Civils Design Giude

CIVIL ENGINEERING
DESIGN GUIDE
Compiled by
Eng. J T Kunze BSc Eng Hons, MZweIE

Civils Design Guide
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 SCOPE OF MANUAL ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 DESIGN STANDARDS ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT MANUALS .............................................................................................. 1
1.5 CONVERSION UNITS .............................................................................................................................. 2
1.6 SCHEDULE FOR QUANTITY MEASUREMENTS ............................................................................................... 2
2 ROADS .............................................................................................................................................. 3
2.1 DESIGN STANDARDS AND ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS ........................................................................ 3
2.1.1 DESIGN STANDARDS ............................................................................................................... 3
2.1.2 ROAD CLASSIFICATION ............................................................................................................ 3
2.2 PAVEMENT DESIGN ............................................................................................................................... 3
2.2.1 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN TO MOT STANDARDS............................................................... 3
2.2.2 PAVEMENT MATERIAL SPECIFICATION ................................................................................... 4
2.2.3 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN TO COH STANDARDS ............................................................... 5
2.2.4 TYPICAL ROAD CROSS-SECTIONS ............................................................................................ 6
2.2.5 SURFACING ............................................................................................................................. 7
2.3 GEOMETRICAL DESIGN OF ROADS .................................................................................................. 9
2.3.1 DESIGN SPEED ......................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.2 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT ............................................................................................................ 9
2.3.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT .................................................................................................... 10
2.3.4 GENERAL SURVEY ................................................................................................................. 13
2.4 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING......................................................................................................................... 14
2.4.1 ROUNDABOUT DESIGN ......................................................................................................... 14
2.4.2 JUNCTION DESIGN ................................................................................................................ 14
2.4.3 DESIGN OF TOLL PLAZAS ....................................................................................................... 15
2.4.4 TRAFFIC COUNTS .................................................................................................................. 16
2.4.5 PARKING ............................................................................................................................... 17
2.4.6 TRAFFIC SIGNS ...................................................................................................................... 18
2.4.7 AERODROME DESIGN ........................................................................................................... 19
2.5 CONCRETE WORKS ........................................................................................................................ 20
2.5.1 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN ........................................................................................................ 20
2.5.2 CONCRETE INDUSTRIAL FLOORS ........................................................................................... 21
2.5.3 STATISTICS AND MARGINS .................................................................................................... 22
2.5.4 CONCRETE ROAD FURNITURE ............................................................................................... 23
3 STORMWATER DRAINAGE .............................................................................................................. 24
3.1 SCOPE ........................................................................................................................................... 24
3.2 GUIDELINES................................................................................................................................... 24
3.3 HYDRAULICS OF PIPES ......................................................................................................................... 24
3.4 ESTIMATION OF DESIGN FLOOD ................................................................................................... 24
3.4.1 RATIONAL FORMULA ............................................................................................................ 24
3.4.2 QUICK METHOD .................................................................................................................... 25
3.5 PIPE CULVERT SELECTION ..................................................................................................................... 25
3.6 PIPE FLOW EQUATIONS ........................................................................................................................ 26
3.6.1 MANNINGS EQUATION ........................................................................................................ 26
3.6.2 VARIATION OF FLOW WITH DEPTH....................................................................................... 26
3.7 SHELVERT DESIGN ......................................................................................................................... 28
4 WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................... 29
J T Kunze January 2009

Civils Design Guide
4.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................. 29
4.2 WATER SUPPLY SCHEME DESIGN PARAMETERS ........................................................................... 29
4.2.1 WATER DEMAND .................................................................................................................. 29
4.2.2 FIRE FIGHTING REQUIREMENTS ........................................................................................... 30
4.2.3 PEAK FACTORS ...................................................................................................................... 30
4.2.4 POPULATION GROWTH RATE R ............................................................................................ 31
4.2.5 DESIGN PERIOD ..................................................................................................................... 31
4.2.6 PRESSURE .............................................................................................................................. 31
4.2.7 VELOCITY ............................................................................................................................... 31
4.2.8 LOSSES .................................................................................................................................. 31
4.3 RAW WATER SOURCES ................................................................................................................... 31
4.4 WATER TREATMENT WORKS ........................................................................................................ 32
4.5 DESIGN FOR PRESSURE MAINS AND RETICULATION NETWORKS.................................................. 32
4.5.1 SELECTION OF PIPE MATERIALS ............................................................................................ 32
4.5.2 SPECIFICATION OF PIPES ....................................................................................................... 32
4.5.3 TESTING OF PIPES ................................................................................................................. 33
4.5.4 NETWORK ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................. 34
4.5.5 DESIGN OF PUMPING MAINS................................................................................................ 35
4.5.6 EQUIVALENT PIPE ................................................................................................................. 36
4.5.7 ACCESSORIES FOR SUPPLY networks .................................................................................... 36
4.5.8 PUMPING MAINS VERSUS GRAVITY MAINS .......................................................................... 37
5 WASTE WATER DISPOSAL SYSTEMS ................................................................................................ 39
5.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................. 39
5.1.1 SYSTEM COMPONENTS ......................................................................................................... 39
5.1.2 GENERAL NOTES ................................................................................................................... 39
5.2 DESIGN FACTORS ............................................................................................................................... 39
5.3 SEWER HYDRAULICS ........................................................................................................................... 40
5.3.1 DIAMETERS AND GRADIENTS ............................................................................................... 40
5.3.2 APPROXIMATE PIPE CAPACITIES ........................................................................................... 40
5.3.3 PIPE & PUMP SUPPLIERS....................................................................................................... 41
5.3.4 AVAILABLE SEWER PIPES ...................................................................................................... 41
5.4 PUMP STATIONS ........................................................................................................................... 41
5.4.1 GENERAL NOTES ................................................................................................................... 41
5.4.2 SIZING A PUMP SUMP .......................................................................................................... 41
5.5 WASTEWATER TREATMENT WORKS ............................................................................................. 42
5.5.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 42
5.5.2 DESIGN OF SEPTIC TANKS & SOAKAWAYS ............................................................................ 42
5.5.3 DESIGN OF WASTEWATER STABILISATION PONDS ............................................................... 42
INTRODUCTION (BASED ON WASTE STABILISATION PONDS IN TROPICS BY DUNCAN MARA) ......................................... 42
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY ...................................................................................................................................... 42
ANAEROBIC PONDS ........................................................................................................................................ 43
FACULTATIVE POND ....................................................................................................................................... 43
MATURATION POND ...................................................................................................................................... 43
6 HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES ............................................................................................................... 44
6.1 CATCHMENT AND YIELD CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................................................... 44
6.2 YIELD CALCULATIONS .......................................................................................................................... 44
6.3 DESIGN FLOOD .................................................................................................................................. 44
6.3.1 DESIGN FLOOD ...................................................................................................................... 44
6.3.2 DISTRIBUTIONS ..................................................................................................................... 44
6.4 FACTORS TO CONSIDER DURING DAM DESIGN........................................................................................... 44
6.5 RIVER/ DAM ABSTRACTION POINTS .................................................................................................... 45

Civils Design Guide
6.6 DESIGN OF WEIRS/DAM WALLS ....................................................................................................... 45

6.7 DESIGN OF CANALS ............................................................................................................................. 45
7 CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION ........................................................................................................ 47
7.1 GENERAL NOTES ........................................................................................................................... 47
7.2 TENDER DOCUMENT ..................................................................................................................... 47
7.2.1 COVER PAGE ......................................................................................................................... 47
7.2.2 BIDDING INSTRUCTIONS ....................................................................................................... 47
7.2.3 CONTRACT CONDITIONS ....................................................................................................... 47
7.2.4 SPECIFIC CATIONS ................................................................................................................. 47
7.2.5 ATTACHMENTS ..................................................................................................................... 47
7.2.6 AGREEMENT ......................................................................................................................... 47
7.2.7 BILLS OF QUANTITIES ............................................................................................................ 47
7.3 TENDER EVALUATION REPORT...................................................................................................... 47
7.4 PREPARING MINUTES ................................................................................................................... 48
7.5 PAYMENT CERTIFICATES ............................................................................................................... 48
7.6 ESCALATION ON CIVIL ENGINEERING CONTRACTS ........................................................................... 48
7.7 INSURANCES CATEGORIES ............................................................................................................ 49

