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St. Johns University Dr. Emanuel J. Pepitone

PHS 3105 Anatomy and Physiology II Chapter 12 Lecture Outline

MY NOTES

The branch of medical science that deals with the normal functioning and disorders of the
nervous system is called neurology

nervous tissue
neuron generates, receives, and transmits nerve impulses
neuroglia cells protect, support, and nourish neurons, do not generate action potentials
ganglion collection of neuronal cell bodies that lies outside of the CNS (spinal cord and brain)

Chapter 12: Neural Tissue

Lecture Outline

I. INTRODUCTION

A. The nervous system, along with the endocrine system, helps to keep

controlled conditions within limits that maintain health and homeostasis.

B. The nervous system is responsible for all our behaviors, reasoning,

intelligence, memories, sensations, and movements.

II. OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

A. Structures of the Nervous System

1. Nervous System: composed of the brain, cranial nerves, spinal cord,

spinal nerves, ganglia, enteric plexus, and sensory receptors.

2. Brain: protected by the skull and contains over 400 billion neurons

that make 4 quadrillion synapses

neurons

3. Twelve pairs of cranial nerves emerge from the base of the brain

through foramina of the skull.

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4. Nerve: a bundle of hundreds of axons that serves a specific region of

the body

5. Spinal cord: extension of the brain that begins at the foramen magnum

of the skull and is protected by the vertebral column

6. Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord and

each serves a specific region of the body.

7. Ganglia: collections of cell bodies of neurons that reside outside the

Central Nervous System (CNS), in the Peripheral Nervous System

(PNS).

8. Enteric plexuses: help regulate the digestive system, digestive system

is referred to as the 2nd brain, 80 million nerves in the system

9. Sensory receptors: parts of neurons or specialized cells that monitor

changes in the internal or external environment

B. Functions of the Nervous Systems

1. Sensory Function: to sense changes in the internal and external

environment through sensory receptors, sensory receptors are both

specialized cells and neurons that detect changes in environment in

complex sensory organs such as the eye, ears, nose, skin

2. Integrative Function: to analyze the sensory information and make

decisions regarding appropriate behaviors

3. Motor Function: to react to stimuli by initiating a response, response

could be in a muscle, gland, in another neuron, adipose tissue

C. Organization of the Nervous System

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1. The Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal

cord. Contains neural tissue, connective tissue, blood vessels.

Function: 1. to process and coordinate sensory data from inside and

outside the body. 2. to process and coordinate motor commands that

control activities of peripheral organs. 3. to process and coordinate

higher functions of brain intelligence like memory, learning, emotion

a. Foramen Magnum:

2. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consists of thirty one pairs of

spinal nerves and twelve pairs of cranial nerves that exit in between

two consecutive vertebrae.

a. Sensory (afferent) fibers: arise from special sense organs or

from pain, touch, temperature, pressure, vibratory sense organs

of the skin and muscles, carries impulses form the PNS to CNS

b. Motor (efferent) fibers: carries motor commands from the CNS

to the PNS, mainly to muscles, glands, adipose tissue

3. The PNS is also subdivided into somatic (voluntary), autonomic

(involuntary), and enteric nervous systems.

a. The Somatic (Voluntary) Nervous System (SNS) consists of

somatic sensory (afferent) and somatic motor (efferent) nerves

(fibers):

1) Somatic sensory fibers: arise from special sense organs

of the skin and muscle

2) Somatic motor fibers: skeletal muscle only

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b. The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) contains autonomic

sensory (visceral afferent) and autonomic motor (visceral

efferent) nerves (fibers):

1) Visceral sensory fibers: arise from muscle stretch

receptors and visceral sense organs that detect blood

pressure, oxygen, CO2, and pH concentrations of bodily

fluids. example: baroreceptors

2) Visceral motor fibers: innervate smooth muscle, cardiac

muscle, glands, adipose tissue

3) The motor part of the ANS consists of the Sympathetic

Division and the Parasympathetic Division (discussed in

Chapter 15: The Autonomic Nervous System).

c. The Enteric Nervous System (ENS) consists of neurons in

enteric plexuses that extend the length of the GI tract.

