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Datura stramonium L.

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Datura stramonium L.

Protologue
Sp. pl. 1: 179 (1753).

Family
Solanaceae

Chromosome number
2n = 24

Vernacular names
Thorn apple, green thorn apple, Jimson weed, Jamestown weed, devils apple,
devils trumpet, stramonium (En). Pomme pineuse, stramoine, datura, feuille du
diable, herbe du diable (Fr). Figueira do inferno, pomo espinhoso, erva dos
bruxos, palha verde, estramonio (Po). Muranha (Sw).

Origin and geographic distribution

Datura stramonium is native to the Americas and has been introduced in many
tropical, subtropical and even temperate regions. It is a naturalized weed in many
African countries, but is probably seriously under-reported.

Uses
Datura stramonium and Datura metel L. have largely similar medicinal uses
throughout the world. The most widely known use of Datura stramonium and of
other Datura species is for relieving asthma, cough, tuberculosis and bronchitis
by smoking the dried leaves, roots or flowers. Asthma cigarettes have been
shown to be very effective in some cases, but in other cases they had little or no
effect. Cigarettes made with the leaves are also used to treat Parkinsons
disease. A decoction or infusion of leaves is given as a sedative to mental and
schizophrenic patients. The leaves are applied as a dressing to cure rheumatic
pain, swellings, wounds, gout, burns, ingrown toe-nails, fungal infections,
tumours and ulcers. Dried pulverized leaves are dusted on wounds or applied
after mixing the powder with fat or Vaseline.
In DR Congo pounded fresh root and fresh leaves are soaked in water and the
liquid is given in enema as an abortifacient. In Zimbabwe a hot poultice of leaves
and roots is applied to goitre. A leaf infusion is drunk to treat venereal diseases;
to cure ulcers the skin is washed with an infusion of roots and leaves. In Burundi
leaf ash is eaten as a cure for whooping cough. In Rwanda a leaf infusion is
taken as an antispasmodic and to reduce stomach acidity. In Kenya dried and
ground leaves and seeds are eaten mixed with fat to treat ringworm. Headache is
relieved by rubbing the scalp with leaves or leaf sap. Hair loss is countered by
applying fruit sap or leaf pulp and these also serve to remedy dandruff. In
Ethiopia pieces of young fruit are sucked against tonsillitis and sore throat and
applied to abscesses and swollen glands. In Kenya and Lesotho the fruit is
heated in hot ash and after cooling juice is squeezed and used as ear drops to
treat earache. In Zimbabwe an infusion of fruit ash is drunk to treat stomach-
ache. In Ethiopia the smoke of burning seeds is inhaled to relieve toothache,
while in Kenya fresh green fruit is applied for this purpose. In Namibia a leaf
extract is administered to cows to ensure a rapid expulsion of the afterbirth and
pulped roots are mixed with water and given to cattle to cure lung diseases. The
dried leaves and seeds of Datura stramonium are included in the
pharmacopoeias of many Western countries as an antispasmodic and for
treatment of asthma, whooping cough and Parkinsons disease.
The narcotic use of Datura stramonium varies between cultures. In Central and
South America hallucinogenic uses are common among native tribes. In Africa,
before they enter fighting contests, young men of the Fulfulde people of the
border area of Niger and Nigeria are served drinks containing Datura seeds. This
increases their courage and pain tolerance. The leaves are most commonly used
as a narcotic, either smoked or boiled and eaten; seeds are similarly used.
Roots, seeds or leaves are added to alcoholic drinks to increase the intoxicating
effect. Side effects include dry mouth and throat, eye pain, blurred vision,
restlessness, dizziness, arrythmia, flushing and faintness. An overdose will cause
headache, nausea, vomiting and affect the central nervous system causing
disorientation, hallucinations, euphoria, inappropriate affect, short-term memory
loss and coma. The seeds are also used for criminal purposes. Hospital
admissions and fatalities, most often of adolescents, are not uncommon. It is for
this reason that several countries including France removed datura cigarettes
from the Pharmacopoeia in 1992.
Reports on the use of the plant as an insecticide vary from good control of aphids
in crops in Namibia to no effects in Australia. In East Africa the leaves yield a
green dye that is used to dye cloth; in Lesotho the twigs yield a blue-green dye
that is used for house decoration. In Ethiopia the plant has been used to tattoo
the gums, partly as a treatment of gingivitis or dental decay. The stems are used
as firewood. In Kenya the seed oil is used as massage oil.

Production and international trade

In tropical Africa Datura stramonium is mainly used locally, but it is important for
the international pharmaceutical industry. For example, in France 2030 t of
leaves were used around 1990 to produce anti-asthma and antispasm medicines
and medicines against Parkinsons disease. There are many brand names for
hyoscyamine and atropine on the world market.