Civils Design Guide
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 SCOPE OF MANUAL
This manual is mainly concerned with the design of civil engineering infrastructure;
roads and stormwater drainage
water supply and reticulation
sewerage reticulation and treatment
As a rule of thumb guide to roads & stormwater cost 55%, sewerage 25% and water reticulation 20% of
total cost of servicing a housing development. The average cost of servicing a housing infrastructure
development is USD30 000.00/ha
1.2 DESIGN STANDARDS
Roads: - City of Bulawayo, City of Harare Road Design Manual and Ministry of Transport Manuals
Water Reticulation : Department of Water Development: Design & Training Manual (Water)
Sewerage Disposal : SALA Manual 5: Sanitation Design Procedures
1.3 REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
The design guidelines in this manual are based on the following documents;
City of Harare (COH) Road Design Manual, City of Bulawayo
Ministry of Transport Manual listed in the section below
Department of Water Development: Design & Training Manual (Water)
Swedish Association of Local Authorities (SALA) Manual 5: Sanitation Design Procedures
Ministry of Local Government & Housing: Water & Sewerage Design; 1982 (Yellow Manual)
Ministry of Local Government & Housing: Principles of Planning &Design; 1981 (Green Manual)
Pump and Pipe Supplier Catalogues
Arup Civil Engineering Design Guide (1993)
Hydraulics: Charwick & Moffert & Fluid Mechanics: J F Douglas
Water Treatment Handbook: 6th Edition Volume 1, Degremont, France
Model Building By Laws
BS 6297: 1983 Design and Installation of Small Treatment Works and Cesspools
Irrigation Manual by FAO
SABS 090
1.4 MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT MANUALS
Part A : General Part B: Administration

Part C : Planning Part D : Survey
Part E : Materials Planning Part F : Road Construction
Part G: Costing Part H: Civil Engineering Contracts
Part JC : Bridge Construction Part JD : Bridge Design
Part KA : Traffic Counts & Tests Part KB : Traffic Signs
Part L : Maintenance Part M: Vehicle Inspectorate
Part N : Material Testing Part O : Equipment and Testing
Part P : Material Specifications Part Q : Material Control
Part R : Draughting Part S : Supplies, Stores and Security
J T Kunze 1 January 2009

Civils Design Guide
1.5 CONVERSION UNITS
The following conversion units are applicable in this manual

1ha = 10 000m2 = 0.01km2
100ha = 1km2
1 acre = 4047m2 (63.6m x 63.7m)
1 bar = 10m head water
1 Pa = 1N/m2
1bar = 105N/m = 105 Pa = 100KPa
1MPa = 100m head water
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1ft = 12 inch = 0.3048m
1 mile = 1,61 km
1 ga = 4.546 litres
1horsepower = 746 watts
1 barrel = 200 litres = 1 drum
1.6 SCHEDULE FOR QUANTITY MEASUREMENTS
Taking off of quantities can be done based on the following schedules of quantities;
Table 1-A : Building Materials Quantity Schedule
Material Components Quantity

Brickwork Bricks 105/m2 for 230mm walls
51/m2 for 115mm walls
Concrete Cement 7.2 bags
25Mpa
Stone 0.8m3
Sand 0.6m3
Plastering Cement 10 bags per 100m2/(10 000 bricks 230 wall)
Sand 1.9m3 per 100m2
Bedding mortar Cement 5.9 bags per 1 000 bricks
Sand 0.8m3 per 1 000 bricks
Rhino setting Rhinoset 6 8 bags per room
Painting Paint 5 6m2/ litre (first coat)
7 8m2/ litre (second coat)

Civils Design Guide
2 ROADS
2.1 DESIGN STANDARDS AND ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS
2.1.1 DESIGN STANDARDS
This document covers the design of roads to Ministry of Transport Parts F, C and K Manual, City of
Harare Guidelines and City of Bulawayo Design Guidelines.
2.1.2 ROAD CLASSIFICATION
Table 2-A: Road Classifications
Authority Reference Criteria Classes

Ministry of Part C Manual Pavement and surfacing 7/10
Transport
6/7
0/8
0/7
City of Harare Pavement Design Number of vehicles and T1 T5
Manual road use
City of Bulawayo Design Guidelines Purpose of road
Primary Distribution Expressways/ Freeways
District Arterials
Local Major & Minor Collectors
Other Cul de sac etc
2.2 PAVEMENT DESIGN
2.2.1 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN TO MOT STANDARDS
Step 1: Axle load survey (mass vs number of vehicles for the given road counted or estimated)
Step 2: Equivalent factor e = (X / WS)X
where X = measured axial load
WS = standard axial load (8160 kg) x = 4
Calculate the equivalent axles per day as E = (equivalent axial) x number of vehicles
Find the sum of equivalent axles per day
Choose design life (10 to 20 years) for flexible pavement or up to 40 years for rigid pavement
Decide on traffic growth rate 5 to 10% per annum
Calculate cumulative equivalent standard axle Esa as
Esa = daily Esa x f x 100 or Esa = daily Esa x 365
f is taken from tables and f = 3.65R
R = [(1+r)n 1]/ r r = traffic growth rate and n = design life

Civils Design Guide
Note: Normal cars (2 ton axle load), have an equivalent factor of less than 0.004, therefore cars have
negligible effect on the road as compared to large trucks and can be ignored. In normal cases heavy
vehicles constitute 10% to 30% of the total traffic volume and in the absence of given information an
equivalent total axle of 0.256 can be assumed for each heavy vehicle.
2.2.2 PAVEMENT MATERIAL SPECIFICATION
Step 3: Classify the pavement based on the Table below;

Table 2-B : Pavement Classification
Cumulative Esa < 0.1 x 106 0.1 0.3 x 106 0.3 1.0 x 106 > 1.0 x 106
Pavement group 0.1M 0.3M 1.0M 3.0M
Step 4: Classify the subgrade material based on the Table below;

Table 2-C : Subgrade Classification
Subgrade SGE SG1 SG3 SG5 SG9 SG15

Classification Expansive CBR 3 CBR 5 CBR 9 CBR 15
Step 5: Specify pavement based on the Part F : Figures 206 to 2010 attached. Compaction
specifications are as indicated below, based on Part F, Section 13 Table 2.
Table 2-D : Compaction Specification.
Pavement Material Required Compaction

Class 2.4 Crushed Stone 100% Mod AASHTO
Class 2.4 Other Materials 98% Mod AASHTO
Classes 2.6 and 2.8 96% Mod AASHTO
Class 3.0, 3.3 and 3.6 93% Mod AASHTO
Class 3.9 91% Mod AASHTO
T3 Treatment 89% Mod AASHTO
It should be noted that HCE is equivalent to Mod AASHTO.

Civils Design Guide
2.2.3 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN TO COH STANDARDS
Step 1: Classifying the road according to its use (See Attached Classification Sheet)
Step 2 : Deciding on the layerworks corresponding to the soil type (See Attached Layerworks Sheet)
Note: The attached Schedule for Pavement Material is used for pavement material classification

Civils Design Guide
2.2.4 TYPICAL ROAD CROSS-SECTIONS

Civils Design Guide
2.2.5 SURFACING
5.2.2.1 Introduction
Surfacing usually costs about 20 30% of the overall costs of road pavements. Thus an economical design
of surfacing will lead to a significant saving on the overall cost of the road.
Use premix for construction of speed humps (according to City of Harare). MOT recommends single seal
for shoulders and double seal for carriageway.
5.2.2.2 Purpose of Surfacing

resists abrasion due traffic to provide a smooth riding surface
provides skid resistance and all weather travel
waterproofing
outlines the pavement to stick out
5.2.2.3 Prime
A prime coat is used to prepare the finished road base for surfacing. Prime is an emulsion of water in
bitumen in a bitumen phase and contains 80% binder content. The standard application rates are 0.8
1.0l/m2 for bitumen prime or 0.55l/m2 for tar prime.
5.2.2.4 Bitumen
Binder used for surfacing.
5.2.2.5 Common Surfacing Techniques
chip & spray
slurry seal
fog spray
5.2.2.6 Common Uses
Chip & Spray
This technique is usually used for new road and stone (aggregate chips) are spread on a thin layer of
binder (bitumen) to form a seal, which can be single double or multiple. For best results bigger stones are
put at the bottom in multi seals and the nominal chip size should be half that of the bottom one. Heavier
stones are used for heavier loading e.g. 19/9 (heavy duty) and 13/6.7 (medium duty).
Table 2-E: Application Rates COH
Item Layer 13.2mm 9.5mm 6.7mm

Spray l/m2 Single 1.5 1.8 1.35 1.50 1.10 1.35
seal
Stone m2/m3 90 - 100 120 130 140 150
Spray l/m2 Tack 0.80 1.10
Coat
Stone m2/m3 120 - 135
2
Spray l/m Seal Coat 1.6 1.7
Stone m2/m3 130 150

Civils Design Guide
Table 2-F: Application Rates of Binder MOT
Traffic Stone size Tack Seal (l/m2) Total (l/m2)

v/lane/day (l/m2)
< 125 19mm 1.56 1.33 2.89
13mm 1.05 0.90 1.95
125 500 19mm 1.47 1.25 2.72
13mm 0.89 0.77 1.66
500 1000 19mm 1.32 1.13 2.45
13mm N/A N/A N/A
Table 2-G: Application Rates of Stone MOT
Stone size Tack Seal

(m3/m2) (m3/m2)
19mm 13 x 10-3
13mm 9 x 10-3
6mm 7 x 10-3
Crusher Dust 5 x 10-3
Slurry seal
Can be used both for maintenance and new surfaces. It is made up of fine aggregate, bitumen emulsion
(10 13%), water and a cement catalyst and is creamy consistent slurry.
Premix
This is asphaltic concrete usually used for new construction. Some recommended application rates are
shown below;
Table 2-H : Premix Application Thickness (as per COH Specification)
Pavement Type Thickness

Cycle Track 12 mm
Township Roads 20 mm
Highways 50 mm
Fog Spray
A bitumen emulsion sprayed on to of a road to bind the aggregate.
Cape Seal
It is used to provide a non skid surface where the stone is held in place by a slurry.