1) Most neurons of the enteric plexuses function

independently of the ANS and CNS.

2) Enteric sensory fibers: monitors chemical changes within

the GI tract, as well as stretching of the walls of the

organs of the GI tract

3) Enteric motor fibers: controls contraction of the GI tract

organs, secretion from GI tract glands (ex. HCl in

stomach), activity of GI tract endocrine cells (ex. gastrin)

III. HISTOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

A. Neurons: functional unit of the nervous system

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1. Neurons can generate, transmit, and receive action potentials (nerve

impulses).

2. Most neurons consist of a:

a. Cell Body: contains a nucleus, nucleoli, lysosomes, many

mitochondria, a Golgi complex, rough ER and the pigment

lipofuscin (wear and tear pigment).

1) Nissl Bodies (free ribosomes and rough ER): exclusive to

neurons

2) Neurofibrils: form the cytoskeleton

b. Dendrites: receives and relays impulses towards the cell body

1) contain little spines called gemmules on their tips, which

serve to increase surface area to receive as many as

100,000 separate axon surfaces. pyramidal cells of the

cerebral cortex have spiny dendrites. there are also

dendrites that do not have these gemmules, called

aspinous dendrites. stellate cells are in the cerebral

cortex, they are aspinous, have no gemmules. the

proximal region of the dendrites do not have nysil bodies.

c. Axon: conducts impulses away from the cell body towards the

dendrites, axon, or cell body of another neuron; as well as a

muscle or gland (effector). axo-somatic vs. axo-dendritic vs.

axo-axonic vs. dendro-dendritic.

1) Axon Hillock: thick section of the cell body, shaped like a

pyramid. its at the axon hillock where graded potentials

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may summate (add together) to threshold value (-55 mV)

which creates an action potential. also referred to as the

trigger zone. is void of nysil bodies.

2) Initial Segment: area of the axon between the axon

hillock and the beginning of the myelin sheath, if there is

a myelin sheath, not all axons are myelinated

3) Axolemma: specialized cell membrane of the axon,

covers axoplasm

4) Axoplasm: cytoplasm of the axon that contains enzymes,

organelles, neurofibrils, neurotubules

5) Axon Terminal: distal end of axon, where the synapse

occurs between axon #1 and axon #2. telodendria are

fine extentions of the distal axon. each axon terminal

ends in a bulbous distal swelling or enlargement, called

the synaptic end foot.

6) Synaptic End Feet or Boutons: swelling at the tips of the

axon terminal. axonal transport is the transport of raw

materials between the soma and the synaptic end foot,

powered by mitochondria and 2 proteins (kinesin and

dynein), this occurs through neurotubules of the axon,

direction is usually from the soma to the synaptic end

foot, called slow axonal transport. fast axonal transport

moves materials in both directions. retrograde axonal

transport is from end foot to soma (with dynein), soma to

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the end foot is anterograde transport. when transport

from axon terminal back to the cell body this process is

exploited by microorganisms, they enter the synaptic end

foot and travel to the cell body through retrograde

transport, example: rabies, polio, herpes. for infections

that raid the nervous system the onset of symptoms are

dependent on the length of the axon, longer they are

longer the time it takes.

3. Diversity in Neurons:

a. Classified according to the number and arrangement of axons

and dendrites extending from the soma.

1) Monopolar (unipolar): has very long axons, has 1 process

extending from the cell body; one branch serves as the

dendrite and the other branch an axon. pseudounipolar

has two axons.

2) Bipolar: has 2 processes extending from the cell body;

one is an axon and the other is a dendrite. found in

special sense organs, example: eyes, nose, ears.

3) Multipolar: has many processes extending from the cell

body; one is an axon and all others are dendrites. have

very long axons, commonly found in the CNS, example: a

somatic motor neuron.

b. 90% of all neurons in the nervous system are

interneurons/association neurons/internuncial neurons,

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connection between the sensory and the motor neurons, theyre

the integrating/processing neurons, found in grey matter.

