserve their culture, traditions, religion of language.

The features that characterize a minority group are:

1. The members suffer various disadvantages at the hand of

another group;
2. They are identified by group characteristics that are
socially visible;
3. It is a self-conscious group with a strong sense of
oneness;
4. They do not become members of a minority group
voluntarily but are born into it; and
5. They tend to marry within the group.

In the US, the African-Americans are the only people to have

involuntarily migrated. One mechanism by which the American
melting pot works is through the intermarriages of different racial,
546
ethnic, and national groups this melting pot however has not
melded many unions across racial lines. 99% of African-American
women and 97% of African-American men marry one of their
race.

In 2001, Hispanic-Americans were estimated to be 37 million or

nearly 13% of the total population. The increasing number reveals
that it is growing five times faster than the general public.
According to the Census Bureau report in 2003, Hispanics
surpassed blacks as Americas largest minority group. The
number of Asian-Americans grew 7 times as fast as the general
American population and three times faster than the black
population. 23% of Asian-Americans are of Chinese heritage or
represented 52% of the Asian-American population in 1960, but
now only represent 11.7% East Indians, 11.2% and Koreans,
10.9% of the population.

Ethnic Groups in the Philippines

The Philippine population is composed of Christian Malay, 91.5%;

Muslim Malay, 4%; Chinese, 1.5%; and other cultural minorities,
3%. The country is home to about 72 cultural communities:
Luzon, 28; Visayas, 12; Mindoro, 1; Palawan, 8; Sulu 1; Tawi-
Tawi, 5; and Mindanao, 18.

The indigenous peoples in the Philippines number 7 million (Table

20.1). The two main groups are the Moros and the Igorots
because of their numerical size, demographic concentration, and
political organization.

547
TABLE. 20.1. Distribution of Ethic Group by Provinces
(Arrangement: Population Count)
Luzon
Apayao Ibanag Ivatan/Itbayat Negrito
Bago Ifugao Iwak Palanan
Balagao Ikalahan/Kalanguya Kalinga
Pangasinan
Bicol Ilocano Kankanaey Sambal
Bontoc Ilongot Kankanay Tagalog
Gadang Isinay Kapampangan Tinggian
Ibaloi Itawit Malaweg Yogad
Visayas
Abakanon Boholano Hiligaynon
Rombloanon
Aklanon Bukidnon Kiniray-a/Hamtikanon Sulod
Bantoanon Cebuano Masbateno Waray

Mindoro Mangyan

Palawan
Agutayanen Kuyonen Palawan Tau t
Batu
Batak Molbog Tagbanwa

Sulu/ Tawi-tawi
Jama Mapun Sama Sama Dilaut Tausog
Yakari

Mindanao
Btaan Kamayo Mandaya Tboli
Bagobo Kamiguin Manobo
Tasaday
Butuanon Kolibugan Maranao
Tururay
Ilanun Maguindanao Sangil/Sandir
Kalangan Mamanwa Subanun
SOURCE: Philippine Cultures. February 26, 2003.

The Igorots of Northern Luzon

In Northern Luzon, at the Cordillera Region, is the ancestral

domain of the Igorots. They are in the provinces of Abra, Apayao,
Buenget, Ifugao, Kalinga, and Mountain province. The Igorots
548
consist of six ethno-linguistic groups: Bontoc, Ibaloi, Ifugao, Ismeg
(or Apayao), Kalinga, and the Kanka-naey.

The Bontocs live near the Chico River and were known for their
head-hunting practices, although they no longer practice this now.
Their pre-Christian culture centered around a belief system on
and a hierarchy of spirits. Their supreme deity is called
Lumawig, who is the legendary creator, friend, and teacher of
Bontocs. They believe in anitos or the spirits of the dead who are
to be consulted for important decisions. The village, called ato, is
composed of from 14 to 50 homes.

The Ifugaos of the southern part of Cordillera region is famous for

their rice terraces. Their houses are built at the edge if the fields
and have, as a distinctive mark, a high post below the floor
beams. This is to keep rats from climbing into the house.

The Ismegs live at the banks of the Apayao River. They are
headhunters and farmers. In Farming, they used to employ the
slash-and-burn technique. But they now practice wet rice
agriculture because of the influence of their neighbors. The male
head clears the tropical forest and it is the wife who plants and
harvests their rice. Women do the cooking and weave bamboo
mats and baskets. The men cut timber, build houses, and do the
haunting and fishing. When a pig is butchered or deer is haunted,
it is their practice to skewer the meat on a bamboo and give to
neighbors and relatives. Their main cash crop is coffee.

Their ancestors used to be lowlanders who migrated to the

mountains of Central Luzon centuries ago in two distinct waves:
first, to search for additional source of food and water and to trade
549
for commodities like lumber and gold; second, to seek refuge and
flee from the Spaniards and its rule. The Spaniards were never
able to dominate these people politically and culturally.

Ethnic Groups in Mindanao

The Bangsamoro consists of 12 groups who share the Islam

religion. They are better known as Morosmeaning Moors or
Muslims. It was a term for barbarism and inferiority which was
coined by the Spaniards in contempt for the Muslims who fought
them. It is now a badge of honor embraced by the Muslims to
identify themselves and their nation.

