4.

23 Uninterruptible Power and Voltage Supplies

(UPS and UVS)
S. P. JACKSON (1970, 1985) B. G. LIPTK (1995, 2005)

Types: The energy source of uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) can be batteries or
engines. In uninterruptible voltage sources (UVS), capacitors allow the system to
ride through an outage of several cycles.

Costs: A UVS rated for 1500 VA costs around $2500. A UPS rated for 3 KW costs about
$7500. For the costs of batteries, alternators, chargers, and inverters, refer to the
Figures in the System Components paragraph of this section.

Partial List of Suppliers: Acopian (www.acopian.com)

Constant Power Manufacturing (www.constantpowermfg.com)
Desert Microsystems Inc. (www.desertmicrosys.com)
EnerSys Inc. (www.enersysinc.com)
Foxboro-Invensys (www.foxboro.com)
Franek Technologies Inc. (www.franek-tech.com)
GE Fanuc Automation (www.gefanuc.com)
Graybar Electric Co. (www.graybar.com)
Ice Qube Inc. (www.iceqube.com)
ITS Enclosures (www.itsenclosures.com)
Kontron (www.kontron.com)
Leviton Manufacturing Co. (www.leviton.com)
MGE UPS Systems (www.mgeups.com)
Omron Electronics Inc. (www.omron.com/oei)
Phoenix Contact Inc. (www.phoenixcon.com)
Phonetics Inc. (www.sensaphone.com)
Quest Inc. (www.questinc.com)
Rice Lake Weighing System (www.rlws.com)
SatCon Power Systems (www.satcon.com)
Schneider Electric/Square D (www.squared.com)
Sola/Hevi-Duty (www.solaheviduty.com)
Superior Electric (www.superiorelectric.com)
Toshiba International Corp. (www.tic.toshiba.com)
Transtector Systems (www.transtector.com)
Westinghouse Process Control (www.westinghousepc.com)
Woodhead Connectivity (www.connector.com)

INTRODUCTION Electric power lines are commonly assumed to be per-

After this introduction, the section will first give a general
description of the features of uninterruptible voltage and
power supplies (UVS and UPS), followed by a brief discus-
sion of the requirements of buses and networks. This will be
followed by a discussion of the classes of power failures that
are likely to occur, the components of UPS and UVS systems,
and the types of standby and redundant power supplies.
fectly reliable sources of constant voltage. This assumption
is valid when complete source reliability, particularly on a
short-term basis, is not important. Control and instrument
engineers frequently make this assumption for power supply
systems that do not satisfy this criterion. Obvious long-time
power outages are fairly rare in modern power systems. Nota-
ble exceptions, however, have called attention to the complete
spectrum of possibilities of power failure.

854

2006 by Bla Liptk

 4.23 Uninterruptible Power and Voltage Supplies (UPS and UVS) 855

300%

Percent voltage

200%

Voltage 2s
breakdown concern 115%
106%
Computer voltage
100% tolerance envelope
87%
Lack of stored energy in
some manufacturers
equipment
30%
0%
0.001 0.01 0.1 0.5 1.0 6 30 100 1000 Cycles
(.0156) (.166) (1.66) (8.3) (16.66) (99.6) (498) (1,660) (16,600) (ms)

FIG. 4.23a
The safe operation area (SOA) of computers defined in terms of allowable input voltage variations and their duration. (Source: ANSI/IEEE
Standard 4461987.)