B. Neuroglia

1. Neuroglia (or glia) are cells that support and nourish the function of

neurons. do not transmit, generate or receive nerve impulses. six of

them, four in the CNS, two in the PNS.

2. The types of neuroglia include:

a. Astrocytes: associated with blood vessels in the CNS. have long

cytoplasm processes, have suction cups at their tips called

sucker feet which allow them to wrap around capillaries and

attach to them allowing solutes to move in and out (creates the

blood-brain barrier which isolates the CNS). control interstitial

environment, calcium, potassium, and guide the neuron.

b. Oligodendrocytes: produce the myelin sheath (lipoprotein that

insulates the axon) in the CNS increasing the speed of the

action potential along that axon. each can myelinate up to 100

different axons.

c. Microglia: phagocytes in the CNS. clean up cell debris, waste

products, and pathogens. migrate throughout neural tissue,

differentiate from monocytes.

d. Ependymal Cells: produce cerebrospinal fluid in the CNS. they

assist in the production of, help circulate, and monitor CSF. form

an epithelial layer called the ependyma. lie in the central canal

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of the spinal cord and the ventricles of the brain. either they

have cilia or microvilli at their apical surface.

e. Schwann Cells (neurilemmal cells): produce the neurilemma

sheath in the PNS around peripheral axons. the outer most of

the schwann cell is called the neuralemma.

f. Satellite Cells (amphicyte): in the PNS ganglia. regulate the

environment around the ganglia.

3. Neuropil: background fill

C. Myelination

1. Myelin Sheath: multilayered lipoprotein casing that covers the axons of

most neurons, myelin gives white matter its color, nysil bodies give

grey matter its color

2. The sheath ____________ insulates the axon and ____________ the

speed of nerve impulse conduction.

3. Schwann cells produce the myelin sheath in the PNS only.

a. The outer layer of the Schwann cell is called the neurilemma

(sheath of Schwann) and is found only around axons in the

PNS.

b. The neurilemma aids in regeneration in an injured axon by

forming a neurolemma or regeneration tube that monitors

axonal regrowth.

c. The myelin sheath has gaps called nodes of Ranvier along the

axon.

4. Oligodendrocytes form myelin sheaths for CNS axons.

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a. No neurilemma is formed.

b. No regrowth after injury occurs.

D. Gray and White Matter

1. White matter: aggregations of myelinated axons

2. Gray matter: neuron cell bodies, dendrites, bundles of unmyelinated

axons, and neuroglia

3. In the spinal cord, gray matter forms an H-shaped inner core,

surrounded by white matter; in the brain an outer shell of gray matter

(cortex) covers the cerebral hemispheres.

4. Nucleus: mass of nerve cell bodies and dendrites inside the CNS

IV. ELECTRICAL SIGNALS IN NEURONS

A. Nerve and muscle tissues are excitable and their cells communicate with

each other by ion movements called transmembrane potentials which

represent electrical voltages across their membranes. all cells have an interior

environment that is negatively charged relative to the external environment.

all cells maintain this potential through electrical pumps which require ATP,

but the neuron is the only cell that has special mechanisms that actively

change their membrane potentials. membrane potentials arise due to unequal

distribution of ions across the membrane. potassium (K+) ions are more

concentrated on the inside of the mebrane, and sodium (Na+) ions are more

concentrated on the outside of the membrane.

1. action potentials or nerve impulses allow communication over short

and long distances and travel along an axon to a synapse. move in

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one way only. results from a summation of graded potentials as long

as a threshold voltage (-55mV) is reached.

2. graded potentials are temporary and allow local communication over

short distances only; graded potentials produce action potentials. small

deviations from the resting membrane potential. signals are graded

which means they vary in size/amplitude depending on the strength of

the stimulus. they produce a current flow that is local, it spreads to

adjacent regions of the plasma membrane in either direction for a

short distance and gradually dies out as the charges are lost across

the membrane through leakage channels.