The Moros number from 2 5 million. They are concentrated

mostly in Mindanao.

They include the following groups:

Maguindanaos- People of the Flooded Plain of Cotabato; the

largest group
Maranaos- people of the lake live around Lake Lanao
Tausugs people of the Crescent of Sulu
Samals of Tawi-tawi
Badjaos of Sulu; called sea gypsies because of their
migration from island in order to avoid conflct
Yakans of Basilan
Sanguils of Davao
Malebanons of the Balabac Islands
Jama Mapuns of Cagayan
Muslim Palawani of Palawan

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The indigenous groups or lumads in Mindanao include the Tboli,
Mandaya, Manobo, Mansaka, Maranao, Subanon, Tausug and
Yakan. The Tbolis are the most colorful of the tribal groups in the
Philippines. They are skilled weavers and makers of heavy brass
jewelry.

In the 15th century, the Islam spread throughout Southern

Philippines and various Sultanates were established in Mindanao
and Sulu. Islamic influence eventually spread to Luzon. The
Philippines was a colony of spain from 16th 19th century but, all
during these times, the Muslims in Mindanao remained
unconquered.

Muslims in Southeast Asia

It is in Southeast Asia that we find the largest number of Muslims.

About 200 million Muslims are living in the region, mostly of Malay
variants in language and culture. They represent about 1/6 of the
worlds total Muslim population, larger than the total number of
Arab Muslims.

Most of the Muslim nations share a common heritage from the

Malay Islamic civilization which was commercial in character,
influenced by a number of ethnic groups with a sea-faring life and
framed in politics of maritime states which flourished between the
15th and 17th centuries. Extensive networks in the region
developed and reinforced by the Malay language the lingua
franca of the region. Malay written in Arabic script was the
medium developing intellectual creativity in religion, history, and
literature and in diplomacy and trade. Islamic education was done
in boarding schools. Studies in traditional Islamic scholarship
551
were reinforced by the kinship and marriage ties among the royal
families.

Muslim communities, however, differ greatly from each other

because of differences in colonization and decolonization. For
example, Dutch colonialism destroyed scores of Muslim
sultanates and principalities in Indonesia. In Malaya, the British
colonial power retained the authority of the Sultans in religious
and customary matters and gave them monetary rewards. Sultans
received large amounts of royalties for concessions in the
extraction of natural resources which were manned by Chinese
and Indian immigrant labor.

The Muslims in the Philippines can be likened to the American

Indians who became victims of discriminations and the tyranny of
the majority. Filipino Muslims have suffered discrimination under
Spanish, American, and Japanese regimes and by the Christian
majority. This so-called tyranny of the majority is in the aspects of
the political, economic, and religious institutions.

Muslim Filipinos trace their nationalism to the days when they

resisted the Spanish colonial rule. In 1996, the Moro National
Liberation Front (MNLF) signed a peace accord with the
government and was given a key role in the Muslim autonomous
region in south. A splinter group, the Moro Islamic Liberation
Front, called the peace accord a farce and continued to fight for
secession.

President Estradas administration declared an all-out war policy

in Mindanao, sending military troops and attacking MILF
enclaves. This resulted in the capture MILFs main camp. The
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conflict continues to date as Muslims asserts for their rightful
place in society and express their long-held grievances against
the central government. (Johannason 2002)

Chinese Relations

The Chinese were in the Philippines even before the first Spanish
galleon landed. They came as merchants in Chinese junks. As
the country prospered, the Chinese came to stay and gradually
increased in number. They worked as bakers, tailors,
shoemakers, blacksmiths, furniture makers, cartel drivers, etc.

The Chinese introduced cultural elements that have been adapted

by local population. Food processing techniques to make miki and
misua, bihon, and taho are Chinese in origin. Chinese word,
including kinship terms like ate, diko, and ditse, are now part of
the Filipino vocabulary (Go and Ang See 1992:70).

At present the ethnic Chinese number more than a million or 3%

of the total population. Their economic positions are of the same
level as the Americans but considered lower in social class.
Compared to other ethnic groups, there is a larger number of
intermarriages which hastened the assimilation of the Chinese
into the Filipino way of life. Their surnames have also been
Filipinized like Angsioco, Anganco, Chongbian, Gocheco,
Gocuico, Syquia, Tantoco, Uytioco, and Wycoco.

American Relations

The Americans came at the turn of the 20th century to wrest the
political power from the Filipino revolutionaries who fought against
553
Spain. The Filipinos resisted but were eventually conquered and
the country became a colony of the US for the next forty years. In
1946, after WW II, the Americans granted us independence.

However, the Filipinos were never really free and the Philippines
still continues to be controlled by the US; not standing up tall and
proud but cowering in the face of Americas power. The Filipino
hast retained the habit of reliance upon Western nations. The late
Manuel Roxas has described us as follows: Filipinos are not from
the orient, except by geography. We are not part of Western world
by reason of culture religion, ideology, and economics. Although
we are brown-skinned, our mind and heart is almost identical with
the west.

