o

Third Culture Kds:

Implications for Professional
c School Counseling
>
The increase of international business, military place- and Ruth Hill Useem (1976), who worked with
ments, and immigration has led to an increase in stu- children living away fiom their home country for an
dents attending schools in a country other than where extended period of dme. The children's idendty
they were born: third culture kids (TCKs). TCKs have development was infiuenced by exposure to cultures
unique educational needs, necessitating the support of other than their own. TCKs are defined as students
their school counselors. This article (a) defines and raised in a culture different firom that of their parents
introduces the needs and characteristics of TCKs, (b) or primary caregivers. More specifically, a TCK may
reviews interventions for school counselors working be further characterized as:
with TCKs during transitional stages, and (c) pres-
ents a case illustration of a middle school counselor a person who has spent a significant part of his
employing the suggested strategies. or her developmental years outside the parents'
culture. The TCK builds reladonships to all of

T
he cultural demographics within schools are the cultures, while not havingfiallownership in
changing and appreciadng the implicadons of any. Although elements fiom each culture are
these changes is important for school counselors assimilated into the TCK's life experience, the
in the delivery of an effecdve, comprehensive, devel- sense of belonging is in reladonship to others of
opmental school counseling program (American similar background. (Pollock & Van Reken,
School Counselor Association [ASCA], 2005; 2001, p. 19)
Owens, Bodenhorn, & Bryant, 2010). However,
school counselors are challenged to gain knowledge Therefore, the first culture for TCKs is their par-
and understanding of the ever-changing ctiltural dif- ents' home country (or countries); the second cul-
ferences among students and stakeholders and mod- ture is the one they are raised in during their primary
ify their counseling skills and delivery of services to developmental years (Gilbert, 2008); and their third
match their students' diverse needs (Holcomb- ctilture (intersddal culture) is an abstract culttu-e that
McCoy, 2004). Therefore, the development of is created from their shared experiences and rela-
school counselors' muldcultural competencies and donships with people fiom other cultures living the
ability to employ culturally sensidve and creadve same lifestyle (Pollock & Van Reken, 2001). "The
counseling strategies is paramount to the delivery of 'third' culture refers to a created ctilture that is nei-
an effecdve school counseling program (Alexander, ther the 'home' culture nor the 'host' culture; it is
Kruczek, & Ponterotto, 2005; ASCA, 2010; the culture between cultures" (Walters & Auton-
Popadiuk & Ardiur, 2004). Cuff, 2009, p. 755). Hence, defining die first two
A populadon of students about which limited cultures is simplisdc, but conceptualizing the third
research has been published in the counseling field is culture is complex and unique. The third culture is
third culture kids (TCKs). The term TCKs was orig- an abstract definidon; however, understanding and
inally developed in the 1950s by sociologists John appreciadng these three cultures is valuable for
school counselors in their work with this student
Dodie Limberg is a doctoral student in the Department populadon.
of Educational and Human Sciences, University of The purpose of this rdele is to (a) provide school
Central Florida. E-mail: dlimberg@knights.ucf.edu counselors with knowledge regarding TCKs, (b)
Glenn W. Lambie is an associate professor, also with the describe the transidonal stages TCKs experience,
Department of Educational and Human Sciences, and (c) discuss pracdcal school counseling strategies
University of Central Florida. to support these students' academic achievement

1S:1 O C T O B E R 2 0 1 1 I ASCA 45
 and hoUsdc development. School counselors may
transfer informadon regarding TCKs to immigrant
students, as many qualides and educadonal needs of
these two student populadons are simUar. This ard-
cle also provides a case iUustradon of a middle school
counselor working with a TCK and employing the
suggested school-based strategies.
THIRD CULTURE KIDS
A broader definidon of TCKs includes immigrant
chUdren who Uve in a culture that differs in eco-
nomic status, educadonal resources, or poUdcal
views (Lee, Bain, & McCaUum, 2007). The term
TCKs may be appUed to all social classes and
includes immigrant and refugee students (Dewaele
8c van Oudenhoven, 2009). A disdncdon between
immigrant students and TCKs is that immigrant stu-
Third culture kids dents remain in the country to which they immi-
grated more often than TCKs (Lytde, Barker, &
are defined as CornweU, 2011). However, the experiences of
TCKs are similar to new immigrant non-western
students raised in a students' experiences when they relocate to western
countries (Cockburn, 2002). Hoefner, Rydna,
culture different Baker, and Monger (2010) reported that approxi-
mately 1.7 miUion immigrant children (legal and
from that of their unauthorized) under the age of 18 were Uving in the
United States. Addidonally, an increase in immigra-
parents or primary don, globalizadon, internadonal business, and mili-
tary placement has resulted in families relocadng to
caregivers. other countries (Dewaele & van Oudenhoven,
2009). Many famiUes relocate temporarily or immi-
grate to a new country for professional opportuni-
des; therefore, growing up in another culture is
prevalent (Cockburn, 2002). The children of these
families can be defined as TCKs because they are Uv-
ing and receiving educadon in a country that differs
from their first culture. The number of TCKs in
schools has increased; homogenous cultures in
schools are an excepdon (PoUock & Van Reken,
2001). School counselors working in Internadonal
Schools and Department of Defense Schools often
work with TCKs, and counselors in the United
States work with TCKs entering or re-entering
schools due to a family's relocadon. Therefore,
school counselors need to possess the awareness,
knowledge, and skills to support the diverse needs of
TCKs in new academic environments (Holcomb-
McCoy, 2004).