Civils Design Guide
2.3 GEOMETRICAL DESIGN OF ROADS
2.3.1 DESIGN SPEED
The speed at which 85% of the vehicles are travelling below is termed the design speed. The usual design
speeds adopted by MOT are 60km/hr, 80km/hr and 120km/hr.
2.3.2 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
2.2.3.1 Critical Grades

The steepest road gradients for lorries and buses for different design speeds are
Table 2-I: Critical Grades
Design Speed (km/hr) Maximum Grade

(MOT & COB)
120 4
100 4
80 5
60 6
2.2.3.2 Critical Length of Grade
This is the length required to reduce the speed of typical truck from 65km to 50km for a given slope.
Table 2-J: Critical Grades
Slope (%) Critical Length of

Grade (MOT)
2 600
3 350
4 220
5 160
6 130
7 110
2.2.3.3 Vertical Curves
Vertical curves are parabolas. Their shapes depend on visibility and the centrifugal effect.
L = K(p +q) = KA
L = length of curve
K = sag factor
p & q = slopes/ gradients as percentages
Curves with high K are flatter and safer.

Civils Design Guide
Table 2-K : K Factors for Different Design Speeds
Design Speed K Factor (sag) K Factor (crest)

(km/hr)
AASHTO MOT COB AASHTO MOT COB
120 329
100 211 40 36 50 50 56
80 124 30 23 30 30 26
60 68 15 15 15
2.2.3.4 Sight Distances
This is the length of carriageway visible to the driver. The sight distances of interest are the Safe Stopping
Distance and the Safe Passing Distance (overtaking). In evaluating sight distances a driver eye height of
1.15m is assumed with a stopping object height of 0.15m high and 1.35m passing object. Where the
actual sight distance is less than those shown below then, then appropriate signage is required on the
road. Recommended sight distances are given below.
Where required for design purposes a deceleration of 4.5m 2/s can be assumed.
Table 2-L : Sight Distances
Design Speed Sight Stopping Distance (m) Sight Passing Distance (m)
(km/hr)
AASHTO MOT AASHTO MOT
120 215
100 160 210 580 700
80 120 140 490 550
60 70 80 345 350
2.3.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
3.2.3.1 General
There should be a distance of at least 40m between two adjacent curves. Transition curves must be used
where the curve radius is less than that specified below. Long straight sections (longer than 3km) should
be avoided to prevent driver boredom and light glare at night.
3.2.3.2 Horizontal Curves
These are circles of given radii. These are the minimum radii to avoid vehicles skidding off the road when
travelling at the design speed. It is obtained by balancing the centrifugal force F 1 = mv2/r to the side
friction force F2 = mg to give r = v2/ug, where = 0.18 (0.16 to 0.22 for Zimbabwe) and g = 9.81m/s 2.
Transition curves are required where a straight meets a sharp curve, which according to the MOT is
R<700m (100km/hr) and R<300m (80km/hr). The curves can be cubic, lemniscate or Euler spirals whose
length is give by L = v3/ar
Where L = length of transition curve in m
v = design speed in m/s
a = 0.3m/s3
r = horizontal curve radius in m

Civils Design Guide
Table 2-M: Minimum Radii for Design Velocities
Design Speed (km/hr) Minimum Radius

120
100 420
80 270
60 150
3.2.3.3 Super Elevation
The super-elevated section is preceded by a transition, which is composed of the Tangent Runout (from
the normal camber to a horizontal section) and Super elevation Runoff (from horizontal section to full
super-elevation). The length of the transition is determined by considering the required change in vertical
height at the outer edge, distributed along the road at a given slope along the road called the relative
gradient. The minimum transition distance is 30m.
Table 2-N: Relative Gradients for Super elevation
Design Speed (km/hr) Minimum Radius

120 1: 260
100 1: 230
80 1:200
60 1:170
Very steep super-elevation is undesirable because it causes discomfort at low speeds and posses a
possibility of overturning of higher vehicles. The maximum desirable super elevation slope is 4 6% for
rural roads and 10 12% for urban roads. The minimum radii not requiring super-elevation are given
below.
With respect to the horizontal curve, 1/3 of the transition curve is on the curve and 2/3 on the tangent.
Table 2-O: Minimum Radii Not Requiring Super-elevation
Design Speed (km/hr) Minimum Radius (m)

120 4990
100 3770
80 2500
60 1530
The angle of super elevation is given as tan = v2/(1+) r g
where = super elevation angle
v = design speed (m/s)
= coefficient of road friction (= 0.15 if not given)
r = curve radius (m)
g = 9.81 kg m/s2

Civils Design Guide
3.2.3.4 Lane Width

The lane widths for different design speeds are;
Table 2-P : Lane Widths for Different Speeds
Design Speed Design Traffic Volume (vehicles/hour)

km/hr
< 2000 > 2000
120 3.6m
100 3.4m 3.6m
80 3.0m 3.6m
60 3.0m 3.6m
3.2.3.5 Road Widening
Table 2-Q: Curve Widening to OAP
Radius Width of Road (m)

4 5.5 6.0 6.5
< 150 5.5 6.8 7.5 8.0
150 300 4 6.6 7.2 7.7
> 300 4 6.2 6.8 7.3
Table 2-R: Curve Widening to MOT
Curve Radius (m) Widening width (m)

< 150 1
150 300 0.8
> 300 0.6
Curve widening to be tapered over 40m.
Extra design information is attached.

Civils Design Guide
2.3.4 GENERAL SURVEY
Figure 2-A : Field Book

Civils Design Guide
2.4 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
2.4.1 ROUNDABOUT DESIGN
S = 1.6(e v)/l
x2 = v + (e - v)/ (1 +2S)
M = e[(D-60)/10]
tp = 1 +[0.5/(1 + M)]
fc = 0.21 tp (1+0.2 x2)
F = 303 x2
k = 0.00347( 30) 0.978[(1/r - 0.05)]
Qe = k(F - fc Qc)
2.4.2 JUNCTION DESIGN
According to the Kenyan Road Design Manual Part 1 of 1979, the design of junctions should consider
traffic volumes, geometric layout, design speed, road classification and turning paths of vehicles.
The design process involves, data collection (site survey, traffic counts and road alignment), layout
selection and design modification. The design can be check against chart capacities and aim to obtain at
least an equivalency of 85% of minor road traffic passing through the junction at any given time.
COB requires that the angle at a T junction be 70 900 with minimum curve radius of 10m for belmouths.
Table 2-S : Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes to COB
Design Speed Acceleration Deceleration

km/hr
Taper (m) Lane & Taper (m) Taper (m) Lane & Taper (m)
120 80 440 80 160
100 70 350 70 140
80 60 250 60 120
70 55 195 55 105
60 50 140 50 85

Civils Design Guide
2.4.3 DESIGN OF TOLL PLAZAS
Refer to the attachment from the South African National Road Agency.

Civils Design Guide
2.4.4 TRAFFIC COUNTS
Refer to attached sample sheets for details.