With globalization, we have a new battle, a silent battle; the

possible loss of our identity (Philippines Today 2001-2002.

Indian Relations

Majority of Indians and Pakistanis in the Philippines are in Manila.

The dominant group are the Sindhis, mostly merchants who
came from the province of Sindhi, now a part of Pakistan. Smaller
groups are absorbed in the labor sector. The Punjabis, from
Punjab, are those who wear turbans. They are trustworthy and
work as clerks and night watchmen. They are also known for
extending loans to Filipinos on a 5-6 basis. Some Punjabis have
intermarried with Filipino women. The Sindhis who belong to the
upper class usually go to India to marry their brides.

554
They have their own centers and organizations: the Sindhi
temple; the Bombay Market Association and the Indian Chamber
of Commerce.

There is no conflict in Filipino-Indian relations. Some have settled

outside Metro Manila, many in Cainta, Rizal, where a number of
children bear the physical characteristics of their elders. The
ancestors, who came to the Philippine when the British occupied
the country, were mostly soldiers, called Sepoys.

Summary

Racial and ethnic groups are part of social organization. Race

refers to a group of people with similar physical characteristics
which is transmitted through heredity. An ethnic group refers to a
given population with homogeneous cultural traits and patterns.

When various ethnic groups meet, a certain pattern of relationship

follows. These may be competition or conflict, accommodation or
cooperation followed by acculturation, assimilation, or
amalgamation. Discrimination and prejudice between ethnic
groups may characterize the relationships. Ethnic group
affiliations influence physical and cultural traits, thus affection the
personality and shape the nature of society.

Study Guide

1. Differentiate between race and ethnicity.

2. What is minority group?
3. Describe the ethnic groups in the Philippines.

555
 4. Discuss the relations between the ethnic and Christian
groups.
5. How would you describe the Muslims in the Philippines?

Questions for Critical Thinking

1. Describe the nature of Philippine ethnic group relationships.

2. Discuss the effects of development on cultural communities.
3. Can the Muslims be assimilated into the Philippine society?
Why or why not?

556
 Chapter 21

SOCIAL CHANGE

We have all witnessed dramatic changes that have taken place in

the Philippines. We have seen a sweeping makeover in
administration on the national and local level. We have seen
political and social unrest at its most agitated state- exposing the
ticking social time bomb that is the growing gap between the rich
and the poor.

We witnessed the worst terrorist attacks in the worlds history.

Although the world is reeling from the effect, the worst of the
attacks are yet to come. The home grown problems that have
plagued the Philippines may yet be worsened by the looming
global recession resulting from the attacks.

The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks and its ripple effects
have made out bad situation ever worse. The quality of life has
not improved. The per capita GNP in 1890 is the same as it is
today.

China has grown five times more than the Philippines. Thailand
has grown at least two times more on a per capita basis, the
Thais are three times richer than the Filipinos.

At present growth five times more than the Philippines, it will take
us twelve years to catch up to where Thailand was three years
ago. Twenty five years ago we were ahead of Thailand.

557
This requires pursuing relentlessly and with singular attention
modernization in four key of our national life. These are the
economy, agriculture, education, training, and our political
system. There is also a need to give special attention on
Mindanao.

Edgardo Angara, Philippine Star, 5 October 2001:8

How can we attain national development through social change?

What is Social Change?

Social change refers to the variations or modifications in the

pattern of social organizations of subgroups within a society or the
entire society itself. This is manifested in the rise and fall of
groups, communities, or institutional structures and functions; or
changes in the statuses and roles of members on the family, work
setting, church, school, government, leisure, and other
subsystems of the social organization.

Social change occurs as a result of many factors. It can be

actively or consciously brought about through the activities of
social movements. Many changes, however, are unintended and
unanticipated. His is the case with most political revolutions.
Revolutions may involve the active engagement of political groups
but the sweep of events could outdistance anything that was
originally sought.

Modern society is a revolutionary society in several aspects. It is

associated with politics, such as the uprising against the

558
dictatorial rule of Marcos in 1986. It may also be associated with
industrial and technological changes.

Revolutions involve the political activities of a mass movement

which succeeds in overthrowing an established government by
force. It is similar to a coup detat in that a coup detat also
involves the seizure of power (Giddens 1997).

Human societies can be studied based on static social patterns,

such as status and role, social stratification, and the various social
institutions. The dynamic forces range from innovation in
technology to the growth of bureaucracy and the expansion of
cities. These are the dimensions of social change and refer to the
transformation of culture and social institutions over time.

Change is an enduring historical force with noticeable variations

through time. Change may be hardly discernible or easily
observable; it may be constructive or destructive; but whatever is
nature, it occurs everywhere and every time.

Change has been regarded in many ways- as a means, process,

an end, or even a social movement; a state of affairs involving a
program, and ideology, a doctrine, or a problem. The use of new
objects or ideas to reach certain goals involves change; the
adjustment of persons or groups to achieve relative harmony is
change; a socioeconomic program inevitably results in a change;
a moral crusade, a period of tension, crises or normalcy, a threat
to the interests of certain persons or groups all bring about in the
hope for improvements, stability, or security in the future.
Frequently, it is equated with progress which is only one of its

559
aspects. Its dimension includes the transformation of culture and
social institutions over time.