An Ethical Obligation to Third Culture Kids
All educators (e.g., administrators, teachers, coun-
selors) have both an ethical and professional respon-
sibiUty to promote a safe and culturally competent
school cUmate to support the hoUsdc development
of all students (ASCA, 2010; Buder, 2003). For die
purpose of this ardcle, competencies are defined as a
46 ASCA I PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING
set of skiUs, disposidons, and behaviors that support
counselors in promodng effecdve services to all their
students and stakeholders (Parham, 2002).
Multicultural counseling competencies' include
school counselors' (a) awareness of their own beUefs
and atdtudes toward diverse cultures and people, (b)
knowledge and appreciadon of diverse cultures, and
(c) counseUng skiUs to address the diverse needs of
their students and stakeholders (ASCA, 2010; Sue,
1992). Thus, school counselors require knowledge
and understanding of TCKs, self-reflecdon when
working with TCKs, and counseUng strategies that
foster these students' funcdonaUty and achievement.
All school counselors have an ethical obUgadon to
provide competent and effecdve services to their
students. SpecificaUy, the American CounseUng
Associadon (ACA, 2005) Code of Ethics state that
"Counselors acdvely attempt to understand the
diverse cultural backgrounds of the cUents they
serve" (p. 4). Addidonally, die ASCA (2010) Ethical
Standardsfor School Counselors advocates that ethical
counselors "monitor and expand personal muldcul-
tural and social jusdce advocacy awareness, knowl-
edge and skiUs. School counselors strive for exem-
plary cultural competence by ensuring personal
beUefs or values are not imposed on students or
other stakeholders" (Standard E.2.a). Furthermore,
the Council for Accreditadon of Counseling and
Related Educadonal Programs (CACREP, 2009)
Standards note that a competent school counseUng
student "understands muldcultural counseling
issues, as weU as the impact of ability levels, stereo-
typing, famUy, socioeconomic status, gender, and
sexual idendty, and their effects on student achieve-
ment" (p. 42). Therefore, school counselors and
school counselor educators have a professional
responsibiUty to learn about TCKs and their diverse
needs.
TCKs have common characterisdcs in their idend-
ty development and experiences during transidon
between cultures (e.g., Cockburn, 2002; Fail,
Thompson, & Walker, 2004; Gilbert, 2008; Hervey,
2009; PoUock & Van Reken, 2001; Useem &
Downie, 1976); however, these qualides are gener-
alizadons that should not be used to label or cate-
gorize individual students. Nevertheless, under-
stancUng of TCKs' idendty development and transi-
donal experiences is necessary for school counselors
to provide both ethical and effecdve services to these
students.
Third Culture Kids' Identity Development
Students' culture influences aU aspects of their devel-
opment. Students come to school ftom diverse cul-
tures and subcultures, impacdng their thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors (Buder, 2003). Adler (1977)
defined cultural idendty as "the symbol of one's
essential experience of oneself as it incorporates the
worldview, value system, attitudes, and beliefs of a
group with which such elements are shared" (p.
230). Culture effects the development of value sys-
tems and how students conceptualize significant
feelings such as love, happiness, and safety
(Greenholtz & Kim, 2009). School counselors need
to recognize both the positive and negative impact
of globalization on students' development and
design their school-based services to address the
diverse needs of all students and stakeholders
(Paredes et al., 2008), including TCKs.
Two characteristics of TCKs are cross-cultural liv-
ing (living within more than one culture in their life-
time) and high mobility (moving fi-equendy fi-om
one culture to another; Grimshaw & Sears, 2008;
Pollock & Van Reken, 2001). TCKs have an
increased global understanding and can adapt to
new situations quickly as compared to non-TCKs
(Hervey, 2009); however, they may find establishing
a sense of identity in new environments to be chal-
lenging (Cockburn, 2002; Hervey, 2009). The
identity development process for TCKs is unique
and involves the formation of personal values,
beliefs, and behaviors; it is an unstructured pattern
compared to students who spend their developmen-
tal years in their "home" culture (Walters & Auton-
Cuff, 2009). When TCKs transition into a new cul-
ture, they may view themselves as a temporary resi-
dent or identify themselves as a member of the
country in which they are currentiy living and not
identify with their first culture (Cockburn, 2002).