Civils Design Guide
2.4.5 PARKING

Civils Design Guide
2.4.6 TRAFFIC SIGNS
Traffic signs are required to control, guide and inform drivers. Road side signs should be between 0.5 and
1.5m from the road edge and up to 3m height. Centre line markings are 4m long by 100mm wide and
spaced at 9m in towns and 22m in rural areas.
Table 2-T: Classes of Traffic Signs (MOT)
Class Type Examples

A Danger Warning (red triangle with Curves, Hazards
yellow rectangle)
B Regulatory (circle with or without Give Way, Stop, Speed Limit
rectangle)
C Informative (rectangles with inscription) Direction, Distance, Names
D Traffic Light Signals Robots
E Carriageway Markings Prohibition, Parking, Centre Lines Direction
Arrows
F Other Bollards etc
Table 2-U: Classes of Traffic Signs (MOT)
Type Width Length (m) Spacing (m) Colour Use

(mm)
A 300 White Stop line at traffic
B 150 White No overtaking, separating traffic
C 150 3 9 White Centre line
D 150 1 1 White Give way at junction
E 100 White Separate traffic in same direction
F 100 3 3 White Separate traffic at traffic junction
G 100 3 6 White Across entrance to main road
H 100 3 15 White Separate traffic in multi lanes
J 100 Yellow No parking
K 100 3 6 Yellow Carriageway edge

Civils Design Guide
2.4.7 AERODROME DESIGN
Aerodromes should be designed in liaison with the Civil Aviation Authority of Zimbabwe (CAAZ).
According to the book; Pavements and Surfacing for Highways and Airports by M Sagious;
The landing impact of planes is ignored. The weight of the plane, wheel alignment and runway repetitions
are considered as loading. After determining the axle load in kN, and soil subgrade reaction K, the
pavement thickness is determined from the Charts. The Chart is reproduced in the table below;
Table 2-V : Pavement Thickness for Aerodromes
Pavement Thickness Subgrade Reaction K Axle Load kN

150mm 300 80
200 70
100. 65
50 60
25 55
0 35
200mm 300 140
200 130
100. 120
50 115
25 105
0 60

Civils Design Guide
2.5 CONCRETE WORKS
2.5.1 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Civils Design Guide
2.5.2 CONCRETE INDUSTRIAL FLOORS
Design Basis
Concrete industrial floors are designed according to recommendations in the Concrete Industrial Floors
on the Ground by L Marais & B Perrie. Three different types of loading namely uniformly distributed,
vehicular and point loads are considered.
The slab resists compressive, shear and flexural stresses. Reinforcement is placed merely to control
cracking, as it will not increase the load carrying properties of the slab in any way.
Design Procedure (based on Marais & Perrie)
Selection of Slab Properties
Select Subgrade CBR and determine Modulus of Subgrade Reaction k from Fig 1.3
Select concrete grade and determine flexural strength from the chart below. (However Marais &
Perrie suggest 3.8Mpa for 30Mpa concrete).
Figure 2-B: Flexural Strength of Concrete
Design for Uniformly Distributed Loading

Determine the udl and use Table 3.4 to determine slab thickness
Design for Vehicular Loading
Estimate the number of repetitions from Table 3.1 and determine the stress ratio from Tables 3.2. A
stress ratio of 0.5 can be adopted for unlimited number of load repetitions
Choose the design vehicle (use values in Table 3.3 if not given) Use say 9tonne for single and 16 tonne
for double axle as maximum.
Calculate the Maximum Flexural Stress allowed as (stress ratio) x (design flexural strength).
Calculate Slab Stress as Maximum Flexural Stress (kPa)/(kN axle load)
Calculate Tyre Contact Area as Axle Load (kN)/(No. of Wheels x Tyre Pressure)
Use Slab Stress, Effective Contact Area (mm2) and wheel spacing to determine slab thickness from Fig
3.2. Note Fig 3.3 is used to convert from dual wheel to single wheels.
Design for Point Loads
Determine the spacing between the point load (X and Y)
Calculate the contact area of the base plate
Calculate the Maximum Stress Allowed as Flexural Stress/ Factor of Safety of 2
Using the Post Load (kN), Maximum Stress Allowed, Contact Area and Load Spacing, determine the slab
thickness.

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2.5.3 STATISTICS AND MARGINS
Given a specified value of fcu, we need to determine our target average value such that not more than 5%
of the sample is less than fcu,
Thus (z) = N( , ) dx = 0.95

From Statistical Tables z = 1.64
Let z = (x )/
(x )/z
x = + z
Note that ( z) is the confidence interval
And is unknown and will be estimated by s where

s2 = 1/(n 1) (xi x)2 = [ xi2 ( xi2 /n)]/(n 1)
Thus ft = fcu + z
ft = fcu + 1.64s
Where ft = target mean strength

fcu = specified strength
s = as above
Thus check sample x against ft.

If ft x then that is OK, else it fails
Table 2-W: Standard Deviations for Concrete
Conditions
Good 45
Fair 57
Poor >7

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2.5.4 CONCRETE ROAD FURNITURE
These are specified based on the Manufacturers specification.

Civils Design Guide
3 STORMWATER DRAINAGE
3.1 SCOPE
This manual covers the design of open drains (lined and unlined), pipe culverts and shelverts. The design
of box culverts and bridges is addressed in the Structural Design Manual.
3.2 GUIDELINES
Drains should be placed along the higher side of the road to avoid a lot of water crossing and
flooding the road along the natural gradient along the roadside.
Catchment areas for drainage structures should be obtained using a plannimeter or by scaling
off. Allow a 150mm drop at the outlet for a self-cleansing culvert.
Take 600mm culvert as minimum (easy maintenance) and use 750mm for main outlets and
450mm for stand access
Culvert velocity should be 1 3.5 m/s to avoid both silting and scouring
Open drains with velocity > 0.75m/s or which are > 1.5m deep should be lined to avoid erosion
and collapse respectively
Relief culverts along highways should be placed at 500m intervals
Material below culvert to be stabilised if expansive
Mitre drain spacing to be 200 250m
For box culvert the preferred width to height ratio is 1.
3.3 HYDRAULICS OF PIPES
A hydraulic analysis helps to select the required pipe. For short pipes the flow conditions are dependent
on the inlet and outlet conditions. These are the flow controls.
For an inlet control system (usually steep gradient) the inlet controls the amount of water entering and
hence the amount of flow. For an outlet control system (shallow gradient/ blocked end) friction or
downstream water level controls the amount of flow. Energy losses at the outlet and inlet points far
exceeds all other losses.
For long pipelines the flow conditions are dictated by steady flow conditions. Stormwater pipes are
designed to flow full. Sewer pipes are designed to flow partially full (3/4 or 2/3). Pipelines flowing under
gravity use difference in levels to bring about flow. We therefore check parameters like Q, v, etc for
their suitability
3.4 ESTIMATION OF DESIGN FLOOD
3.4.1 RATIONAL FORMULA
The quantity of water discharged by a catchment in a given time depends on;

Catchment area Q
Rainfall intensity I (rate at which the rain falls)
Catchment dimensions (length L, fall H and slope control water movement)
Catchment topography and vegetation (flat, undulating, good cover etc)
Drainage capacity of catchment soil (good, bad, surfaced catchment)

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Estimating volume of flow

Rational formula
Q = CIA
Where Q = volume of flow in m3/hr
C = constant (2.78)
A = catchment area in ha
I = rainfall intensity in mm/hr
I = [2050 log(nr) 3000]/ (20 + tc)

tc = [0.8702L3 ]0.385 x 60
where n = return period in years
r = mean annual rainfall in mm (900mm for Harare)
tc = time of concentration in sec
L = length of flow in km
H = fall in m
3.4.2 QUICK METHOD
A quick estimate for a 12.5-year flood in m3/s is

Q12.5 = 0.24 A0.68
Where A is the area in ha and 1ha = 10 000m2
This formula (Fort Concrete Manual) roughly conform to the MOT chart with C = 0.7
Rational, Mitchell & Creager formulae for larger catchments suitable for bridges.
3.5 PIPE CULVERT SELECTION
The relevant drainage structure is obtained from the attached Part F: Fig. 9 for culverts. The table below
can be used as a guideline.
Table 3-A : Culvert Size and Required Catchment Areas
Culvert size Required Catchment Area

1 x 450mm 1ha
1 x 600mm 2.5ha
1 x 750mm 3 ha
2 x 600mm 8ha
3 x 600mm 15ha
3 x 750mm 30ha
3 x 900mm 50ha

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3.6 PIPE FLOW EQUATIONS
3.6.1 MANNINGS EQUATION
v = (1/n) R2/3 S1/2

where v = velocity in m/s
n = Mannings constant (see Page 466: J F Douglas ; 0.015 lined, 0.035 earth)
S = slope as a fraction
R = A/p = (wetted area/ perimeter) in m
Consider lining when v > 0.75m/s or the depth > 1.5m
ks = 0.6mm for stormwater and 1.5mm for sewage
(see charts with values of ks)
Drain or culvert capacity Q = v A where A = area and v = velocity
3.6.2 VARIATION OF FLOW WITH DEPTH
The only variable is d and is dependent on and , where = 2.