Characteristics of social change:

1. It happens everywhere although the rate of change varies from

place to place. Some societies change faster than others.
William Ogbum (1946) in his theory of cultural lag, states the
things change faster than nonmaterial culture, such as ideas
and attitudes.
2. Social change is sometimes intentional but often unplanned.
3. Social change often generates controversy. For example, the
social patterns of the relationship between women and men
give rise to misunderstanding, tensions, and/or outright
hospitality.
4. Social change are more important than fads and fashions
which only have a significance. Innovations, like television, stay
for generations.

Social Change and Technological Development

Technological development has both positive and negative

impacts, like creating new job opportunities but eliminating old
ones. People can be linked faster and more extensively through
digital communication but it can also threaten personal privacy.

With social change comes modernity. There are social patterns

which are linked to industrialization. Peter Berger (1977) notes
four general characteristics of modernization:

560
 1. The decline of small, traditional communities. In rural
villages, social life revolve around the family and
neighborhood. These provide a strong sense of personal
identity. Belonging and purpose.
2. The expansion of personal choices. People see their lives
as an unending series of options.
3. Increasing social diversity. Tradition loses its hold and
morality becomes a matter of individuals attitude.
4. Future orientation and growing awareness of time, instead
of thinking in terms of sunlight and seasons, we think in
terms of hours and minutes.

Levels of Human Action and Change

To make the study of change more tractable, we shall discuss

four levels of human action: individual personality; interaction
among individuals; group of social system; and cultural system
(Appelbaum 1971:2).

The first level (individual personality) has historically been the

sphere of psychologists, whether they pursue a psychoanalytic or
a behaviourist framework. Freud (1958:215) said that the nature
of social relations among human beings, the sum of which
constitutes civilization, is to a large extent drawn from infant
sexuality and instructive egoism. Proshanky and Seidenber
(1965:6) attempted to explain the relationships between the
properties of the physical world and what the identified as
fundamental psychological processes (cognition, emotion, and
motivation). Empirically, the focus is on the individuals response
to externally induce stimuli which are stimuli abstracted from the
social world that is either ignored or considered relevant.
561
The second level (interaction among individuals) constitutes
the area of social psychology, specifically students of groups
dynamics. It follows the behaviourist perspective, including
personality, interactions, and self-theory. Porshanky and
Seidenber (1965:4) studied the behaviour of individuals in
connection with his or her experiences and the social setting and
the context in which social behaviour takes place. i.e. other
individuals or groups. George Simmel (1964:15-15) specified the
social interaction among the social levels. This involves not only
in the relations among human but also the personality developing
virtually entirely from human interaction.

The third level (group of social system) is of general interest to

sociologists. The group is the unit of analysis, particularly the
emergent properties of the group where the social level is thought
to reside. Emile Durkheim (1964:13) clarified this concerns with
his definition of social facts as every way if acting, fixed or not,
capable of exercising on the individual an external constraint.

Exteriority to and constraint on the individuals make up social

action, the area of inquiry unique to sociology. Twentieth century
American sociology dealt mainly with aspects of social action,
with the analysis of structural effects on behavioural variables.
Marxs concept of the social in terms of class-consciousness
parallels Durkheims concept Durkheim , a person is constrained
by the group both in thought and in action; the group or class has
an existence above and apart from that of its members; and
individual behaviour reflects the exteriority of the group. Durkheim
defines a social group as a small unit of workers, or a social class,
or a nation-state, provided that the group exercises constraint or a
affects the individual.
562
The fourth level (cultural system) is the concern mainly of
anthropology. Parsons (1966:5) states that the meanings and
intentions of human acts are formed in terms of symbol systems,
along with the codes through which they operate, in patterns that
focus on the universal aspect of human society, which is called
language. Hoebel (1962:116-117,168), Murdock (1960:218),
Kroeber and Kluchkbon (1952), and steward (1955:43-97) refer to
culture as the characteristics of human behaviour and their
transmission over time, rather than human interactions per se.
Major emphasis is given by society to the learning and
transmission of values and symbols. Distinction is made between
natural (technology) and nonmaterial culture, and between culture
as a configuration of existential postulates (about the nature of
things) and of normative postulates (about the desirability of
things.)

Change is pervasive and is taking place in culture, society, and

personality. Changes in culture bring about changes in society
and human beings; likewise, changes in society and human being
bring about changes in culture.
Culture change refers to all alterations affecting new traits or trait
complexes in cultural context and structure. This include 1) the
development of oral and written language and other means of
communication; 2) modifications in technology; 3) shifts in
economic principles; 4) the historical evolution of religious ritual
and dogma, educational philosophy, and political ideology; 5)
variations in musical styles and other art form; 6) transitions in
scientific theories; and 7) alterations in the forms and rules of
social interaction (Davis 1949:622-623).