Therefore, TCKs may experience dysfunctional
identity development (e.g. inaccurate self-image,
caution towards developing relationships) due to
their focus on adjusting to their changing environ-
ment rather than their intrapersonal identity devel-
opment (Walters & Auton-Cuff, 2009). This can
affect their academic achievement and social-emo-
tional functionality. Therefore, educators may need
to pay special attention to the changes and mainte-
nance of a student's personal identity (Grimshaw &
Sears, 2008).
Negative changes occurring during TCKs' identi-
ty development decrease their ability to be aware of
the here-and-now. Their identity is grounded in
their future goals and aspirations; for example, their
fiiture career path, instead of their current sur-
roundings or their background (Fail, et al., 2004).
Limited awareness of the here-and-now negatively
impacts a TCK's ability' to identify with his or her
current environment. TCKs connect on an emo-
tional level to their first culture, or identify minimal-
ly with both their first and second culture, but have
a limited connection to either (Gilbert, 2008). An
idealized view of their first culture could be devel-
oped even if they haven't been to that culture
recently, which can lead to feeling disconnected
when they do visit or return (Gilbert, 2008). TCKs
connect more with the country in which they reside
than the coimtry that issued their passport (Hervey,
2009). Consequentially, many TCKs have an unreal-
istic connection with their first culture, and their
identity development is more complex than simply
their current geographic location.
TCKs struggle to develop a strong personal iden-
tity and depth in interpersonal relationships
(Dewaele & van Oudenhoven, 2009). But they may
create an appreciation of their diverse backgrounds School counselors
and they may use skills learned through their diver-
sity to their advantage in new situations (Fail et al., need to recognize
2004). Lyttie, Barker, and CornweU (2011) found
that TCKs have a higher ability to examine social sit- both the positive
uations as compared to non-TCKs. For example,
TCKs may be accustomed to meeting new people and negative
fi'equentiy and feel comfortable assessing social situ-
ations; however, developing depth in these relation- impact of
ships may be a struggle. TCKs are more open-mind-
ed, but have less emotional stability compared to globalization on
non-TCKs, negatively impacting their ability to fit in
(Dewaele & van Oudenhoven, 2009). Walters and students'
Auton-Cuff (2009) found diat female TCKs hesitate
to develop relationships and have less emotional development and
affect as compared to non-TCKs. Furthermore,
female TCKs' identity development was delayed design their school-
because of their focus on adjusting rather than cre-
ating a sense of belonging (Walters & Auton-Cuff, based services to
2009). FaU and colleagues (2004) found tiiat TCKs'
sense of belonging correlated with their interperson- address the diverse
al relationships more than where they were living or
had Hved. TCKs appear to feel at home in most cul- needs of all
tures, but a true sense of belonging, comfort, and
reassurance occurs when they are with people who students and
have had similar experiences (Green & Kim, 2009;
Pollock & Van Reken, 1999). Sense of belonging is stakeholders,
challenged when TCKs are not surrounded by oth-
ers with similar experiences; thus, they need including TCKs.
increased support during these periods (Hervey,
2009). Therefore, a stable emotional connection
needs to be developed to facilitate lasting relation-
ships for TCKs.
TCKs who share a common experience of grow-
ing up in another country, regardless of their first
culture, relate better to each other than to others
from their first culture (Peterson & Plamondon,
2009). When TCKs connect with other TCKs, it
forms an effective support system during transitions
because of an empathetic understanding of shared
experiences (Gilbert 2008). However, TCKs strug-
gle to create connections with others, especially
non-TCKs, and establish strong relationships
(Cockburn, 2002; Hervey, 2009). Hervey (2009)
found that when TCKs maintained a connection
with peers fi-om their parents' culture, they experi-
1S:1 OCTOBER 2 0 1 1 | ASCA 47
 enced an easier transition. Furthermore, Dixon and
Hayden (2008) found that, for TCKs, leaving
fHendships and developing new ones was a signifi-
cant worry during periods of transition.
Consequentiy, TCKs should connect with other
TCKs and sustain friendships from their "first" cul-
ture; however, they should also be encouraged to
develop new friendships during transitions.