d = r a = r r cos
d = r ( 1 cos )
AREA OF SHADED PORTION
A = Sector Area Triangle A = r2 ab sin C = r2 2[ a r sin /2]
A = r2 a r sin /2 but a = r cos /2
A = r2 r sin /2 r cos /2 but sin 2 = 2 cos sin
2 2 2
A = r r sin = r ( sin )
HYDRAULIC RADIUS
R = A/p = r2 ( sin )/ r = r (1 sin / )
VELOCITY
v = (1/n) R2/3 s1/2 = (1/n) s1/2[ r(1 sin / ]2/3 = (1/n) s1/2 ( r) 2/3 (1 sin / )2/3
DISCHARGE
Q =Av = r (1 sin / ) (1/n) s1/2 ( r) 2/3 (1 sin / ]2/3
=(1/n) s1/2 5/3 r 8/3 ( sin ) (1 sin / ]2/3
VALUES AT FULL CAPACITY
Af = r2 ( sin ) = r2 (2 0) = r2
Rf = r (1 sin / ) = r( 1 0) = r
vf = (1/n) s1/2 ( r) 2/3 (1 sin / )2/3 = (1/n) s1/2 ( r) 2/3 (1 0)2/3 = (1/n) s1/2 ( r) 2/3
Qf = r(1 sin / ) (1/n) s1/2 ( r) 2/3 (1 sin / ]2/3 = (1/n) s1/2 r8/3 2/3

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RATIOS
A/Af = r2 ( sin )/ r2 =1/(2 ) ( sin )
R/Rf = r (1 sin / )/ r = (1 sin / )
v/vf = (1/n) s1/2 ( r) 2/3 (1 sin / )2/3/(1/n) s1/2 ( r) 2/3 = (1 sin / )2/3
Q/Qf = r (1 sin / ) (1/n) s1/2 ( r) 2/3 (1 sin / ]2/3 / (1/n) s1/2 r8/3 2/3
Q/Qf = 1/(2 ) [( sin ) (1 sin / ) 2/3]
d/D = d = r ( 1 cos )/2r = ( 1 cos )

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3.7 SHELVERT DESIGN
Step 1: Use vehicle axial load to find cover

Step 2: Calculate catchment area and obtain/ select size of shelverts
Step 3: Calculate number of shelverts
Step 4: Checks soil conditions and design the foundation

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4 WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A water supply system encompasses the raw water supply, treatment works and the distribution network.
4.2 WATER SUPPLY SCHEME DESIGN PARAMETERS
4.2.1 WATER DEMAND
Table 4-A: Water Demand by Building Use
UNIT AVERAGE DAILY DEMAND

Residential
High density 850l/s/d
Medium density 900l/s/d
Low density (1000 sq.m) 1500l/s/d
Low density (2000 sq.m) 2000l/s/d
Communal Water Point
< 50m 60l/c/d
50 - 300m 40l/c/d
> 300m 25l/c/d
Institutional
20l/c/p
School day
80l/c/p
School border
10l/c/p
Clinic out patients
150 - 400l/c/p
Clinic in patients
300 - 500l/d
Hostel
600l/d
Flats bachelor
1200l/d
Flats family
Industrial & Commercial
Shops 20l/seat/d
Restaurant 65 - 90l/seat/d
Light industry 10 000l/ha/d
Heavy industry (dry) 15 000l/ha/d
Heavy industry (wet) assess individually
Public utilities
Parks 10 000l/ha/d
Sports clubs 50l/c/d
Livestock 50l/beast/d
Others
Fire fighting 10%
Losses Treatment works 15%
Losses Distribution network

Civils Design Guide
Table 4-B: Stands Classification
Type Size
City of Harare Ministry of Local Govt
High density <500m2 <400m2
Medium density 500 1000m2 400 1000m2
Low density >1000m2 >1000m2
Table 4-C : Water Consumption by Personal Use
Use Capacity Units Volume

Bath Tub 150 l 0.5 75 l
Shower 5 10 l/min 4 6 min 25 l
Water Closet 9 l/flush 3No. 30 l
Hand Basin 5 10 l 6 No. 30 l
Kitchen Sink 15 l/ 1 No. 15 l
Stand Pipe 12 l/min 10 60 min 250 l
Total 425 l
4.2.2 FIRE FIGHTING REQUIREMENTS
Area Fire flow

Outlying 7.5l/s
Dense 15l/s
Industrial 10 40l/s
Design for fire fighting can be ignored in low risk area. Fire fighting is not a separate demand but can be
considered as water lost during time of need. Therefore for fire fighting make sure that the flow in the
system is equal or greater than the fire flows above. Allow for reasonable storage (3 hr demand as
storage). Use at least 75 mm diameter pipes and allow 10m head at least for fire hydrants at 120 140m
(spacing radius) (Yellow Manual). SABS 090 recommends 96l/s for 4hrs.
4.2.3 PEAK FACTORS
The general layout and design factors are as shown on the attached Water Supply Scheme.
Peak Month Factor (PMF)
The ratio of the water demand during the month with the highest demand in a year over the daily
demand and is commonly taken as 1.25.
PMF = (MMWD/AADWD) = 1.25

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Peak Day Factor (PDF)

The ratio of the water demand during the day with the highest demand in a year over the daily demand
(usually 1.5 to 1.7), and is commonly taken as 1.5.
PDF = (MDWD/AADWD) = 1.5
Peak Hour Factor (PHF)

The ratio of the water demand during the hour with the highest demand in a day over the daily demand
(usually 3 and F2 is roughly 2 F1.
PHF = (MHWD/AADWD) = 3
4.2.4 POPULATION GROWTH RATE R
Usually 3 to 6 %. This can only be fixed after a study of the design area.
4.2.5 DESIGN PERIOD
Usually 10 to 25 years. This depends on the expected life span of design materials and expected
development scenario.
4.2.6 PRESSURE
Minimum 10m and maximum 60m for gravity main in residential areas. This ensures that water gets to
the required destination without bursting water main.
4.2.7 VELOCITY
Preferred velocity is 0.5m/s 1.2m/s to avoid both deposition and scouring.

4.2.8 LOSSES
Treatment Losses (5 10%)

Distribution Losses (10 15%)
Losses should be calculated based on the total demand/ volume to be transmitted and is also affected by
issues such as the age of the system and un-metered users.
4.3 RAW WATER SOURCES

Surface water always needs treatment
Borehole water is usually considered pure for human consumption (after tests) and usually
chlorination is taken as a precautionary measure
The following are the common types of raw water abstraction options;
Intake Tower
Trolley
Pipe along Weir
Dry Suction
Floating Pontoon

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4.4 WATER TREATMENT WORKS
The main water treatment processes are;

Coagulation / Clarification
Filtration
Sterilisation/ Chlorination
Where specialist advice is required, this can be obtained from Degremont on www.degremont.com. It
should be noted that other treatment processes may be required depending on the raw water quality. As
an example desalination will be required for salt water (sea water). Modular units can be obtained from
Selmar an Italian company on www.selamr.it.
4.5 DESIGN FOR PRESSURE MAINS AND RETICULATION NETWORKS
4.5.1 SELECTION OF PIPE MATERIALS
Waterlines usually run in front of stand in the road reserve.

450mm 750mm deep and 1m into the road reserve
The most common piping materials are PVC, AC, GI, Steel and GRP.
Rule of thumb for estimating pipe size 25 x (Q m3/hr)0.45 [page 123 Water Manual]
Choice of material, usually;
Table 4-D: Choice of Piping Material
Pipe size (mm) Pipe material

<110 PVC
110 400 AC and steel
>400 GRP
4.5.2 SPECIFICATION OF PIPES
Table 4-E: Specifications of Pipes
Type of Material Standard Sizes Available Classes Suppliers

UPVC 32 40 50 6 Proplastics
6m lengths 63 75 110 16
125 140 160 (working pressure)
PVC 40 50 63 6 Proplastics
6m lengths 75 90 110 16
160 200 250 (working pressure)
315
AC 50 65 75 6 Turnall Fibre Cement
100 125 175 12

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200 225 300

4m lengths 18
350 400 450
24
525 600 675
36
750 825 900
(testing pressure)
1 000
GI 25 32 40 Light
Custom 50 65 100 Medium Heavy
125 150 (working pressure)
Steel 150 200 225 (thickness obtained Tube & Pipe, AMA,
as shown below)
Custom 250 300 350 More wear,
400 (up to 450) Warrap, De Souza
GRP 100 200 300 12 Euro Technology (SA)
12m lengths 400 500 600 18 24 36 011 226 509
700 (up to 1200) (working pressure)
If steel is required use GI for sizes < 125 (and mild steel for sizes > 125). Steel pipes need some form of
corrosion protection; (bitumen coating, epoxy coating, coupon painting and aluminium painting). Steel
pipes are very expensive but robust and easier to fabricate into funny shapes. Thus steel pipes are usually
used only in pump stations and stream crossing, where robustness is required, pipes sometimes are
exposed and a lot of complicated shapes encountered.
The thickness of a steel pipe is given by;
t = PD Fs/2y
where t = pipe thickness in mm
P = working pressure in Mpa
D = outside pipe diameter in mm
y = yield stress in Mpa (assume 250Mpa)
Fs = safety factor (usually 2 when water hammer is unlikely)
4.5.3 TESTING OF PIPES
In general if Working Pressure = x