563
Technological change and social change are specific parts of
cultural change. Technological change denotes the revisions that
occur in the peoples application of their technical knowledge and
skills as they adapt to their physical environment. These change
can be seen in 1) the increasing divergence in the form of tools,
instruments, and implements used; 2) the constant addition to and
deletions from the range of inventions; 3) the obsolescence of and
advancement in scientific knowledge; and 4) the innovations in
the ability to utilize and exploit the natural environment for human
needs.

Max Weber explained that conflict in material production may

force its roots on the world of ideas. In the natural environment,
people cast nature as a force to be tamed and reshaped for
human purposes, like stripping forests to create fields for farming
and cutting trees for materials for building. However, this outlook
has also caused problem, such as it had created a habit of over
consumption which brings about problems in solid waste
management and pollution, among others.

Population growth, on the other hand, imposes demands in the

natural environment and alters cultural patterns. This forces a
shifting in of the composition of a population and migration among
societies.

In the Philippines, the introduction of new methods of farming, the

revival of native themes in literary and art forms, the addition of
either practical arts or vocational courses to the educational
curriculum, and the indigenization of research theory methodology
and social programs represent cultural change. The adoption of
scientific techniques to increase rice production and the increase
564
in academic courses to train Filipinos to better control and
manipulate their environment are technological changes. The
changed norms of the landlord-tenant relationship because of
land reform, the significance of learning and adapting managerial
skills in farming, the altered Filipino outlook and behaviour toward
foreigners and foreign things; the changes in social mobility and
the social stratification among Filipinos because of the
acceptance and adoption of western value and behaviour patterns
typify social change.

Social change is manifested in various ways, such as when

changes in the competence system cause shifts in the outlook on
work, academic competence, and economic achievements; when
import and decontrol policies affect the relationships of
contracting parties in industry and commerce; when the
construction of varied architectural housing units of interaction-
emigration movements alter status and role aspirations,
expectations, and achievements; when the legalization of social
controls weaken family and other disorganization, such as crime,
juvenile delinquency, mental illness, suicide, alcoholism, drug
abuse, prostitution, family conflicts, child abuse/neglect,
revolution, and wars.

From the sociological view, cultural and technological changes

are important to note. These result from the relationships of the
members of a society and the overlapping of cultural,
technological, and social changes (Davis 1949:622-633).

A typology of theories of social change can be employed to clarify

some of the assumptions regarding the social and change
contained in these theories. They are not mutually exclusive.
565
There are major differences in the underlying assumptions and
derivative approaches to social change. Four broad categories
are distinguished:

Evolutionary theorycharacterized primarily by an

assumption of smooth, cumulative change, often in a linear
fashion, and always in the direction of increasing complexity
and adaptability;
Equilibrium theorycharacterized by the concept of
homeostasis, and focuses on conditions tending toward
stability as a consequences;
Conflict theorycharacterized by the assumption that
change is endemic to all social organisms, and focuses on
conditions that tend toward instability as a consequence;
and
Rise and fall theorycharacterized by the assumption
that societies, cultures, or civilization regress as well as
grow, and that all societies do not move in the same
direction.(Appelbaum 1971:9-10)

Evolutionary theories includes both the equilibrium and the

conflict theories, each of which assume that societies can be
treated as interdependent systems which generally move in the
direction of increasing complexity and are involved in maximizing
adaptability to environment. Variants of these theories also share
the assumption that change is unilinear; meaning, all societies
move from a similar initial state to a similar final state, as
exemplified in the historical experience of western European
nations and the United States. Parsons and Smelser used
pattern-variables which identifies before-and-after sets of patterns
characterize pre-industrial and industrial societies (1965:33-38);
566
while Marx (Feuer 1959:1-41) laid down the stages of societies
which reflect the technological organization of production at any
given time and its corresponding class contradictions.

There are significant differences in the emphasis of each theory

the evolutionary theory emphasizes smooth , cumulative changes,
the equilibrium theory emphasizes adjustment and homeostasis
among parts ; and the conflict theory emphasizes inherent
instability and change.

Aside from those mentioned are the modernization and

diachrome theories of unilinear change. Modernization has
numerous definitions, but all relate to the process or
characteristics of industrialization. Levy defines modernization
directly in terms of technology the more modernized the society,
the greater the ratio of inanimate to animate power sources and
the greater human efforts are multiplied by the use of tools.
Smelser (1966: 110-111) conceived of modernization as related
to economic development, and often occurring simultaneously in
at least four distinct but interrelated processes.

1. In the realm of technology, a developing society is

developing from simple and traditional techniques toward
the application of a scientific knowledge.
2. In agriculture, the developing society evolves from
subsistence farming toward commercial production of
agricultural goods, which means specialization in cash
crops, purchase of non-agricultural products in the market,
and often agricultural wage labor.
3. In industry the developing society undergoes a transition
from the use of human and animal power toward
567
 industrialization power, or with men working for wages at
power-driven machines which produce commodities for
outside the community of production.
4. In ecological arrangements, the developing society moves
from the farm and village toward urban concentrations.