Impact of Transitions on Third Culture Kids
TCKs have significant needs during periods of tran-
sition that should be identified by school personnel;
specifically, school counselors. Transition is defined
as the physical mobility from one location to anoth-
er, and the personal change that occurs from the
perspective of the one who is moving (Pollock &
Van Reken, 2001). Physical mobility between cul-
tures is a significant descriptor of TCKs (Grimshaw
& Sears, 2008). Anxiety and depression are preva-
lent diagnoses of individuals who transition into a
new culture (Koteskey, 2008). High levels of stress
for TCKs are common due to the amount of grief
and loss they experience during transitions, which
Many TCKs have an may result in feelings of vulnerability and loss of
control (Davis et. al., 2010). Students' sense of
unrealistic belonging is developed during their primary educa-
tion years and affects their understanding of self and
connection with interpersonal relationships (Fail et al., 2004). Sense
of belonging for TCKs is distorted as a result of their
their first culture, different transitions, impacting their personal-social
development and functionality (Walters & Auton-
and their identity Cuff, 2009).
More families are relocating to other countries,
development is and limited research has investigated the impact of
these transitions on children (Dixon & Hayden,
more complex than 2008). PoUock and Van Reken (2001) described five
stages of transition TCKs experience: (a) involve-
simply their current ment, (b) leaving, (c) transition, (d) entering, and (e)
reinvolvement. For the purpose of this article, the
geographic authors modified the five stages of this transition
model (Pollock & Van Reken, 2001) to magnify the
location.
transitional stages that occtir in a school setting and
have the most impact on TCK students. TCK stu-
dents expetience three stages of transition at school:
(a) transition, (b) entering, and (c) leaving. The tran-
sition stage is defined as when TCKs arrive at a new
school in a culture other than their own, and/or
when the same TCKs return to school in their first
culture. The entering stage is when TCKs are adjust-
ing to their new ctdture, school, and environment,
and are figuring out how to become a part of their
new surroundings. The leaving stage is when TCKs
go to another school in another culture, or they go
to return to their first culture. Not all TCKs experi-
ence the leaving phase because their families may not
return to live in their home country; specifically,
immigrant students. Each transitional stage may be
48 ASCA I PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING
experienced at different durations and multiple
times, depending on the number of times the stu-
dent's family relocates. Schools need to be aware of
the three transitional stages discussed here and pro-
vide appropriate supports (Dixon & Hayden, 2008).
TCKs relocation frequently creates a negative
emotional shifr when they have to say goodbye to
fnends and mentors; this transition may evoke feel-
ings of loss and grief (Gilbert, 2008). Students expe-
rience high levels of grief diuing transitions and their
grief may not be taken seriously by adults because
they are children and their feelings of grief are not
related to a specific death experience (Gilbert,
2008). However, Pollock and Van Reken (2001)
identified that TCKs experience greater levels of
grief during their developmental years than do non-
TCKs. TCKs may experience different types of grief;
including (a) loss of fHendships and relationships
with family members, (b) loss of a certain lifestyle in
which they are comfortable, and (c) loss of impor-
tant possessions that could not be taken during a
move (Pollock & Van Reken, 2001). If TCKs' feel-
ings of grief are not recognized and processed, these
unresolved feelings may reemerge during adulthood
(Gilbert, 2008). Feelings of grief are common for
TCKs, particularly feelings of loss of what they lefr
behind; thus, they require assistance to work
through the stages of grief (Dixon & Hayden,
2008). Schools have a responsibility to support
TCKs' emotional needs, including grief engendered
by transitions.
Typically, TCKs do not have a choice about their
moves because the parents make decisions about
moving based on personal or professional reasons.
Constructing a definition of "home" may be a chal-
lenge for TCKs because of their transitions. A ques-
tion such as "Where are you from.*" does not have a
simple answer for a TCK and may be a dreaded
question. The complexities of a TCK's answer
include considerations such as parents' origin, birth-
place, and where parents and relatives currently live
(Hervey, 2009). TCKs experience rootlessness,
which is a lack of connection to a "home," and they
don't feel they belong anywhere (Fail et al., 2004).
Gilbert (2008) stated that TCKs "maintain an
ongoing state of uncertainty about safety and trust,
identity, where they belong, and where their home
truly is" (p. 107). TCKs' personality development is
affected by their environment, acculturation, and
the process of immigration (Dewaele & van
Oudenhoven, 2009). Transitions evoke stress, dis-
orientation, and anxiety because transitions are
change equated with the unknown (Dixon &
Hayden, 2008). Therefore, during periods of transi-
tions, TCK students require a safe and comfortable
school environment to mitigate the uncertainty of
the change they are experiencing.