Voltage dips too short to be noticed by human senses
can occur frequently during the lightning season on exposed
suburban and rural power systems. These systems serve
many industrial plants. In addition to the obvious power
failures caused by weather, there are many transient vari-
ances resulting from electrical, mechanical, and human
occurrences. A system designer who assumes a perfectly
reliable power source is responsible for any loss of produc-
tion and damage to machines and plant facilities resulting
from power irregularities.
The trend in control system design is to use faster com-
ponents operating on smaller signals. This results in increas-
ing system sensitivity to line voltage variation and
in particular to short transients. As control instrumentation
technology advances, the need for standby power sources
increases. Frequently, the cause of the transients that result in
control or instrument circuit complications is not the lack of
voltage alone. Phase shift, a change in frequency, inadequate
transient response, and noise can be equally damaging. There-
fore, an adequate standby power supply system must consider
all types of power failure.
The purpose of uninterruptible voltage sources (UVS) or
line conditioners is to provide protection against short-duration
brownouts or outages by guaranteeing that the output voltage
is not lost and its waveform remains stable for several cycles
after utility loss. This ride-through time can extend to several
cycles (Figure 4.23b) and can prevent processor crashes. As
the ride-through capability is provided by programmable
capacitors, it can be extended by the addition of capacitors.
UVS units are a little less expensive than the battery-based
UPS units (to be discussed later) and are designed for the
hostile environment of the factory floor. They regenerate new
AC power in pure sine wave form and keep the output voltage
and frequency within 3% of normal, even if the input voltage
or frequency experiences wide variations. The ride-through
capability enables the user to continue operation when the
Input

Output

UNINTERRUPTIBLE VOLTAGE SOURCES (UVS)

The IEEE-446 standard defines the Safe Operating Area

for computer-based equipment in terms of the power distur- FIG. 4.23b
bances that are allowable. As the time duration of the distur- An uninterruptible voltage supply (UVS) can allow the computer
bance increases, the allowable magnitude of the disturbances equipment to ride through an input outage of several-cycle dura-
that can be tolerated diminishes (Figure 4.23a). tion. (Courtesy of Falcon Electric.)

2006 by Bla Liptk

856 Control Room Equipment

AC AC
Rectier Inverter TABLE 4.23d
Input Output Summary of Standby System Classifications and Most Used
Component Parts
Diode
Standby System Classification
Battery
charger + No-Break
Battery System (Minimum
Componet Multi-Cycle Sub-Cycle Transient)

Secondary Engine-driven Engine- or motor- Battery
FIG. 4.23c power alternator or driven alternator
Standby system with battery charger redundancy. source generator starting on or generator
primary source failure running with
flywheel
outage is short or, when the duration of the outage is longer,
to anticipate the loss of power in time to signal the processor Inverter Rotating or static Rotating or static Static
to stop at a known state. Bus transfer Electromechanical Static Static
switches

UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS) FEATURES

of the inverter, on the output side, or on both sides. A tabulation
Standby systems (UPS) can be quite complex. They involve of components in a single- and a double-source redundant
the use of a number of components that may be of the static system is provided in Table 4.23e. Both input redundancy and
type, the electromechanical type, or some combination of output redundancy are included.
both. The selection of the standby system and the components
for it should be based upon the degree of integrity required
of the application. NETWORKS AND BUSES
It is frequently possible to improve standby system reli-
ability and to decrease cost. An example is that of the redundant Fieldbus devices work with supply voltages in the range of 9 to
input circuit shown in Figure 4.23c. By separating system 32 V DC. The 9 V DC is a minimum and a margin of at least
functions, it is possible to purchase the component that does 1 V (a minimum of 10 V DC) is recommended to be maintained.
the precise job required. The documentation of the bus segment should always show the
Much attention has been focused on the problem of failure minimum voltage, and a warning concerning additional loads
of the incoming power line. Although this is an important should be posted on segments operating under 15 V.
consideration, it is not the only consideration. Attention If an ordinary power supply were used to power the
should also be given to the equipment constituting the standby fieldbus, it would absorb the communication signals on the
power supply system. Should critical pieces of the standby cable, due to its attempt to maintain a constant voltage level.
equipment be less reliable than the incoming power line, fail- Fieldbus power supplies are therefore conditioned by placing
ure will be more frequent, and little improvement will have an inductor between the power supply and the field cable,
been accomplished.
Also of importance is the load circuit. If a number of
load branches are connected to the output of a standby power
TABLE 4.23e
supply system, the failure of any one load may result in the Standby System Component Redundancy
failure of the remaining loads. Proper design of the load
system will minimize or eliminate this possibility. Level of Redundancy Input Side Output Side
The importance of system redundancy cannot be over- One source Battery and battery Inverter
emphasized. Once designed, the system must be evaluated to charger
determine its weakest link. The cost of redundant equipment One source with some Battery, battery charger, Inverter with
may then be assessed in light of the importance of maintain- equipment and rectifier transfer to line
ing the load. redundancy
Table 4.23d summarizes the standby system classifica- Two sources Battery, battery charger, Inverter with
tions and lists the most commonly used components. Obvi- and engine-driven transfer to
ously, special arrangements may be found that extend some generator alternate inverter
of the components into an additional classification. This table Two sources with Battery, battery charger, Inverter with
is intended as a means of outlining the discussion that follows. some equipment rectifier, and engine- transfer to
Various degrees of redundancy may be designed into the redundancy driven generator alternate inverter
standby system. This redundancy may occur on the input side and then to line