Properties
The concentration of total alkaloids in the leaves of Datura stramonium is 0.2
0.5%, hyoscyamine being the major compound and scopolamine (= hyoscine),
apoatropine, tropine, belladonnine and hyoscyamine N-oxide minor compounds;
more than 70 alkaloids have been identified in the various parts of the plant.
Biosynthetically, the main compounds all belong to the tropane alkaloids and are
derived from the amino acid ornithine.
Hyoscyamine, atropine and scopolamine are anticholinergics, specifically
antimuscarinics. They act by competitively and reversibly inhibiting the neuro-
transmitter acetylcholine from binding to its muscarinic receptors, and this
antagonism leads to sympathomimetic-like effects in the organs. They increase
the heart rate, induce relaxation and motor inhibition in smooth muscles,
decrease secretions, and induce dilation of the pupils of the eyes. Although
hyoscyamine has a stronger activity than atropine or scopolamine, atropine is
more commonly prepared and used. Although at low doses their action tends to
be depressant and sedative, at high doses they cause substantial excitation:
agitation, disorientation, exaggerated reflexes, hallucinations, delirium, mental
confusion and insomnia. Hyoscyamine is used to provide symptomatic relief of
various gastrointestinal disorders including spasms, peptic ulcers, irritable bowel
syndrome, pancreatitis, colic and inflammation of the bladder. It has also been
used to relieve some heart problems, to reduce excess saliva production and
control some of the symptoms of Parkinsons disease.
The Datura stramonium powder listed in the Dutch Pharmacopoeia (8th edition) is
titrated to contain 0.230.27% total alkaloids. It is an ingredient of antitussive
syrups, but is mostly used in the form of cigarettes to relieve respiratory
difficulties, together with other drugs.
Tropane alkaloids can be biosynthesized in cell suspension cultures of Datura
stramonium in shake flasks and bioreactors. Calluses have been induced from
leaves, stems and roots and cultured on Gamborgs B5 or Murashige and Skoog
medium supplemented with growth regulators. The highest alkaloid content was
produced in leaf calluses grown on a medium with low concentrations of growth
regulators (0.1 mg/ml of benzyladenine and 2,4-D), and in cultures grown in the
dark. Total alkaloid production in a cell culture supplemented with phenylalanine
and ornithine was 5 times higher than in the control culture, and higher ratios of
tropine to tropic acid also stimulated alkaloid production. A hyoscyamine
production of up to 7.5 mg/l daily was recorded in root cultures on Gamborgs B5
medium containing 5% sucrose at 2025C.
Methanol leaf extracts showed slight antibacterial activity against gram-positive
bacteria in a dose dependent manner but no activity was found against
Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
The seed contains about 17% of a pale yellow oil.

Adulterations and substitutes

Tropane alkaloids similar to those found in Datura are known from numerous
Solanaceae (e.g. hyoscyamine and scopolamine in Atropa belladonna L. and
Hyoscyamus muticus L.). Scopolamine is found in high quantity in in Duboisia
spp., which are used for industrial production in Australia.

Description
Annual or short-lived perennial erect herb up to 2 m tall, often much-branched;
stem sparsely hairy to glabrous. Leaves alternate, simple, minutely hairy; stipules
absent; petiole up to 9.5 cm long; blade ovate to rhombic-ovate or elliptical, 320
cm 115 cm, base cuneate, rounded, truncate or cordate, apex acute to
acuminate or obtuse, margins sharply toothed with irregular teeth or almost
entire, pinnately veined. Flowers axillary, solitary, rarely paired, bisexual, regular,
5-merous; pedicel 515 mm long, up to 30 mm long in fruit; calyx tubular, 2.55
cm long, lobes unequal, 0.51 cm long; corolla trumpet-shaped to tubular, 610
cm long, white or faintly tinged purple, sometimes violet or purplish in the tube;
stamens inserted above the middle of the corolla tube, included, filaments short
and thick, anthers yellow; ovary superior, 2(4)-celled, style slender, 3.57 cm
long, stigma large, 2-lobed. Fruit an upright, almost globose to ovoid capsule up
to 5 cm 4.5 cm, yellowish to brown, spines few to many, slender, stiff, up to 16
mm long, many-seeded. Seeds almost D-shaped, flattened, 3.54.5 mm 2.5
3.5 mm c. 1 mm, dark brown to black. Seedling with epigeal germination;
cotyledons thin, leafy.