Then Field Test Pressure = 1.5x
And Lab Test Pressure = 2x

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4.5.4 NETWORK ANALYSIS
4.4.5.1 Water Reticulation Design Steps;

Step 1: Layout sketch
Step 2: Name nodes and pipes
Step 3: Calculate demands at nodes
Step 4: Estimate ground levels at reservoir and node points
Step 5 : Analyse using Pippen/ UNDP Loop, EPANET
Noting that Head is 10 60m (static/ residual head)
Velocity should be 0.5 2m/s
Pipe diameter 75mm (for fire hydrants)
4.4.5.2 Input
Input the following into the analysing programme
Nodes & Pipes
Demands ( ve)
Reservoir level (fixed)
Design peak factor (= 3)
Hazen Williams coefficient C
Table 4-F: Pipe Material Constants
Pipe Material C
PVC 140
AC 130
Steel/ GI 110
GRP 146 150
Note: Bigger C means smoother pipe and lower head loss. A 20% increase in C may result in a 40%
decrease in head loss.
4.4.5.3 Analysis Basis
The software analysis is based on the Hardy Cross Method, which assumes the following basic principles;
Flow entering a junction is equal to flow leaving a junction
The head loss leading to any particular node is the same despite the route taken to go to that
node
The head loss is calculated from the Hazen Williams Formula;
v = 0.82 C m0.6 i0.54
C = Hazen Williams coefficient (see above)
m = hydraulic radius = Area/Perimeter = r2/2r = r = D (diameter)
i = hydraulic gradient, head loss per unit length (m/100m)

Civils Design Guide
4.4.5.4 Pipe Sizing During Design

Analyse for a peak factor (PF = 1) using the same or preliminary diameters
Relieve low-pressure area by increasing diameter systematically, by putting bigger diameter
where there is more flow.
Finalise pipe size and check velocity, flow and pressure for different PF = 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 3 etc.
4.4.5.5 Software Analysis Notes
A reservoir has an Elevation of Z and Pressure of 0
Reservoir outflow equals the sum of the Demand
Tank Elevation = (Node Elevation + Node Pressure) Head + Head Loss
Pressure = Tank Elevation Node Elevation Head Loss
Head = Tank Elevation Head loss
Head = Node Elevation + Pressure
Smaller Pipes give Higher Velocity giving Higher Head Loss
Higher Demand gives Higher Velocity giving Higher Head Loss
Low Pressure means either High Head Loss or Lower Head therefore
Increase pipe size to reduce losses
Reduce demand to reduce velocity
Install higher tank give more head
No flow means No Head Loss and No change in Head
4.4.5.6 Pressure Design Charts

The Turnall Fibre Cement Design Charts are based on the
Hazen Williams Formula; v = 158 C m0.68 i0.56
m = hydraulic radius = D (diameter)
i = hydraulic gradient, head loss per unit length (m/100m)
4.5.5 DESIGN OF PUMPING MAINS
5.4.5.1 Pump Power

P = W/t W=Fd F = mg = m/v v=Qt
P = m g d/t = v g d/ t = Q t g d/ t
P=Q gd but = g
P = Q d
Where P = power in Watts
W = work in joules
t = time in seconds
F = force in Newtons
d = distance in m
m = mass in kg
g = 9.81 m/s2 (N/kg)
v = volume in m3
Q = discharge in m3/s

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= 1000kg/m3
Note ; allow for pump efficiency say 70%
5.4.5.2 Pump Suppliers

Alstom
Africa Sales
Johnson Pumps
J W Searcy
H E Jackson
Monopumps
KSP Pumps
4.5.6 EQUIVALENT PIPE
Suppose the flow Q in one pipe is distributed into two pipes with flows Q 1 and Q2. Then;
v = 0.85 C R0.63 h0.54 general formula
Q = Av = 0.85 C A R0.63 h0.54 i.e. h0.54 = Q/ 0.85 C A R0.63
Q1 = Q Q 2
h10.54 = Q1/ 0.85 C1 A1 R10.63 = Q2/ 0.85 C2 A2 R20.63 head loss in the same in each pipe
Q1/ 0.85 C1 A1 R10.63 = (Q Q1)/ 0.85 C2 A2 R20.63
Q1/ 0.85 C1 A1 R10.63 = Q / 0.85 C1 A1 R10.63 Q1/ 0.85 C2 A2 R20.63
Let 0.85 C A R0.63 = K
Q1/ K1 = Q /K2 Q1/K2
Q1/ K1 + Q1/K2 = Q /K2
Q1(1/ K1 + 1/K2 ) = Q /K2
Q1(K1 + K2 ) / (K1 K2 ) = Q /K2
Q1 = Q(K1 K2 ) / K2 (K1 + K2 ) Flow Distribution.
Let h0.54 = Q/K = x i.e. Q = Kx is the same
From Q = Q1 + Q 2
Kx = K1 x + K2 x
K = K1 + K 2
4.5.7 ACCESSORIES FOR SUPPLY NETWORKS
7.4.5.1 Reservoirs and Tanks

Reservoirs normally refer to structures on the ground. An elevated tank is up to 6m high. Anything higher
is termed a water tower.

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7.4.5.2 Pump stations and valves

Pump stations should be well ventilated to avoid excessive heating. Valve order can be : -
Pump non-return valve butterfly valve.
7.4.5.3 Air valves

Used in pipelines to
release air from pipelines
admit air into pipelines thus avoiding vacuum
control water hammer
They should be placed every 1 2km of the pumping main. Large orifice air release valves release air
during filling. Small orifice air valves release air under pressure, while double acting air valves do both.
7.4.5.4 Gate/ isolation/ sluice valves

Isolation.
7.4.5.5 Butterfly /reflux valves

These are small valves that can be fitted between two flanges. They are another version of gate valves
and are used for streaming flow.
7.4.5.6 Scour valves

Used for draining/ scouring pipelines. Consist of a gate valve and out let offset from the main line usually
located at a low point.
7.4.5.7 Non-return /check

To avoid water flowing back (which could result in pump damage)
7.4.5.8 Float/ ball valves

Used for closing the inlet when the required water level is reached.
4.5.8 PUMPING MAINS VERSUS GRAVITY MAINS
For Pressure Mains v = 0.85C R0.63 h 0.54

For Gravity Mainsv = 1/n R2/3 S 0.5
When the velocities are equal then 0.85C = 1/n approximately

Civils Design Guide
Table 4-G: Comparison of Mannings and Hazen William Coefficients
Material n 1/n C 0.85 C

PVC 0.010 100 140 119
AC 0.012 83 130 110
Concrete 0.015 67
Steel 110 93
In pressure mains, the required discharge Q, controls velocity. Discharge is a function of pressure and
head losses when pumping. In gravity mains the velocity v controls the discharge. Velocity is a function of
slope and head losses.

Civils Design Guide
5 WASTE WATER DISPOSAL SYSTEMS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.1.1 SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Sewerage disposal systems consist of collection (reticulation) works, treatment works and disposal works.
5.1.2 GENERAL NOTES
For low residential areas where there is space on each stand it is cheaper to use septic tanks. Sewer lines
therefore are usually confined to medium and high-density areas. Sewer lines usually run in between the
stands for residential houses. Loops, very deep manholes and sharp bends should be avoided
Site clearance is usually 2m and the minimum self-cleansing velocity = 0.75m/s (collectors and
reticulation) and 0.6 m/s (outfall). The maximum velocity to avoid scour is 3m/s. Excavations can be
minimised by crossing contours. Deep excavations cannot be avoided where contours have to be followed
(very flat area). Where gravity flow is unattainable, pumps can be used as an alternative.
Drop inlets should be used where the drop is >600mm, and should have a manhole or roding way. Pipes
should always be laid soffit to soffit. Assume invert level to be at least 0.6m at the head.
5.2 DESIGN FACTORS
AWDF The average dry weather flow is expressed as a percentage of the daily water demand
MDWF The maximum dry weather flow MDWF = AWDF x PF (peak factor)
The peak factor caters for fluctuations in flow and mainly the inflow from ground water. Smaller
flows have higher peak factors (more affected by groundwater inflow)
The MDWF is the design flow
The average dry weather flows are;
Table 5-A: Average Sewerage Return Factors
Area Water demand l/d % Sewerage Return AWDF l/d