 Table 1. Third Culture Kids' Descriptors, Observable Cues, and Potential School Counseling Strategies
: General Descriptors of TCKs
Strengths
I Expanded worldview
I I Adaptable
I Cross-cultural relationships
I Often multilingual
Common impacts of transition
Identity development issues
Lack a sense of belonging
Commonly experience grief and loss
Friendship/relationship issues
Reverse culture shock
Observable Cues of TCKs during
Transitional Stages
Transition Stage
I Resistance to make friends
I Overconfident of academic skills
I Constant comparison to old school
I Bragging about previous experiences
Entering Stage
I Decline in grades
I Frequent absences
I Parents enable poor student behavior
due to their own guilt
I Isolate themselves or only surround
themselves with people who speak
their first language
School Counseling Strategies to
Support TCKs' Development and
Achievement Aligned with ASCA
National Model Delivery System
(2005) & ASCA National Standards
for Students (2004)
Transition Stage
I Orientation with family (School
Guidance Curriculum, A:B2, PS:A1,
PS:C1)
I Fact sheet for faculty (Individual
Student Planning, System Support,
A:A1)
I Teacher meeting/training (System
Support, PS:C1)
Entering Stage
Buddy Program (Responsive Services,
System Support, PS:A2)
I Friendship Circle Group (Responsive
Services, A:B1, PS:A1, PS:A2)
I International Day/Diversity Week
(School Guidance Curriculum, A:A1,
PS:A1,PS.A2,PS:B1

Leaving Stage Leaving Stage

I Increase in poor behavior/discipline
I Withdraw from fiiendship groups or
extracurricular activities
I Parent against school
I Decrease in academic performance
I Student t-shirt 8c book (Responsive
Services, PS:B1)
I Time to say goodbye (Responsive
Services, PS:A2, PS.Bl)
Visits (Responsive Services, PS:A2)

The Role of the School Counselor with Third
Culture Kids during Transitional Stages
Schools serving TCKs should be able to identify both
the negative and positive impacts on TCKs when two
cultures combine to create a third culture
(Cockburn, 2002). Attending a new school in a stu-
dent's own country is difficult enough, but this chal-
lenge increases and becomes more intimidating for
students transitioning to a new school in another
country where the language of instruction may be an
additional change (Dixon 8c Hayden, 2008). The
concept of change becomes an expectation and is one
of the few constants in TCKs' lives (Gilbert, 2008).
School provides an environment for TCKs to
increase their social skills and provides students with
a consistent social community (Cockburn, 2002).
This article identifies and reviews general descriptors
of TCKs (Pollock 8c Van Reken, 2001; Useem 8c
Downie, 1976); however, empirical support for spe-
cific interventions for TCKs is limited (Davis et. al.,
2010). Nevertheless, counselors need to be equipped
with school-based strategies to support TCKs' aca-
demic, personal-social, and vocational development.
School counselors' awareness of the negative
impact transition may have on TCKs is crucial. Fail
and colleagues (2004) found in their qualitative TCKsappear to feel
investigation that TCKs reported feeling like out-
siders at school in their first culture, and had no real at home in most
sense of belonging. When students return to their
first culture, they experienced reverse culture shock cultures, but a true
and questioned their sense of belonging (Fail et al.,
2004; Hervey, 2009). American-born TCKs who sense of belonging,
moved back to the United States identified that their
transition was difficult due to their unmet expecta- comfort, and
tions of how their return to their first culture would
be (Hervey, 2009). The lack of understanding of reassurance occurs
cultural context may impede TCKs' creative prob-
lem-solving skills in social and academic situations. when they are with
Lee and colleagues (2007) suggested providing
TCKs with explicit instruction in the classroom in people who have
order to enhance their creative problem-solving
skills. Davis and colleagues (2010) found that TCKs had similar
showed a decrease in levels of depression, anxiety,
and stress and an increase in levels of functioning experiences.
when they participated in a school-based transition
program. Hervey (2009) compared transitions dur-

15:1 OCTOBER 2011 | ASCA 49

 ing TCKs' childhood and their adjustment to col-
lege, and found that previous negadve transidons
negadvely impacted TCKs' ability to adjust to col-
lege. Therefore, school counselors need to be an
integral part of TCKs' transidons and appreciate the
potendal infiuence of these transidons on their stu-
dents' academic achievement and holisdc develop-
ment. During each transidonal stage, school coun-
selors may employ intervendon strategies that align
with die ASCA (2005, 2004) National Model and
High levels of stress National Standards., as presented in Table 1.