Other botanical information

Datura comprises about 10 species, which all originated in the New World; most
species have been introduced throughout the world. Datura stramonium belongs
to section Stramonium. Datura ferox L. (longspine thornapple, fierce thornapple)
belongs to the same section, and is recorded with certainty only in Cape Verde,
Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe. Compared to Datura stramonium, it has
wider leaves and larger fruits with fewer but stouter spines. The medicinal uses
are similar to those for the other Datura species. The main alkaloid in its leaves is
scopolamine and not hyoscyamine as in Datura stramonium, although both
species produce hyoscyamine in the roots. In Datura ferox hyoscyamine is
transformed into scopolamine in the above-ground parts.
Brugmansia is considered here as a separate genus, although it is often treated
as a section of Datura (section Brugmansia). It mainly differs in its habit (a
woody, comparatively long-lived shrub or small tree), its mode of growth
(reproducing vegetatively by root suckers), its pendulous or inclined flowers open
throughout anthesis for 46 days with spathe-like, not circumscissile calyx and
long pedicel, and its fruit being a usually indehiscent, unarmed berry. Chemically,
Datura and Brugmansia are similar, and consequently they have similar
medicinal applications. However, the primary use of the Brugmansia species is
ornamental.

Growth and development

Only the basal part of the stem remains vegetative; flowering occurs on the
branched part of the plant and branches do not resume vegetative growth after
flowering and fruiting. The flowers are closed during the day and open in the
evening, and are reported to be pollinated by hawk moths and to be largely self-
fertile.
The hyoscyamine/scopolamine ratio in Datura stramonium is influenced by the
developmental stage reached by the plants. In younger plants scopolamine is the
main alkaloid, whereas hyoscyamine mostly becomes the dominant alkaloid
when flower development has started. The alkaloids are produced in the roots
and transferred to the leaves, flowers and finally the fruits.

Ecology
Datura stramonium occurs in open locations such as grassland, roadsides, waste
places, scrub vegetation and open forest. It tolerates various soil types but
prefers clayey or loamy soils. Datura stramonium is frost sensitive. In the United
States and Australia Datura stramonium is considered a serious weed in crops;
elsewhere it is considered a weed in waste land. Control is difficult as Datura
stramonium is resistant to most commonly used herbicides. Contamination of
wheat, rye, buckwheat and linseed with seeds of Datura stramonium resulting in
poisoning have been reported.

Propagation and planting

Datura stramonium is generally cultivated from seed sown either directly in the
field or in a nursery bed. Soaking seed overnight improves germination. Per ha,
78 kg of seed is needed. Seed starts germinating after about 2 weeks, and
germination is complete after one month. If the seed is sown in a nursery,
seedlings are transplanted when 812 cm tall. Normal spacing is 70100 cm, but
in India a spacing of 3 m is common practice.

Management
Experiments in Burundi with the cultivation of Datura stramonium showed that
the application of chemical fertilizers and manure resulted in an increased
production of total alkaloids. As a result of experiments in Burkina Faso,
deflowering was recommended to increase the total alkaloid content in the
leaves.

Diseases and pests

Many pests and diseases affecting solanaceous crops also affect Datura
stramonium.

Harvesting
In experiments in Burundi it was demonstrated that the best time for harvesting
leaves of Datura stramonium was 8 weeks after sowing, because alkaloid
content was then highest. On the basis of experiments in Burkina Faso, it was
recommended to harvest the leaves in the early morning or late afternoon.

Yield
The highest yields of scopolamine and hyoscyamine from Datura stramonium in
Algeria were 7.5 kg/ha and 21 kg/ha, respectively. In India 11.5 t/ha of dry
leaves and 500600 kg/ha of seeds have been obtained.

Handling after harvest

The tender branches and leaves are dried in the shade. Fruits are dried in the
sun until they dehisce. The seeds are separated by threshing and after further
drying packed for transport.

Genetic resources
Datura stramonium has a wide geographical distribution, prefers anthropogenic
habitats and is therefore not liable to genetic erosion.

Breeding
No attempts have been made to improve Datura stramonium for yield of alkaloids
but the genetics of Datura spp. have been extensively studied. Interspecific
crosses with Datura ferox yield F1-plants that have the capability to transform
hyoscyamine into scopolamine; this characteristic is dominant and monofactorial.

Prospects
Although the tropane alkaloids scopolamine, hyoscyamine and atropine can be
produced synthetically, it is more economical to extract them from plants such as
Datura spp. However, Atropa, Duboisia and Hyoscyamus species are the major
sources of raw materials. On the world market of pure tropane alkaloids, it will be
difficult for African producers to compete with producers in China, India and
Australia.