3. Production of both types of potentials depends upon the existence of a

potential of a cell at rest called a resting membrane potential (-70mV)

and presence of certain types of ion channels (K+, Na+, Ca+2, Cl-).

cell does not undergo any electrical signal.

a. The transmembrane potential is an electrical voltage across the

membrane.

b. The ECF (extra cellular fluid) and the cytosol fluctuate regarding

their ionic composition.

c. Membrane permeability differs dependent upon the ion

involved. membrane permeability to potassium (K+) is 500x

more than sodium (Na+) when the neuron is at rest.

4. Passive Forces Acting Across the Plasma Membrane

a. Chemical gradients are concentration gradients of particular

ions (Na, K, Ca+2)

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b. Electrical gradients are separate charges of positive and

negative ions, which result in a potential difference

c. Electrical current (I): the movement of electrical charge that can

influence ion movement in a positive direction (anode to

cathode); measured in amperes (AMPs)

d. Electrical conductance (G): the ability of a material to carry the

flow of an electric current (a flow of electrons)

e. Electrical resistance (R): the inability of an electrical current to

flow; R= 1/G, critical to action potential ability, the amount of

current a membrane restricts

f. Electrical potential or voltage (V): the amount of work an electric

field performs in moving a charged particle from one place to

another; batteries are rated by the potential difference across

their terminals

g. Electrochemical gradient: sum of chemical and electrical

forces acting on that ion across a plasma membrane, a form of

potential energy

h. Equilibrium potential: no net movement occurs across the

membrane; Nernst equation calculates the exact value of the

equilibrium potential for each ion. the amount of electrical

energy required to balance the diffusion of ions, depends on a

concentration gradient. the equilibrium potential for sodium

(Na+) is +66mV, for potassium (K+) its -90mV. potassium out

over potassium in, gives you the equilibrium potential. for every
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change in the concentration gradient a 58mV change occurs in

potential. at rest the membrane is 100 to 500x more permeable

to potassium (K+) than sodium (Na+). potassium has a

tendency to diffuse out of the cell, high to low concentration, but

has an electrical tendency to diffuse into the cell.

5. Active Forces Acting Across the Plasma membrane

a. Sodium-Potassium Pump (sodium potassium ATPase): carries

3 sodium out and two potassium into the cell. the resting cell

uses some ATP to restore the concentration of ion gradients,

which means as ions leak out and into the cell they happen to

be moving back to their original position through the pump

which is both a protein and an enzyme. pump uses ATP to move

sodium out and move potassium back into the cell against their

electrochemical gradients. a single action potential does not

require the sodium-potassium pump. 50% of energy in the

nervous system is used to make the pump work.

B. Ion Channels

1. The two basic types of ion channels are leakage/non-gated/passive

and gated/active.

2. Leakage (nongated) channels are always open to potassium and

sodium, however, there are more potassium than sodium leakage

channels.

3. Active (gated) channels open and close in response to a stimulus.

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a. Gated ion channels respond to: voltage changes, ligands

(chemicals), mechanical deformation; most are closed at resting

potential. at -70mV most gated channels are closed, they open

and close as a response to a stimulus.

1) Three states of gated channels: closed (but capable of

opening), activated (open), and inactivated (closed and

incapable of opening) Ca+2 plays a critical role in closing

Na+ gates, Ca+2 binds to the channel near the gates,

positive charge on it blocks entry of sodium, once the

calcium ions are removed you can have an action

potential

b. Voltage-gated channels respond to a direct change in the

membrane potential; typical of excitable membranes; found

along axons and cardiac/skeletal muscle sarcolemmas.

c. Ligand-gated channels respond to a specific chemical

stimulus (examples: acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine),

most numerous in soma and dendrites (mainly motor and

interneurons).

d. Mechanically gated ion channels respond to mechanical

pinching, pushing, squeezing, vibration or pressure; found in

sensory receptors.