for TCKs are Transitional Stage One: Transition
The first transidonal stage that TCKs experience is
common due to the arriving at a new school for the first dme or return-
ing to a school in their first culture. School coun-
amount of grief and selors are often a family's first impression of the
counseling profession as a whole (Paredes et al.,
loss they 2008). Students' and parents'/primary caregivers'
understanding of the expectadons in the new school
experience during is important, as is knowing that the school has infor-
madon regarding the students before they begin
transitions, which school (e.g. previous academic history, behavioral
history; Dixon & Hayden, 2008). Specifically, coun-
may result in selors have a responsibility to provide TCK students
and their families with an explanadon of a student's
feelings of educadonal choices and the resources available in
the school setting (ASCA, 2010). The school coun-
vulnerability and selor may arrange for a meeting with the TCK and
his or her family, providing an opportunity for the
loss of control. counselor to define his or her role (especially for the
family who is not familiar with what a school coun-
selor does) and the type of resources that may be
available in the school setdng. The meedng can also
address and clarify student and parental expecta-
dons. The counselor should arrange for an inter-
preter, if one is needed, and not rely on the student
to fill this role (Goh, Wahl, McDonald, Brissett, &
Yoon, 2007). The goal of the inidal counselor-stu-
dent-family meedng is for the parents/caregivers to
view the school counselor as a liaison, and to make
their transidon to the school and community easier.
A TCK's return to his or her first culture (e.g., an
American student rettirning to school in the states),
is also considered part of the transidon stage. When
TCKs relocate or transidon back to the United
States, they may have unrealisdc expectadons about
the values and social norms that are present in the
American culture; therefore, developing structure
during transidons may provide TCKs an oudet to
realign their expectadons with reality (Davis et al.,
2010). Inquiring whether the TCK had fiequent vis-
its to the first culture is important for the counselor,
because frequent visits decrease the diffictildes of the
adjustment. When a connecdon with peers from
their parents'/caregivers' culture is maintained, it
creates an easier transidon back to the first culture
50 ASCA I PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING
(Hervey, 2009). School counselors should not
assume that students' adjustment is easy because
they speak the language and physically look the same
as the other students (Pollock & Van Reken, 2001).
When students return to their home countries, they
experience reverse culture shock and quesdon their
sense of belonging (Fail et al., 2004). The counselor
may conduct weekly or bi-weekly check-ins with
TCKs to assess their adjustment to their new school
and culture, validadng the existence of their third
culture.
School counselors have an ethical obligadon to
provide faculty with informadon about a student
that will benefit the student's personal/social and
academic development (ASCA, 2010). Teachers and
other school personnel should have knowledge
regarding TCKs before the students begin school
(Dixon & Hayden, 2008). The counselor may pro-
vide the TCK's teachers with a fact sheet including
relevant academic and social needs of the student,
and include strengths and interests of the TCK to
enable connecdons with faculty. If teachers are avail-
able, such as their ESL (English as a Second
Language) teacher, the counselor should introduce
them to the TCK students to establish a connecdon.
The endre school community has the responsibility
to help students fi-om other ctiltures transidon into
the new school, and the school counselor should
facilitate faculty trainings on muldcultural issues and
specific needs of these students (Goh et al., 2007).
A valuable approach may be focusing professional
development meedngs with facility on the needs
TCKs and the transidonal stages that they experi-
ence (Dixon & Hayden, 2008).
Transitional Stage Two: Entering
The second transidon is adjusdng and living in the
new culture: the entering stage. The goal during the
entering stage is to allow TCKs an opportunity to
embrace the new culture (i.e., the second culture),
keep a connecdon to their first culture, and under-
stand and develop their third culture. Counselors
should infijse cultural awareness into a comprehen-
sive school counseling program to promote a wel-
coming school environment to students from other
cultures (Goh et al., 2007). TCKs may be provided
with opportunides to express themselves and let
their "voice" be heard through storytelling, possibly
in the classroom or during an assembly (Walters &
Auton-Cuff, 2009). Sears (2011) found diat TCKs
want opportunides to express their experiences in a
narradve format in order to maintain their sense of
self These storytelling opportunides may be valu-
able during holidays that are unique to a student's
first culture or during a diversity week. School coun-
selors can organize a diversity week or month to
encourage cultural awareness, with a culminadng
 event to aUow students to display their cultures
(Goh et al., 2007).
TCKs need opportunides to establish connecdons
and develop friendships with others who have expe-
rienced similar transidonal stages, or someone who
is a nadve of the second culture (Davis et al., 2010).
School counselors can develop a buddy program to
pair TCKs with current students (TCKs or non-
TCKs) at the school to provide the TCK with a peer
to assist with transidons academicaUy and socially.
AU current student buddies should be trained, and
the school counselor must coordinate the program
(ASCA, 2010). The buddy program can be a valu-
able transidon tool if implemented and monitored
correcdy (Dixon & Hayden, 2008).