High Density 850 85 723
Medium Density 1000 70 700
Low Density 1500 50 750
Table 5-B: Peak Factors for Dry Weather Flow;
AWDF l/s PF (adjacent to PF (remote from water

water course) course)
0 23 5.25 4
23 69 4.5 3.75
69 231 3.75 3
231 2315 3 3
> 2315 2.7 2.7

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Table 5-C: Manhole Size and Spacing
Sewer size (mm) Manhole size (mm) Manhole spacing (m)

100 900 30
150 (high density) 900 75
150 (elsewhere) 900 90
200 250 1050 100
> 250 1200 300
5.3 SEWER HYDRAULICS
5.3.1 DIAMETERS AND GRADIENTS
Sewer lines are designed as open channels and usually flowing 2/3 or full (d/D). The critical design
parameters are pipe size (capacity to carry flow), gradients and velocity.
Table 5-D: Minimum and Maximum Pipe Gradients
Diameter (mm) Max Gradient Min Gradient

100 1:20 1:60
150 1:10 1:150
225 1:16 1:200
300 1:24 1:300
The minimum gradient is generally 1:pipe size.
5.3.2 APPROXIMATE PIPE CAPACITIES
Table 5-E: Approximate Pipe Capacities, assuming lope 1:100, n = 0.012
Pipe Size Approximate No. of High

Density that can be served
150 500
200 1 000
250 1 800
300 2 800
350 4 300
400 6 200
450 8 500
600 18 000

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5.3.3 PIPE & PUMP SUPPLIERS
Table 5-F: List of Pump and Pipe Suppliers
Product Suppliers
PVC Proplastics (Prodorite, Promat)
AC Turnall Fibre Cement
Steel Morewear, Warrap Engineering, De Souza, AMA
Concrete Fort Concrete, Hume Pipes
Earthenware Clay Products
Pumps (Relmo, Flyght) HE Jackson, J W Searcy, Cochrane, Africa Sales
5.3.4 AVAILABLE SEWER PIPES
Table 5-G: Available Pipe Sizes
Material Steel PVC AC Concrete Clay

Available 100 450 110 160 100 150 200 450 525 600 100
Size 200 250
225 250 300 675 750 825 160
375 400 450 900 1050 1200
500 600 700 1350 1500
5.4 PUMP STATIONS
5.4.1 GENERAL NOTES
Submersibles can pump up to about 45m. Centrifugal pumps can take much more head. The type of pump
to be used will determine the configuration of the pump station (flooded suction, dry well etc)
5.4.2 SIZING A PUMP SUMP
Assume a number (10 15 say) of starts per hour, n = 10 say or as specified by manufacturer.
Calculate cycle time T = 60minutes/n starts
Pumping time tp is cycle time ( T min)
Let Qin = inflow and Qp = pumping rate
Qp = 2Qin ( pumping resting)
Effective volume V = volume collecting in ts (time of stopping)

V = ts x Qin = T x Q = TQ where Q = pumping capacity and T is cycle time
Therefore once Qin (sewage inflow into pump station) and T (from manufacturer) are known then V can
be calculated.

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5.5 WASTEWATER TREATMENT WORKS
5.5.1 INTRODUCTION
There are basically two methods of treatment of wastewater, which are mechanical aided and natural
pond system. The choice for the proper treatment methods depends on the following factors;
Mechanical methods need higher capital and maintenance costs
Natural methods are very dependent/ affected by natural phenomena such as temperature, rain
etc
Ponds require a lot of land due to high retention periods
Fly and odour problems can result from malfunctioning ponds
5.5.2 DESIGN OF SEPTIC TANKS & SOAKAWAYS
The design is based on BS 6297: 1983 Design and Installation of Small Sewerage Works and Cesspools.
Septic Tank
Tanks Capacity C = 180 P + 2000 >= 2720 litres where P = population
Note: 180 is made up as follows; 12 hrs storage (1/2 day at 120l/day) 60 l
Infiltration 30 l
Sludge storage 90 l
Total 180 l
The tank geometry is obtained by assuming width W = 0.9m, height H = 1.2m for P =<10 and 1.5 for P> 10
Soakaway Volume V m3 = 1.5 P0.83

Assume depths of media of about 1.2 to 1.8m
5.5.3 DESIGN OF WASTEWATER STABILISATION PONDS
Introduction (Based on Waste Stabilisation Ponds in Tropics by Duncan Mara)

Ponds are used to treat domestic wastewater by natural biological processes through the use of
anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds in that order. Solids are deposited in the anaerobic tank
which may later be desludged where necessary. Effluent from the maturation may be used for irrigation
or discharge into a watercourse depending on quality. Usually some form of pre-treatment (screening, grit
removal, flow measurement) is applied.
Design Philosophy
It is required to find the volume of each pond and subsequently the geometry (area) based on an
assumed depth. Anaerobic and maturation ponds are designed based on the hydraulic loading being
retained over a given retention period. Facultative ponds are designed based on the biological (BOD)
loading.

Civils Design Guide
Hydraulic loading Let a population P have an AADWF discharge of Q m 3/d

Biological loading Assumed BOD loading = 0.05kg/p/day
Total biological loading = 0.05P kg/d
Loading per unit volume = 0.05P kg/m3
Anaerobic ponds have to be deep to avoid oxidation conditions and depth of 3 6m can be assumed.
Facultative and maturation ponds depend on oxidation and are thus shallower with depth of 1.2 1.5m.
In general the length to width ratio for all ponds is between 2 and 3.
Anaerobic Ponds
Assumed retention time 18hrs
Design flow AADWF Q m3/d
Peak factor P 3
Pond depth D 3m
Pond volume V m3 = (18/24)d x Q m3/d x 3

Pond area A m2 = V m3/ Dm
Facultative Pond
Retention Period in days T = P 1/(C Pmax)
Where P assume a specific BOD reduction P = 0.5L mg/l for 50%reduction
C is a constant C = 0.17
Pmax = 600/(2x1.2+8) = 57.69 P = 57.69
Pond volume V m3 = Q m3/day x T days

Biological loading rate R (BODkg/ha/d) = (L kg/d) / (A ha)
Note : 100 BODkg/ha/d) < R <135 BODkg/ha/d. If not then adjust the area (and hence pond volume).
Maturation Pond
Assume two set of pond with retention times of 5 and 10 days respectively.
Pond Volume V m3 = Q m3/d x T days

Civils Design Guide
6 HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES
6.1 CATCHMENT AND YIELD CHARACTERISTICS

CA Catchment Area
MAUR Average runoff as a depth in m
MAR Total Runoff = CA x MAUR
FSC Full Supply Capacity (Dead + Live Storage)
cv = Coefficient of Variation (mathematical measure of variability off runoff from year to year) (=
/) (standard deviation/ mean). Higher cv means higher variation.
SRg = Gross Storage Ratio = FSC/MAR
SRn = Net Storage Ratio = Live Storage/MAR
Yield volume that can be used or drawn at a given risk level
Risk Level Indication of dependability. A 10% RL means in 1 in 10 yrs the full yield may not be
available.
Normally 0.1 < SR < 3. Low SR risks filling up with sediment while high SR might be too big and
may never fill up.
Live Storage = Total Storage Dead Storage Sediment Volume
6.2 YIELD CALCULATIONS
Calculate Evaporation Factor EF = (eA)3/(0.7 FSC)2 (use 1 if not given)

e = Evaporation (mm) Minimum Rainfall (mm)
A = Full Supply Area in ha
FSC = Full Supply Capacity in 103m3
Calculate SR = FSC/MAR
Calculate MAR/EF
Read off Q/MAR for the corresponding SR at the given c v
Calculate Q as the 10% Yield
6.3 DESIGN FLOOD
6.3.1 DESIGN FLOOD
An x year flood or a 1: x flood has a probability of 1/x of being equated or exceeded in any one year. The
return period is the average interval expected between occurrences of a flood of a certain magnitude.
6.3.2 DISTRIBUTIONS
Common distributions used for flood calculation include the Normal, Log Normal, Pearson, Log Pearson III,
Log Gumbel and Weibull. The Wiebull is shown below.
6.4 FACTORS TO CONSIDER DURING DAM DESIGN
Foundation properties
Valley shape
Construction material availability

Civils Design Guide
6.5 RIVER/ DAM ABSTRACTION POINTS

Intake Tower
Sliding Pump Raft
Floating Pontoon
Flooded Suction
Dry Well Suction
6.6 DESIGN OF WEIRS/DAM WALLS
Table 6-A : Loads on Walls
Load Pressure (kN/m2) Force (kN/m) Moment (kNm/m)