C. Resting Membrane Potential

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1. The resting membrane potential exists because of the unequal

distribution of potassium ions inside the cell membrane and sodium

ions outside the cell membrane in the extracellular fluid.

2. A typical value for the resting membrane potential is -70mV (which is

fairly close to -90mV for potassium), and the membrane is said to be

polarized. when the sodium channels open a graded potential is

produced, sodium ions enter the cell and the transmembrane potential

rises from +66mV to -55mV, you get a depolarization which is a local

current which will depolarize adjacent areas of the membrane.

3. The resting membrane potential is determined by the unequal

distribution of ions across the plasma membrane and the selective

permeability of the membrane to Na+ and K+ (Na+-K+ pump). ligand and

mechanically gated channels produce these graded potentials.

D. Generation of an Action Potential

1. The transmembrane potential rises or falls in reaction to momentary

changes in the membrane permeability that result from opening or

closing of specific ion channels.

2. Graded potentials: small deviations from the resting membrane

potential; signals are graded, meaning they vary in size (amplitude)

depending on the strength of the stimulus; produce a current flow that

is localized and spreads to adjacent regions of the membrane in either

direction from the stimulus source for a short distance and then

gradually die out as the charges are lost across the membrane through

leakage channels; arise from the summation of the individual actions of

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ligand-gated and mechanically-gated ion channels; the stronger the

stimulus, the greater the graded potential

Comparison of Graded and Action potentials:

CHARACTERISTIC GRADED POTENTIALS ACTION POTENTIALS

ORIGIN Mainly in dendrites and cell Axon hillock (at trigger zone)
body (some in axons)

TYPES OF CHANNELS Ligand and mechanical Voltage gated channels for

Na+ and K+

CONDUCTION Not propagated; localized and Localized, propagated, permit

permit communication over a communication over long
few micrometers distances

AMPLITUDE Greater than one, less than All-or-none; typically about

50mv, dependent on strength 100 mV (same exact
of stimulus amplitude every time)

DURATION Typically longer; several 0.5 to 2 msec.

msec. to several minutes

REFRACTORY PERIOD Not present, thus summation Present, thus summation

can occur cannot occur

3. An action potential (AP) or impulse is a sequence of rapidly occurring

events in which a graded depolarization at the axon hillock (to -55mV)

changes the resting membrane potential (-70 mV) to a less negative

threshold value of -55 mV, approaches zero (0 mV), and then becomes

a positive value (+30 mV) [depolarization]; the membrane potential is

then restored to the resting state (-70 mV) [repolarization]; voltage-

gated Na+ and K+ channels open in sequence

4. Four Steps in the Generation of an Action Potential

a. Depolarization to threshold
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+ +
b. Activation of Na channels; approx. 20,000 Na ions rush in

c. Inactivation of Na+ channels/Activation of K+ channels

d. Return to normal permeability: outflow of K+ may be large

enough to cause hyperpolarization.

5. Depolarization and Repolarization Phases: Refer to the handout: The

Physiology of the Nerve Impulse

6. According to the all-or-none principle, if a neuron receives a sufficient

threshold level, an action potential is always generated and is always

the same.

7. Refractory Period: during the action potential and for a short time after

the membrane is not able to respond to a second stimulus. impossible

or difficult to stimulate another action potential after one has just

occurred.

a. Absolute Refractory Period: even a very strong stimulus will not

generate another action potential, inactivated sodium channels

must return to resting state before they can be reopened. the

sodium channel is closed and incapable of opening.

b. Relative Refractory Period: a super threshold stimulus will be

able to start an action potential because the potassium

channels are still open but the sodium channels have closed but

are capable of opening.

8. Local anesthetics (Lidocaine) and certain neurotoxins (Clostridium

botulinum) prevent opening of voltage-gated Na+ channels so action

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potentials cannot be generated past the obstructed region and reach

the CNS.