2006 by Bla Liptk

 4.23 Uninterruptible Power and Voltage Supplies (UPS and UVS) 857

TABLE 4.23f
Examples of Power Component Used in Foundation Fieldbus and PROFIBUS-PA Systems
Type Us Is RQ Remarks

MTL 5053 18.4 V 80 mA 105 IS power supply with power conditioner and switchable terminator
MTL 5995 19.0 V 350 mA <2 Non-IS power supply with power conditioner and switchable terminator
Relcom PCS-PC Vinput 5 V 330 mA Power conditioner
Relcom FCS-PCT Vinput 5 V 330 mA Power conditioner with terminator
a
Siemens 6ES7-157-0 AD00 0XA0 12.5 V 100 mA PROFIBUS segment coupler EEx [in] IIC
a
Siemens 6ES7-157-0 AC00 0XA0 19.0 V 400 mA PROFIBUS segment coupler for safe areas
a
Pepperl + Fuchs KFD2-BR-EX1.2PA.93 13.0 V 110 mA PROFIBUS segment coupler EEx [ia] IIC
a
Pepperl + Fuchs KFD2-BR-1PA.93 25.0 V 380 mA PROFIBUS segment coupler for safe areas

Note: Inclusion in this table does not imply a recommendation; other suppliers exist.
a
The bus current has already been subtracted from these specifications.

and a resistor is added to the inductor to prevent ringing. The
power conditioner might consist of a 50-ohm resistor and a
5-mH inductor in series. The fieldbus conditioning unit is
normally installed at the start of the fieldbus segment and
often contains a bus terminator. If the segment runs into an
explosion-proof area, a barrier is also required. Table 4.23f
gives some examples of conditioning unit components.
Several layers of UPS might be required in a plant-wide
SCADA process control system. First, the clock and memory
of all digital equipment, computers, and remote terminal units
(RTUs) must be continuously supplied by power. A small
dedicated battery with a life of several years can be used for
this. Next, the critical sensors, transmitters, and RTU logic
need to be supplied until normal power is restored. In some
installations the requirement is for 35 days of UPS power.
POWER FAILURE CLASSIFICATIONS
Standby power systems can be characterized according to the
time it takes to achieve full output from the standby power
source after failure of the primary source. This transfer time
might be as long as many cyclesfor large electromechan-
ical switching devices or for engine-driven alternators or
generators that start up on failure of the primary source or
as short as fractions of a cyclefor some of the solid-state
switching devices or for motor-alternator or generator sets
with flywheels. Additionally, no-break systems are available.
Most early standby systems necessitated an interval dur-
ing which there was no voltage to the load on transfer from
the primary source to the standby source or on retransfer
from the standby source to the primary source. As control
and instrumentation circuits have become more critical,
standby systems have been developed that include new tech-
niques for transferring power sources such that essentially
no transfer time occurs. For the most part, these no-break
systems cost little more than those requiring a significant
amount of time to transfer. In general, this characterization
of the standby power system by transfer time is disappearing,
since a large percentage of present standby systems are of
the no-break variety.
Another means of characterizing standby systems is by
type of failure. Ones first thought is to protect the critical
loads from failure of the commercial power line. A careful
scrutiny into the system suggests that there also are other
points worthy of consideration. Among these is the failure of
standby power supply components and the failure of the load.
Source Failure
A very simple standby power system is shown in Figure 4.23g.
It consists of an AC power line feeding a battery charger. The
battery charger, in turn, floats a battery that provides power to
the inverter. The inverter provides an AC output through a
distribution panel to a number of loads. Should the AC line
fail, the battery charger will cease to provide the current to the
inverter. The current will then be provided by the battery that
is floating on the system.
In this fashion, the inverter supplies the loads until such
time as the AC line is reenergized, at which point the battery
charger again provides the power for the inverter and for the
loads and at the same time provides recharge current to the
battery. Thus, the simple standby system of Figure 4.23g
protects against a line failure since there is no cessation of
power to the loads when the AC line fails.
AC Battery AC
charger
Inverter
Input Output
+
Battery
FIG. 4.23g
Basic AC standby system.