Aside from the concepts of economic development, modernization

refers to the technical, economic, and ecological changes which
ramify through the whole social and cultural fabric. Profound
changes are expected in the emerging nation, such as (1) in the
political sphere, as simple tribal or village authority give way to
systems of suffrage, political parties, representation, and civil
service bureaucracies; (2) in the educational sphere, as society
strives to reduce illiteracy and increase economically productive
skills; (3) in the religious sphere, as secularized belief systems
begin to replace traditionalistic religion; (4) in the familial sphere,
as extended kinship units lose their pervasiveness; (5) in the
stratification sphere. As geographical and social mobility, tends to
loosen fixed, inscriptive hierarchical systems.

Factors in Social Change

Multiple factors underline the broad and complex nature of social

change. Like the phenomenon in the physical sciences, social
change in the social sciences displays rate, direction, form, type,
cause, order, stimulants, and barriers in its emergence,
development, and decline (Davis 1949:623-636;Foster 1962:64-
146;Appelbaum 1971:11-138). The study of the factors
necessitates the delineation of the length of time, the geo
graphical area, and the group to be considered.

568
The Rate of Social Change

Rate is also referred to as speed of pace. When the balance

between opposing forces tilts toward change-preventing ones, the
stability of the society predominates; on the other hand, when the
balance tilts toward the change-promoting forces, a rate of
change occurs.

All cultures change but the rates of change vary. Some societies
change slowly while others change rapidly. Some change rapidly
for a time and then slows down, and vice versa for others. In
some societies, parts of the culture change at an unequal speed
at a given period, resulting in an unbalanced state in the others;
while the other parts of the culture change at a similar speed and
maintain their consistency. In the West, prior to the Industrial
Revolution, and in many colonized countries before World War II,
social change was for the most part slow. The Nuclear-Space age
brought about a greatly accelerated speed of change of places
reached by mass media.

The disparity in the rate of change between different elements of

culture- materials and non-materials - is what W.F. Ogburn
(1922:200-201) refers to as cultural lag. It represents dysfunctions
or the inability of a given society to devise or adapt immediately
new ideas to counter-act or check the disruptions brought about
by significant new objects, it is regarded as the cause of many
problems of human beings. This happens when family, economic,
political, religious, educational, health, recreational, and other
special patterns instituted several community, many parents still
want to completely control the lives of their children in spite of
their adult status, like what their ancestors practiced during the
569
earlier years while still in the farm communities. Newcomers to
the cities find it difficult to integrate their daily lives to the urban
lifestyle. Garbage collection and other public services, land tenure
systems, credit facilities, court and police systems, education
curricula, religious may not keep pace with the increase in
population and migration and the growth of scientific knowledge
and technical know-how. Different norms and values of certain
socio-economic-political ideologies that are imposed cause
serious social problems.

In order to adjust to and survive to change in a technologically

shifting society, people develop individual and group customs,
called tecnicways, to gradually replace old folkways and mores.
People reorienting themselves to assemble at designated places
for jeep and bus stops, or to line-up to pay the cashier or to buy
stamps at the post office, illustrate the formation of tecnicways.
When these tecnicways develop into folkways and mores and
when the different elements of culture catch up with one another
and maintain a balance among themselves for a certain period,
then cultural lag fades out.

The rate of social change and the cultural lag that follows can be
measured by: 1) comparing the overall culture or parts of the
culture of different societies at a given period; 2) examining the
overall culture or parts of the culture of the same society at
different time; 3) viewing the parts of the culture of the same
society at a specific period.

To illustrate, one can compare the overall state of development,

work ethic, migration patterns, or value orientations of the
Philippines, Japan, Mexico, and Egypt fifty years after World War
570
The general conditions, the educational system, or Catholicism in
the Philippines at the end of the Spanish regime, in 1946 when
the country became independent, and 20 years after
independence can be examined; or a study may be made of the
political system throughout the different presidential eras. The
impact of the Agrarian Reform Code on landlord-tenant
relationships, kinship obligations, and national development ten to
twenty years after its implementation in reform areas can also be
scrutinized.

Form of Social Change

Social change may or may not be repeated over definite periods

of time. The characteristics of social change are indicated by the
term form. Kingsley Davis (1946:628-629) identified two forms of
social change as: (1) the cyclical, in which whole cultures or their
parts are repeated over a considerable period of time; and (2) the
linear, in which cultures of their specific aspects change in only
one direction and never recur.

In reality, no culture is precisely cyclical or linear. What is possible

to determine is whether the changes in the overall culture or its
elements more closely approximate the linear or the cyclical form.
Changes viewed over relatively shorter periods of time tend to be
linear; these are referred to as trends. Changes viewed through
several generation tend to be cyclical; these are called cycles.

Changes in population size bring about changes in sex ratio,

courtship, and organization. Periods of continuing population
growth can enhance delayed marriage or limited childbearing.
Scarce economic resources and keen competition in the
571
employment arena may render marriage impractical, with
individuals shrinking from family responsibility and encourage
single-blessedness (Norman, Jr. 1965:228-230).