9. Saltatory Conduction: myelinated segments of the nerve fiber remain

electrically inactive (very few voltage Na+ gates) and the impulse jumps

from node (Ranvier) to node as each nodal area depolarizes.

continuous propagation and saltatory propagation. in saltatory

conduction the action potential propagates along a myelinated axon

faster and using less energy than continuous, myelin insulates the

axon to prevent continuous conduction, increases the resistance along

the axolemma, this prevents action potentials from developing in

region of the axon other than at the nodes of ranvier, nerve fiber under

myelin remains electrically inactive.

10. Continuous conduction/propagation is a step by step

depolarization of each portion of the length of the axolemma in a series

of tiny steps, each step taking approximately 1 millisecond repeated

along the entire unmyelinated axon at about .5-10 meters per second.

step 1 action potential occurs in segment one of axon, membrane

depolarizes to +30 mV. step 2 second segment of axon depolarizes

to threshold, develops an action potential. step 3 segment one enters

refractory period. step 4 local current depolarizes the next segment,

the action potential travels in one direction only.

11. The propagation speed of a nerve impulse is related to fiber diameter

and to myelination, NOT to stimulus strength.

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a. large myelinated type A, saltatory, fibers conduct nerve

impulses at the fastest rate (268 miles per hour or 140 meters

per second). motor impulses like balance, touch, all type A.

b. medium myelinated type B, saltatory, fibers conduct nerve

impulses at a medium rate (18 meters per second). carry

intermediate signals like sensory information.

c. small unmyelinated type C, continuous, fibers conduct nerve

impulses at the slowest rate (1 meter per second). found in

involuntary muscle and control of endocrine glands.

V. SIGNAL TRANSMISSION AT SYNAPSES

A. Synapse: the functional interaction between one neuron and another or

between a neuron and an effector such as a muscle or gland. action

potentials are transmitted from a presynaptic neuron to a postsynaptic neuron

across the synapse.

1. Presynaptic Neuron:

2. Postsynaptic Neuron:

3. Synaptic Cleft:

B. Electrical Synapses:

1. Electrical synapse: ionic current rapidly spreads directly from one cell

to another through gap junctions (connexons), there is direct

physical contact between the cells, connected by connexin,

rapid/direct/synchronous/wave-like propagation of the action potential

from one cell to the next.

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2. Electrical synapses can synchronize the activity of a group of neurons

or muscle fibers (as in cardiac muscle).

C. Chemical Synapses:

1. Presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons interact at the synaptic cleft.

found mostly between neuron to neuron, neuron to muscle cells,

neuron to glands. action potential may or may not be propagated from

pre to post cells, depending on 1. the amount of transmitter release 2.

the sensitivity of the receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.

2. Neurotransmitter molecules are synthesized in the presynaptic neuron

and stored within vesicles in the axon end feet, produced in the soma,

sent along the axon from soma to end foot (slow, anterograde). step 1

the nerve impulse of action potential arrives to synaptic end foot.

step 2 action potential causes opening of voltage-gated calcium

channels which allow a rapid influx of calcium ions from the ECF

(extra cellular fluid) to the inside of the end foot in the axoplasm. step 3

the calcium ions move these vesicles to the end foot membrane that

faces the synapse and causes the membrane of the vesicle to fuse

with the membrane of the end foot, transmitter molecules are released

into the synapse. step 4 the acetylcholine molecules attach to

acetylcholine receptors which are ligand-gated channels that open.

step 5 when the channel opens sodium ions rush in.

3. Neurotransmitter molecules bind to postsynaptic membranes and ion

permeability of the postsynaptic membrane is altered.

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4. Neurotransmitters at chemical synapses can be excitatory (stimulatory)

or inhibitory.

a. Excitatory Neurotransmitter: causes an increase in Na+ ion

permeability, Na+ ions diffuse into the cell causing the

postsynaptic membrane to depolarize to threshold.

one individual EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential) or IPSP has

little effect, you need thousands to summate to have a desired

effect on membrane, either excite or inhibit

1) A depolarizing postsynaptic potential (PSP) is called an

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).

b. Inhibitory Neurotransmitter: causes an increase in K+ ion

permeability, K+ ions diffuse out of the cell causing

hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane which makes

the generation of a nerve impulse more difficult.