Head Water h F = p x h = h 2
M = F x 1/3 h = 1/6 h3
Tail Water t F = p x t = t2 M = F x 1/3 t = 1/6 t3
Flood Rise f F = p x h = fh M = F x h = fh2
Up thrust t (at tail) F = b[(h + t) +t] M = F x 2/3 b = 1/3 b2 (2t +h)
(h + t) (at head)
Dam Weight W Wx
Where h = head water depth
t = tail water depth
f = flood water height
b = base width of wall
6.7 DESIGN OF CANALS
The design of canals is based on the Agritex Irrigation Manual Second Edition 1994. The design is based
on the Mannings Formular. Slopes of 1:300 to 1:2000 have been used with velocities of 0.2 1m/s. A
slope of 60o is usually assumed on the sides.
Table 6-B: Canal Friction Coefficients (K = 1/n)
Surface K Value
Clean 25 40
Light Vegetation 15 25
Heavy Vegetation < 15
Sand Cement 65 90
Concrete Lined 55 80

Civils Design Guide
Table 6-C: Canal Dimensions
Canal Size Depth d Breadth/Depth Ratio (b/d)

Small < 0.75m 12
Medium 0.75 1.5m 23
Large > 1.5m 3
The freeboard is the safety distance allowed for between the expected flow level and the top of the canal.
The freeboard F is calculated as
F = C h0.5 where h = depth of flow and
Table 6-D: Freeboard Values for Different Discharges
Discharge (m3/s) C
Earth Canals 0.5 0.8
80 1.35
Lined Canals 5 0.4
50 1.2

Civils Design Guide
7 CONTRACT ADMINISTRATION
7.1 GENERAL NOTES
Projects can be building or civil. Project Members include Clients, Architects, Town Planners, Engineers,
Quantity Surveyors, Contractors, Engineering Surveyors, Testing Laboratories and Local Authorities. The
execution of our part of the works involves interacting with most of all these people.
7.2 TENDER DOCUMENT
A tender document should include the following;

7.2.1 COVER PAGE
Names of the Client, Project and Consultants, contact detail and dates
7.2.2 BIDDING INSTRUCTIONS
Invitation to tender, list of bidding documents including drawings, bidders eligibility, site visits,
submission time and place, returnable documents, tender evaluation and contract award criteria.
7.2.3 CONTRACT CONDITIONS
Parties to the contract, duties and responsibilities, payment and contract termination, particular
conditions of contract.
7.2.4 SPECIFIC CATIONS
Preliminary and generals, extent of works, site conditions, material and workmanship specifications,
applicable legislation and environmental management plan. Covers site clearance, excavations,
earthworks, pipe work, concrete works, steel work etc.
7.2.5 ATTACHMENTS
Bid authority, available plant and staff, subcontractors, cash flow projections, basic price lists, programme
of works, qualifications by tenderer, site visit records, tax clearances.
7.2.6 AGREEMENT
Offer, acceptance, insurances, performance bonds.

7.2.7 BILLS OF QUANTITIES
Preamble to bills of quantities, measurement methods, bills of quantities, summary.

7.3 TENDER EVALUATION REPORT
Cover page (meeting name, number and purpose, date)
Introduction (scope of report, extend of project)
Invitation to Tender
Technical Evaluation of Bids (responsiveness, capacity to execute works {plant, labour, financial
base})
Financial Evaluation of Bids(correction of errors, analysis of rates)
Overall Assessment (combined assessment, ranking of bidders, recommendations)

Civils Design Guide
7.4 PREPARING MINUTES

Cover page (meeting name, number and purpose, date and location, those present and absent,
circulation names and date and date of next meeting)
Introduction (introducing people and purpose of meeting)
Acceptance of previous meeting minutes
Important contract dates and details
Other important aspects (site, programme and contract, quality control, communication,
information, financial control
Any other business
Date of next meeting
Post meeting notes
7.5 PAYMENT CERTIFICATES
Total value of works including increased costs T

Less retention (10% or 5%) R
Sub-total (T R)
Less previous certificates (sum of all actual certified amounts) C
Amount due (the amount now certified) (T R) - C
7.6 ESCALATION ON CIVIL ENGINEERING CONTRACTS
Plant costs account for probably the highest costs for the civil engineering contractor, especially when we
consider earthworks, which require more of plant than material or labour input. Invariably the largest
component of total project increase costs are expected here therefore it is crucial for the Contract and
Client to agree on the evaluation of these costs since this may lead to loss by either party.
Several methods have been used for evaluating plant increase costs and these include;
Method Source/ Approach Advantages Disadvantages

Proven ZGCC4 This is a very fair It is very a difficulty and time
costs method of consuming exercise to evaluate
Amount due to
compensation. the time eligible for payment for
Contractor is proved by
each plant item. Future rates
hiring invoices, or agreed
cannot be agreed before hand
hire rates for the
leaving them open to abuse by
duration the plant has
Contractors.
been working on site.
Notional ZGCC4 This method is very easy Up to date information is not
Plant to use or calculate. always available from CSO.
Amount due to
Indices Information may be calculated
Contractor evaluated
based on different approach and
based on the value of
may have no bearing on the
work done and the rate
situation on site leading to gross
of increase in plant
under or overpayment.
indices published by the
CSO.

Civils Design Guide
Adjusted FIDIC Compensation received The suitable indices may require a

Plant is fair. This method is lot of input e.g. costs of servicing,
Amount due to
Indices still easy to use. Indices spares, fuels etc.
Contractor evaluated
can be adjusted to
based on the value of
reflect the actual
work done and the rate
situation on site.
of increase in plant
indices agreed upon by
contractual parties
7.7 INSURANCES CATEGORIES
Type of Insurance Purpose

Performance Security/ Bond; Deed of Guarantee of good workmanship. Usually 10% of Contract Value.
Surety ship
Insurance for Works, Plant and Insurance against loss or damage of these.
Materials
Third Party Insurance Insurance against claims by third parties on the contract. Value
usually stated in Tender.
Workmen Compensation Insurance against death or injury of workmen
Provisional Sum amount inserted for work whose value and or specification is not yet known.
Prime Cost Sum amount inserted for known items to be supplied through the Contract.

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CIVIL ENGINEERING

Eng. J T Kunze BSc Eng Hons, MZweIE

J T Kunze January 2009

J T Kunze January 2009

6.6 DESIGN OF WEIRS/DAM WALLS ....................................................................................................... 45

J T Kunze January 2009

1.1 SCOPE OF MANUAL

Part A : General Part B: Administration

J T Kunze 1 January 2009

1.5 CONVERSION UNITS

The following conversion units are applicable in this manual

1.6 SCHEDULE FOR QUANTITY MEASUREMENTS

Material Components Quantity

J T Kunze 2 January 2009

2.1 DESIGN STANDARDS AND ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS

2.1.1 DESIGN STANDARDS

Table 2-A: Road Classifications

Authority Reference Criteria Classes

2.2.1 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN TO MOT STANDARDS

J T Kunze 3 January 2009

Step 3: Classify the pavement based on the Table below;

Step 4: Classify the subgrade material based on the Table below;

Subgrade SGE SG1 SG3 SG5 SG9 SG15

Pavement Material Required Compaction

It should be noted that HCE is equivalent to Mod AASHTO.

J T Kunze 4 January 2009

2.2.3 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN TO COH STANDARDS

J T Kunze 5 January 2009

2.2.4 TYPICAL ROAD CROSS-SECTIONS

J T Kunze 6 January 2009

5.2.2.2 Purpose of Surfacing

Table 2-E: Application Rates COH

Item Layer 13.2mm 9.5mm 6.7mm

J T Kunze 7 January 2009

Table 2-F: Application Rates of Binder MOT

Traffic Stone size Tack Seal (l/m2) Total (l/m2)

Table 2-G: Application Rates of Stone MOT

Stone size Tack Seal

Pavement Type Thickness

J T Kunze 8 January 2009

2.3 GEOMETRICAL DESIGN OF ROADS

2.3.1 DESIGN SPEED

2.2.3.1 Critical Grades

Design Speed (km/hr) Maximum Grade

Slope (%) Critical Length of

J T Kunze 9 January 2009

Table 2-K : K Factors for Different Design Speeds

Design Speed K Factor (sag) K Factor (crest)

J T Kunze 10 January 2009

Table 2-M: Minimum Radii for Design Velocities

Design Speed (km/hr) Minimum Radius

Design Speed (km/hr) Minimum Radius

Design Speed (km/hr) Minimum Radius (m)

J T Kunze 11 January 2009

3.2.3.4 Lane Width

Design Speed Design Traffic Volume (vehicles/hour)

Radius Width of Road (m)

Curve Radius (m) Widening width (m)

J T Kunze 12 January 2009

2.3.4 GENERAL SURVEY

Figure 2-A : Field Book

J T Kunze 13 January 2009

2.4 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

2.4.1 ROUNDABOUT DESIGN