Major references
Berkov, S., Zayed, R. & Doncheva, T., 2006. Alkaloid patterns in some varieties
of Datura stramonium. Fitoterapia 77(3): 179182.
Burkill, H.M., 2000. The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. 2nd Edition.
Volume 5, Families SZ, Addenda. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond,
United Kingdom. 686 pp.
Dethier, M., Cordier, Y. & Demeyer, K., 1993. Cultivation of Datura species for
scopolamine and hyoscyamine production in Burundi. Acta Horticulturae 331:
3948.
Gonalves, A.E., 2005. Solanaceae. In: Pope, G.V., Polhill, R.M. & Martins,
E.S. (Editors). Flora Zambesiaca. Volume 8, part 4. Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, Richmond, United Kingdom. 124 pp.
Neuwinger, H.D., 2000. African traditional medicine: a dictionary of plant use
and applications. Medpharm Scientific, Stuttgart, Germany. 589 pp.
Nkurunziza, J.P., undated. Validating traditional knowledge: Rwanda. In:
Sharing innovative experiences 10: Examples of the development of
pharmaceutical products from medicinal plants. UNDP & TWNSO, Trieste, Italy.
pp. 127134.
Philipov, S., Berkov, S. & Doncheva, T.S., 2007. GC-MS survey of Datura
stramonium alkaloids. Comptes Rendus de lAcadmie Bulgare des Sciences
60(3): 239250.
Sri Hartati, Imastini Dinuriah & Blomqvist, M.M., 1999. Datura L. In: de Padua,
L.S., Bunyapraphatsara, N. & Lemmens, R.H.M.J. (Editors). Plant Resources of
South-East Asia No 12(1). Medicinal and poisonous plants 1. Backhuys
Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands. pp. 229234.

Other references
Abebe, D. & Hagos, E., 1991. Plants as a primary source of drugs in the
traditional health practices of Ethiopia. In: Engels, J.M.M., Hawkes, J.G. &
Worede, M. (Editors). Plant genetic resources of Ethiopia. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. pp. 101113.
Al-Shaikh, A.M. & Sablay, Z.M., 2005. Hallucinogenic plant poisoning in
children. Saudi Medical Journal 26(1): 118121.
Blomqvist, M.M., 1997. Taxonomy and uses of medicinally important species in
the genera Datura L. and Solanum L. (Solanaceae) in South East Asia.
Unpublished MSc. thesis, Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen
Agricultural University, the Netherlands. 132 pp.
Braun, M., Burgstaller, H., Hamdoun, A.M. & Walter, H., 1991. Common weeds
of Central Sudan. Margraf, Weikersheim, Germany. 329 pp.
Eftekhar, F., Yousefzadi, M. & Tafakori, V., 2005. Antimicrobial activity of
Datura innoxia and Datura stramonium. Fitoterapia 76: 118120.
Fortin, D., L, M. & Maynart, G., 1990. Plantes mdicinales du Sahel. ENDA,
Dakar, Senegal & CECI, Montral, Canada. 280 pp.
Friedman, M., 2004. Analysis of biologically active compounds in potatoes
(Solanum tuberosum), tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum), and jimson weed (
Datura stramonium) seeds. Journal of Chromatography 1054(12): 143155.
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Sources of illustration
DeWolf, G.P., 1956. Notes on cultivated Solanaceae 2: Datura. Baileya 4(1):
1323.
 Gonalves, A.E., 2005. Solanaceae. In: Pope, G.V., Polhill, R.M. & Martins,
E.S. (Editors). Flora Zambesiaca. Volume 8, part 4. Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, Richmond, United Kingdom. 124 pp.

Author(s)
F.S. Mairura
Kenya Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Institute of CIAT, P.O. Box 30677,
Nairobi, Kenya

M.P. Setshogo
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Botswana Herbarium, Private
Bag UB00704, Gaborone, Botswana

Editors
G.H. Schmelzer
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands

A. Gurib-Fakim
Faculty of Science, University of Mauritius, Rduit, Mauritius
Associate editors
C.H. Bosch
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands

M.S.J. Simmonds
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AB, United Kingdom

R. Arroo
Leicester School of Pharmacy, Natural Products Research, De Montfort
University, The Gateway, Leicester LE1 9BH, United Kingdom
 A. de Ruijter
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands
General editors
R.H.M.J. Lemmens
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands

L.P.A. Oyen
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands
Photo editor
A. de Ruijter
PROTA Network Office Europe, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 341, 6700
AH Wageningen, Netherlands

naturalized
1, flowering branch; 2, fruit.
Redrawn and adapted by Iskak Syamsudin

plant habit
obtained from Plants of Hawaii
Plant habit
obtained from Plants of Hawaii

flowering branch
obtained from malezasdemexico

fruit
obtained from P.J. Alexander

dry fruit
obtained from Plants of Hawaii

opened fruit
obtained from Plants of Hawaii

seeds
 obtained from S. Hurst

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