2006 by Bla Liptk

858 Control Room Equipment
AC
Rectier
Input
no. 2
AC
AC
Rectier Inverter
Input Output
no. 1
Thyristor
Battery
charger +
Battery
FIG. 4.23h
Standby system with multiple AC inputs.
A suggested improvement in the basic system is shown
in Figure 4.23h. Because the functions of the battery charger
are separated into (1) supplying steady-state running current
to the inverter and (2) supplying recharge current to the
battery, two rectifiers can be used. An unregulated rectifier
is adequate to supply load current by means of the inverter.
The battery charger rectifier must be regulated to ensure long
battery life. Since the unregulated supply is less likely to fail,
some additional reliability is gained. This can be seen when
one considers the results of failure of the battery charger.
In the circuit of Figure 4.23g, should the battery charger
fail, the system is no longer operable after the energy stored
in the battery is consumed by the load. In the case of
Figure 4.23c, however, should the battery charger fail, the
system continues to function as long as the AC input is avail-
able. Should the AC input source fail, the system will continue
to operate until the energy stored in the battery is consumed.
If, prior to this time, the AC input source is restored, the
system continues to function properly but the battery charger
is not capable of recharging the battery. While the system
continues to operate properly, the battery charger may be
repaired if it is possible to do so between the time that the
failure of the battery charger is noticed and the next failure of
the AC input source. Indeed, if nothing else can be done, it is
generally possible to bypass the diode with some available
resistance (even a light bulb) that will restore some energy to
the battery. Even a small amount of battery capacity is ample
for a number of short, transient outages.
In addition to the increased reliability of the two sources
noted in Figure 4.23c, a lower cost for this system frequently
results. This lower cost is attained because the unregulated
rectifier in most cases is providing a larger current than the
battery charger. Thus the rectifier capacity is greater than that
of the battery charger. Since it is less expensive to buy unreg-
ulated power than to buy regulated power, it is possible under
many circumstances to achieve a lower cost. This combina-
tion of lower cost and increased reliability is the optimum
objective of the system designer.
The system of Figure 4.23c can be extended to include
more than one AC source, as illustrated by Figure 4.23h.
2006 by Bla Liptk
AC Battery Diode no. 1
AC
charger Inverter
Input no. 1 + Output
no. 1 Battery
no. 1 Diode
Battery no. 2
AC
charger
Input no. 2 +
no. 2 Battery
no. 2
FIG. 4.23i
Standby system with multiple-input redundancy.
Alternative sources may include other AC lines and the output
from engine-driven alternators, or, indeed, from any alterna-
tor regardless of the number of phases, the voltage, the fre-
quency, or the variation in frequency.
It may be desirable to stagger the input voltage ranges
of the sources to favor one or another source. Since this
staggering of sources results in an increase in input voltage
variation over which the inverter must operate, a thyristor has
been included to provide a dynamic switching of sources,
minimizing the input voltage variation. The peak value of the
alternative sources when rectified must be greater than the
battery potential in order to turn off the thyristor.
The ultimate in input redundancy occurs with more than
one complete power source. Shown in Figure 4.23i is a sys-
tem with source, battery charger, and battery redundancy. It
is also wise to separate the power feeds to the inverter. This
system can be extended to any desired degree.
The systems of Figures 4.23c, g, h, and i offer a contin-
uous source of power to a load without regard to the state of
the AC input source as long as the standby source has suffi-
cient energy to supply the load. The options noted provide
any degree of redundancy desired for the standby power
source. These figures show that this redundancy is adequate
to ensure the most critical loads. The diagrams also make it
clear that, should a failure occur in the inverter, the load
source is no longer protected. Thus, our next concern must
be the failure of equipment within the inverter block.
Equipment Failure (Inverter)
In many applications of standby power, the integrity of the
line must be maintained in spite of equipment failure. Failure
to preserve this integrity can result in loss of output, scrap
material, plant damage, or loss of life. The degree of the
protection necessary depends on the damage that can result.
Process control computers are particularly important in plant
operations because failure of the computer system results in
an uncontrolled process. Loss may be sufficiently high to
justify greater system redundancy.
The simplest form of output redundancy is illustrated by
Figure 4.23j. A bypass switch is provided from the output of
the inverter to the AC input line. In this diagram, and in many
to follow, the symbol for an electromechanical switch (relay)
 4.23 Uninterruptible Power and Voltage Supplies (UPS and UVS) 859