Direction of Social Change

Closely associated with rate and form is the direction of social

change. The three are measured according to the objectives that
a person or a group wishes to achieve on a long or short-range
basis. The rapidity or slowness of social change can be defined in
accordance with a tentative schedule set for the attainment of
specific objectives, but which could contribute toward the
fulfillment of a general goal. For instance, people in a barrio may
work for specific objectives, such as learning about their natural
resources. They may utilize the services of experts to help them
exploit their natural resources effectively in order to obtain a lone-
range goal of strengthening the barangay council within a period
of ten years, the rate of change can be considered rapid; if these
are not achieved even after fifteen years, the rate of social
change is considered slow.

The form of social change is deduced on the basis of repetition of

continuity of change in the period of ten years. The direction of
social change is evaluated in the light of its consistency with past
and present conditions. For example, the direction of social
change be derived by answering the following questions: What
aspects of the social organization of the above-cited barrio
twenty-five or more years ago are consistent with the objective of
strengthening the barrio council and help reinforce it? Is progress
or retrogression dependent upon previously identified, defined,
and agreed upon criteria for progress or retrogressing?
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Social change, however, can be so far-reaching that it is difficult
to visualize what aspects of a total culture will be changed by the
introduction of new things. Therefore, in tracing the rate, form,
and direction of social change, one should consider not only the
intended but also the unintended results. Unintended results are
those that are unexpected.

Modernity

In studying social change the central concept is modernity. These

are the social patterns pertaining to industrialization. Peter Berger
(1977) lists four major characteristics of modernization which are:
1) the decline of small, traditional communities; 2) the expansion
of personal choice; 3) increasing diversity of beliefs; and 4) future
orientation and growing awareness of time.

Social change is more often welcomed by societies. Modernity is

linked to the idea of progress (moving forward), a state of
continued improvements. However, change in terms of progress
depends on our underlying values. Life expectancy has been
made longer and there are now more amenities to make life
comfortable. But such affluence, to an extent, has increased our
materialism at the expense of spiritual life.

Modernization: The Philippines

The harsh truth is that we are a troubled nation. Over the past
generation, the quality of life has no improved for majority of our
countrymen. The per capita GNP in 1980 is the same as it is
today.

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Forty percent of our countrymen are poor. The richest 10% of
Filipinos have 24 times as much wealth as the poorest 10%.
Economists estimate that a total of 28 million Filipinos- more than
one in three of the nations population- are living on less than 31
pesos a day. Poverty has a rural face, with 3 out of 4 poor
Filipinos effect belonging to the rural sector. Urban poverty is
partly an indirect effect of rural poverty. When the economy
stagnates or contracts, the poor bear the greatest burden.

New direction, bold initiatives. With a vastly changed economic

and social scenario, the need to reshape our goals and redefine
our agenda has become even more compelling. We can no longer
rely on old formulas that have proven ineffective in addressing the
malaise ailing our nation. This requires pursuing relentlessly and
with focused attention on modernization in four key areas of
national lifethe economy; agriculture; education and training;
and the political system. Geographically, it requires special
attention in Mindanao, one area the government has not taken
seriously.

Economic modernization. Major reforms have to be seriously

considered and undertaken to shape up a poorly performing
economy heavily burdened by strangulating business regulations,
and an even more antiquated incentive scheme and decrepit
infrastructure.

Government should concentrate its investments and provide

incentives to the private sector to invest in infrastructure,
particularly telecommunications and transportation. The lack of it
has effectively deterred business investments in the country.

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Government should provide meaningful incentives to ensure a
steady inflow of investments which create jobs. Investments,
particularly in depressed areas such as Mindanao, would
translate to hundreds of thousands of jobs. Give a man a job
save him from poverty. We need to seriously review the economic
provisions of technologies and capital.

For every 10% increase in average real income, poverty

incidence falls by approximately 17%. A 3.2% growth for the next
ten years will translate to only a 5% decrease in a poverty 12
years. On the other hands, a 5% growth in 2002 and 7% for the
next 9 years will translate in a drop of poverty rates from 40% to
13%.

Agricultural modernization. The Philippine economy will not

achieve sustainable growth without reforms in agriculture. Heavy
investments in rural infrastructure have to be made on irrigation,
farm to market roads, and fishing ports.

No modern agriculture can be attained without investing in

research and development. Agriculture research and
development is critical for the Philippines. Let a thousand
research stations bloom, to it bring about food security for the
country. Jobs in rural sector have to be created.

Educational modernization. Efforts must focus on educational

modernization. The countrys greatest resource is its people. To
educate a child is to save a person and guarantee a good
national future.

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Serious reforms need to be undertaken in the educational sector
to make education more accessible and responsive, retraining our
children for the global and domestic job markets. Children should
be trained in science and technology. Distance learning and
special education programs for the disabled should be provided in
areas where there are no schools. Teachers conditions must be
alleviated through salary restructuring.

Political modernization. No modernization can take place

without serious reforms in the political system. A faulty political
system breeds bad politics and bad politicians. It creates
opportunities for inefficiency and corruption

This requires electoral modernization and computerization so that

the voters list can be cleansed and the counting of ballots
speedily made. Administrative reform must be undertaken to raise
the performance standards of government and thereby creating a
bureaucracy which is responsive to our citizenry.