Acdvides that can enhance posidve reladonship
development include informal group experiences,
social events, or outings that provide dme for TCKs
to interact with other TCKs (Walters & Auton-Cuff,
2009). One way for TCKs to develop fiiendships
with other students is during field trips. The desd-
nadon of these trips could be places that represent
the second culture (i.e., the culture in which the
TCK is currendy Uving), and should be an educa-
tional/experiendal trip that allows the TCK to be
exposed to the second culture. The idnerary for the
field trip may include museum tours, eating at local
restaurants, and exploring the environment in an
acdve way, such as hiking or bUdng. The conclusion
of the trip should include an assigned self-reflecdon
for the students of what they learned about the sec-
ond culture and themselves. The school counselor
can faciUtate condnued refiecdon in a small group
setdng. A structured group setdng may be valuable
for TCKs to connect with other TCKs to discuss
common characterisdcs (e.g., transidon, idendty,
and reladonships; Walters & Auton-Cuff, 2009).
School counselors can lead small groups focusing on
culture shock and transidonal issues that immigrant
students experience (Goh et al., 2007).
Transitional Stage Three: Leaving
The third transidonal stage TCKs experience is leav-
ing their current school and going to another
school. Not all TCKs experience the leaving phase
because they may remain at their current school for
a longer term and may not return to their first cul-
ture country permanendy (e.g., immigrant stu-
dents). A significant chaUenge TCKs face during the
leaving stage is saying goodbye to friends and nega-
dvely andcipadng creadng new friendships when
arriving in another country (Hervey, 2009). TCKs
are accustomed to their friends leaving and new
friends arriving (Sears, 2011); however, during the
leaving stage, providing the TCK with dme for clo-
sure is sdU important. The counselor may arrange
for TCKs to spend dme in the counseUng office or
classroom and invite their closest friends or anyone
who would lUce to say goodbye. It is important for
the counselor to inform teachers when a student is
leaving, allowing the teachers dme to say goodbye.
If the TCK's departure is abrupt and not expected,
the school counselor should encourage students to
stay in contact with the TCK through social net-
working or e-mail, and classmates can sign a card for
the counselor to send to the TCK.
During the leaving stage, students may show
resistant behavior or have Umited abUity to portray
strength and not make their grief visible (PoUock &
Van Reken, 2001). Counselors niay make contact
with TCKs' parents to make them aware of and pre-
pare them for the negadve impact of transidon.
Hervey (2009) suggested that parents/caregivers
play a crucial role in transidons and parents should
work to estabUsh open communicadon within the
famUy system, encouraging their children to main-
tain connecdons with friends to increase depth in
friendships. TCKs are less stressed during transidon
if they have a strong connection to their
parents/caregivers (Peterson & Plamondon, 2009). A question such as
Furthermore, parents'/caregivers' level of anxiety
during transidons influences their cliUdren's anxiety "Where are you
and abiUty to adapt to the move (Dixon & Hayden,
2008). Therefore, helping to prepare and educate from?" does not
parents during transidonal periods is important for
counselors. have a simple
MIDDLE SCHOOL COUNSELOR'S WORK answer for a TCK
WITH A THIRD CULTURE KID
and may be a
The first author, as a midcUe school counselor, had
the opportunity to work with TCKs and immigrant dreaded question.
students in Europe, the Middle East, and pubUc
schools in Florida. The following case presents a
counselor (the first author) employing the suggest-
ed school-based intervendons with a student named
Camron (ficddous name). He came to school from
Peru in the middle of his 7th-grade year due to his
parents' employment. He was enroUed undl just
before the end of his 8th-grade year. The case Ulus-
tradon presents school-based intervendons used at
each of the three transidonal stages; however, the
case does not portray aU the strategies that school
counselors may implement when working with
TCKs.
Transition Transitional Stage
The first contact I had with Camron was a pre-
arranged student and famUy meedng, lasdng 30
minutes, with Camron and his parents. Camron's
first language was Spanish; therefore, I invited an
interpreter to the meeting. During this inidal meet-
ing with Camron and his parents, I (a) discussed the
resources avaUable in the school and community; (b)
15:1 O C T O B E R 2 0 1 1 | ASCA 51
 clarified the type of instruction and currictilum used
in the school; and (c) reviewed logistical school pro-
cedures, such as school policies, attendance, class-
room behavior, and extra-curricular activities. We
also discussed and clarified student and parental
expectations. I invited Camron's ESL teacher to the
TCKs showed a
meeting, briefly, to allow them time establish a con-
nection.
decrease in levels of
Next, I created a brief fact sheet about Camron,
depression, anxiety, including where he lived previously, his likes/dis-
likes, his schedule, any academic and/or social con-
and stress and an cerns, and anything else Camron and his family
wanted his teachers to know. The fact sheet was
approved by Camron and his parents then provided
increase in levels of
to all of Camron's teachers and the administration
before Camron's first day of school. The factilty at
functioning when
my school had already received professional devel-
opment training on multicultural issues and TCKs.
they participated in
a school-based Entering Transitional Stage
The second transitional phase that Camron experi-
enced included adjusting to and living in the new
transition program.
culture. The goal during the entering stage was to
allow Camron opportunities to embrace his new cul-
ture (the second culture), keep a connection to his
first culture, and understand and develop the third
culture. On Camron's first day of school, I assigned
him to the buddy program, which was a peer-to-
peer program to develop connections between stu-
dents to make the transition easier for TCKs.