1) A hyperpolarizing PSP is termed an inhibitory

postsynaptic potential (IPSP). brings voltage further and

further away from threshold making it harder for

postsynaptic cell to reach threshold and fire.

5. Neurotransmitter is removed from the synaptic cleft in three ways:

a. Diffusion back into the end foot

b. Enzymatic Degradation: acetylcholinesterase, degrades

acetylcholine in the synapse

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c. Uptake into neurons and glial cells (astrocyte)

1) Prozac: inhibits the uptake of serotonin in the synapse

6. If several presynaptic end bulbs release their neurotransmitter at about

the same time, the combined effects on the postsynaptic membrane

may generate or may not result in the generation of an action

potential as a result of summation; summation may be spacial or

temporal.

a. Spatial summation involves multiple synapses that are

simultaneously activated by the arrival of neurotransmitter

molecules released from several presynaptic end bulbs onto 1

neuron.

b. Temporal summation occurs when a single synapse is

repeatedly activated by the arrival of more and more

neurotransmitter molecule released from 1 or more firings of the

same presynaptic end bulb in rapid succession onto a second

neuron.

c. summation determines whether or not an action potential will

occur. 1/3 of all brain neurotransmitters are inhibitory.

D. Neurotransmitters

1. The CNS and PNS contain excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters.

2. Neurotransmitters that are stimulatory in the PNS are:

a. ACh

b. Norepinephrine, excitatory, used in brain and ANS

3. Neurotransmitters that are stimulatory in the CNS are:

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a. ACh

b. Norepinephrine

c. Epinephrine

d. Dopamine: emotions, pleasure, prevents over stimulation of

neurons that control skeletal muscle tone (Parkinsons rigidity).

dopaminergic neurons produce dopamine.

e. Serotonin: mood, sleep patterns, body temperature

4. Neurotransmitters that are inhibitory in the CNS are:

a. Endorphins: pain relievers

b. Enkephalins: pain relievers (200 times more effective than

morphine); blocks release of substance P (enhance pain)

c. GABA: gamma amino butyric acid: reduces anxiety

5. Neurotransmitters can be modified by: stimulating or inhibiting

neurotransmitter synthesis, blocking or enhancing neurotransmitter

release, stimulating or inhibiting neurotransmitter removal, and/or

blocking or activating the receptor site. step 1 synthesis of the

neurotransmitter in ER of the soma or the axon terminal. step 2

packaging and storage. step 3 transport of neurotransmitter at the

site of synthesis to release at synaptic end bulb. step 4 release of

neurotransmitter. step 5 binding of the neurotransmitter to ligand

gated channels. step 6 destruction of the neurotransmitter.

VI. REGENERATION AND REPAIR OF NERVOUS TISSUE

A. Throughout life, the nervous system exhibits plasticity, the capability for

change with learning.

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1. Despite plasticity, neurons have a limited capacity to repair or replicate

themselves.

2. In the PNS, damage to dendrites and myelinated axons may be

repaired if the cell body remains intact and if Schwann cells are active.

3. In the CNS, there is little or no repair of damage to neurons.

B. Damage and Repair in the Peripheral Nervous System

1. When there is damage to an axon, usually there are changes, called

chromatolysis, which occur in the cell body of the affected cell; this

causes swelling of the cell body and peaks between 10 and 20 days

after injury.

2. By the third to fifth day, degeneration of the distal portion of the

neuronal process and myelin sheath occurs as a result of a process

called walerian degeneration, afterward, macrophages phagocytize

the remains. proximal stump of axon that extend up to the first node

begins to grow through this tube at a rate of 1 mm per day. schwann

cells also release chemicals called neruotropins that promote survival

of the neurons.

3. Retrograde degeneration of the proximal portion of the fiber extends

only to the first node of Ranvier.

4. Regeneration follows chromatolysis; synthesis of RNA and protein

accelerates, favoring rebuilding of the axon and often taking several

months.