Overtime, a gradual shift to a parliamentary form of government

can be considered to prevent deadlock and promote a strong and
effective leadership.

The Mindanao Imperative. Lastly, government needs to give

more attention to Mindanao. It is considered as the countrys food
basket but remains the land of forgotten promise. Government
should provide fiscal incentive for the private sector to invest in
Mindanao and create more jobs. More social welfare programs
should be provided to solve the massive poverty affection the
Muslim people in Central Mindanao.

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The four Modernization focusing on our economy, agricultural
sector, educational, and political systems are what the country
urgently needs. The four Modernizations are the foundation for
future development and prosperity. It provides the new direction in
a radically changed political and economic scenario. (Angara
2001:8)

Social Change in Philippine Society

Philippine society is in a flux of change. A major consequence of

change in the Philippines, which is also taking place in the other
parts of the contemporary world, is modernization. This implies a
change from the traditional way of life to a more complex,
technologically advanced, rapidly changing style of life. The
various elements of socio-cultural change are industrialization,
urbanization, technology, population, education, bureaucracy,
medicine and public health, and recreation.

In Philippine agriculture an important phenomenon is the

changing Filipino rice farmer. Empirical studies show that the
typical rice farmer has begun adapting new rice technology which
has lessened the amount of rice importation. This has been
accompanied by a modernized outlook in agriculture, new
attitudes, aspirations, perceptions and an awareness and
acquisition of certain activities showing a growing contractual
relationship. Nevertheless, the values of fatalism and belief in
good luck and bad luck (swerte) still persist (Astillo 1975:125-
179).

New dimensions of social change are the leadership patterns and

national development policies and programs geared toward peace
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and order, land reform, economic reforms, reorientation of moral
values, government reforms, educational reforms, and social
services. There is a noticeable focus on regional and local
autonomy, Asianism (by developing social, cultural, and economic
ties with our Asian neighbors), reconciliation with other Third
World societies, and contracting foreign policy treaties and
agreements by fostering diplomatic and commercial relations with
both communistic and capitalistic societies.

What changes have been brought about by natural disasters such

as the volcanic eruptions of Pinatubo and Mayon and the flood in
Luzon and the Visayas? By the closure of Subic and Clark bases?
And the movement of people from the barrios and municipalities
to the cities? What coping mechanisms have displaced people
from urban slims resorted to?

The assessment and evaluation of social development programs

are possible with the use of social indicators, like population
growth rate and the percentage of urban and rural population,
health and life expectancy, education and culture, nutrition,
employment and social security, personal security, consumption,
wealth and social welfare, electrification, water supply, and
communication systems (Bureau of Census and Statistics 1973).
Randolph S. David (1982:21) cities a significant set of studies for
development in the Philippines, as follows:

1. Clarify what kind of society we have become as a function of

our colonial experience;
2. Define the salient features of the global and regional
environment within which our society is moving and bring
out the basic constraints of theses supra-national systems;
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 3. Reveal the precise mechanisms by which the existing
system is able to reproduce and perpetuate itself and bring
out the ways and techniques of these powers as well as
identify its most vulnerable points.
4. Identify and understand how people can effectively organize
themselves in order to gain control over their lives, or simply
to effectively insulate themselves from the instabilities of
daily life.
5. Constantly assess the possibilities of real structural change
in our society, specially by defining the basic characteristics
of the environment within which a peoples movement for
change must operate and formulate the conditions under
which spontaneous peoples organizations can become part
of a larger process of societal revivals;
6. Conceptualize a vision of alternative structures in conformity
with our peoples desire for a free, just, dignified and
prosperous life for all.

Summary

Social change refers to alterations in the patterns and regulations

regarding social interaction. Four levels of human action- the
individual personality, interaction among individuals, the group or
social systems, and the cultural system-have been delineated to
make the study of change more tractable.

Four broad categories of theories are distinguished for the study

of social change: The evolutionary theory, equilibrium theory,
conflict theory, and rise and fall theory.

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Social change is the result of cultural change and/or technological
change, and it can influence either or both. Its rate, direction, and
form can be gauged through the factors of time, place, goals, and
objectives. It is caused by the interplay of a large number on non-
social and social factors.

Among its sources are evolution, discovery, invention, and

diffusion. Its order may be understood in terms of how individuals,
groups, or institutions accept change. It may be directed or non-
directed. Depending upon the degree of planning that is involved.
The barriers, as well as the stimulants, of social change may be
cultural, social, or psychological.
Social scientists today are challenged by the need to comprehend
more fully the mechanisms of change and to determine the
conditions under which a society changes its culture

Study Guide

1. Concepts to master:
Social change technological change
Tecnicways modernization
Rate of change cultural lag
2. What are the characteristics of social change?
3. Discuss the levels of human action.
4. Discuss the theories of social change.
5. What are the forms of social change.

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Questions for Critical Thinking

1. Considering the changes that the country has undergone

and is undergoing, can you predict the future of Philippine
society?
2. Give examples of social change that are unintentional and
unplanned?
3. What is your vision in the next twenty years?
4. Why do some analysts say that the government need to give
more attention in Mindanao?

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