Current students (TCKs and non-TCKs) were nom-
inated by a teacher to be a buddy and, after being
nominated, would choose whether to participate in
the program. AH buddies completed a two-day train-
ing co-led by a teacher and me, and I was responsi-
ble for all aspects of the program. At the beginning
of the year, the program held a buddy day trip to a
location that exemplified the local culture.
Unfortunately, Camron arrived in the middle of the
year so he was not able to attend the buddy trip.
Throughout the year, buddies were assigned to new
TCKs when they arrived, and I would host buddy
luncheons. I also encouraged Camron to join the
Friendship Circle, which was a group of TCKs and
students dealing with friendship issues that met
every other week during lunch.
I was part of the leadership team for events that
allowed Camron to keep a connection to his first
culture and be exposed to the second culture. One
event was International Night, an exhibit event in
which each student or group of students had a table
to display items from his or her first culture. The
exhibits included food and musicfi-omthe student's
first culture. Non-TCKs also participated in this
event by contributing with their ancestors' culture.
International Night was an evening event partnered
with a choral and band concert, and was a fundrais-
52 ASCA I PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING
ing activity for the school. Another opportxmity for
students to educate their peers about their first cul-
ture was during scheduled school assemblies. I asked
Camron to do a small presentation about his cul-
ture, with other TCKs, at the upcoming assembly. I
was also part of the committee that organized a
diversity week to promote cultural awareness within
the school.
With other school leaders, I co-led a cultural trip.
These semi-structured trips consisted of one or
more days and all students (TCKs and non-TCKs)
were invited to attend. Camron attended a multi-
day trip that included camping in the national park,
a tour of many famous sites, and dinner at tradition-
al restaurants. All students who went on this trip
were assigned to complete a self-refiection of what
they learned about culture and themselves. The
funding of this trip was provided by the district, the
PTA (Parent Teacher Association), and SGA
(Student Government Association). Parents/care-
givers were also asked to donate, but were not
required to financially support the trip.
I was involved in a unique program called the
Faculty Family Program, which replaced an advisory
class. In the program, each member of the faculty
was paired with another faculty member and was in
charge of eight to ten students. The factilty members
were the "parents" and the students were the "chil-
dren." The "families" would meet once a week for
an hour to discuss academics and, more important-
ly, social and personal issues. The families would also
celebrate birthdays together, have family ltmcheons
together, and sometimes travel together on a day
trip. The Faculty Family model provided TCKs a
consistent and stable group that they cotild use as a
resource. The Faculty Family also allowed students
ftom many cultures to interact and be exposed to
different cultural family dynamics and traditions.
The Factilty Family may not be pragmatic in all
schools, but was a significant experience for myself
and my students.
Leaving Transitional Stage
The final phase Camron experienced was leaving our
school and going back to Peru, his first culture.
Before his departure, I arranged for Camron to
spend time in my office during homeroom and
ltmch with his closest friends or anyone who would
like to say goodbye. I provided Camron with a
school t-shirt and journal in which students could
write farewell notes or their contact information. If
this goodbye meeting ran over into class time, I
allowed extra time because it magnified the impor-
tance of closure. I informed the teachers that
Camron would be leaving, allowing them time to
say goodbye as well. Camron's homeroom teacher
and Factilty Family gave Camron a simple going-
 away gifr. I called Camron's family to say goodbye
and encouraged his parents to be aware of the pos-
sibility that Camron would expeHence gHef as a
result of leaving and transitioning. I suggested that
Camron's parents encourage him to keep in touch
with fHends, and arrange visits if possible. Camron
was returning to Peru and reenteHng his previous
school.
CONCLUSION
School counselors work with TCKs and immigrant
students; therefore, counselors and other school per-
sonnel require sound information regarding the Gilbert, K. (2008). Loss and grief between and among cultures:
unique characteHstics and needs of these students in
order promote a culturally aware school environ-
ment. School counselors require knowledge con- Greenholtz, J., & Kim, J. (2009).The cultural hybridity of Lena: A
cerning the common identity development chal-
lenges TCKs expeHence and the influences of transi-
tion to their holistic development. Counselors need Grimshaw,T., & Sears, C (2008).'Where am I from?"Where do I
to support TCKs during their transitional stages,
fostering their academic achievement and personal-
social functioning. The suggested school-based Goh, M., Wahl, K. H., McDonald, J. K., Brissett, A. A., & Yoon, E.
interventions are for school counselors' use in their
work with TCKs and their families, promoting a
supportive and culturally competent educational
environment. I
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