Synchro- Bypass Synchro- Bypass

nization switch nization switch
circuit circuit

AC Battery AC AC AC
Inverter Rectier Inverter
Input charger Output Input Output
+
Diode
Battery
Battery
charger
+

FIG. 4.23j Battery

Output redundancy to AC input.

FIG. 4.23k
will be used. This symbol should be construed to include
Input and output redundancy.
both static and electromechanical devices.
Two items are essential in the operation of the circuit of eliminates the transfer resulting from short transients, it causes
Figure 4.23j: a synchronization circuit and a means of sensing a greater output transient when a transfer is made because of
source failure. A synchronization circuit has been added to equipment failure.
ensure that both the AC input and the inverter are in phase The difficulties noted strongly suggest that consideration
in order to minimize the switching transient. The switching be given to early failure detection. The importance of this
device or devices have also been added, together with appro- portion of the standby power supply system cannot be over-
priate sensing circuitry. emphasized. It is wise to provide a double sensor system,
At this point, it is easy to gloss over an essential discussion which on either the failure of a component such as thyristor
masked by the obviousness of the preceding remark. Consider or on the failure of a bearing (resulting in abnormal vibration)
for a moment the fact that both voltage waveforms must be will provide a delay, as well as an integrating sensor circuit
of the same frequency and in phase. On failure of the input and detecting the reduction of the output voltage.
AC line, no transfer occurs since the output of the inverter is Input and output redundancy is shown in Figure 4.23k.
not impaired. In the event of a loss of output from the inverter, Any of the previously discussed redundant input schemes can
transfer to the AC source takes place. Retransfer to the inverter be used.
can occur when the inverter output is established and when With AC input redundancy, the integrity of the AC line
synchronization of the outputs has been restored. The retrans-
must be considered. Naturally, if frequent line disturbances
fer may occasion an output voltage transient, as well as the
occur, little is achieved by such an arrangement. The only
transfer, since stored energy in the filter or the inertia of the
gain is the possibility of not having a line failure until some-
rotating alternator used in the inverter requires some time to
thing can be done to reestablish source redundancy.
bring up to full output current.
The degree of redundancy can be improved if a backup
Note that the addition of the line synchronization capac-
inverter standby system is provided. Figure 4.23l illustrates
ity has increased the number of components in the inverter,
this emergency power supply backing up an emergency power
thereby decreasing its reliability. The synchronization circuit
supply but with dual loads. Here, each inverter is capable of
must be carefully designed to eliminate any AC transients
that may cause a failure in inverter output.
The point of detection of inverter output failure is instant.
Synchronizing
Sensing as early in the circuit as possible provides a better
circuit
transfer since energy stored in the filter may be used to reduce
the transient. Early detection of thyristor failure or of abnor- AC Battery AC
mal vibration is preferable to the simple detection of reduced Inverter
Input charger Output
output voltage.
Difficulties can occur in providing a sensing circuit that +
operates on an adjustable reduced output voltage level. If no
Battery
delay is built into the sensing circuit, transfer can occur on
line transients, causing frequent operation. If the normal Battery
Inverter
delay is included in the retransfer circuit, no system redun- charger Output
dancy occurs in the interval defined by the time of transfer
and the delay before the retransfer. Synchronizing
To minimize transfers on simple line transients, which circuit
may be caused by sudden load demands, an integrating circuit FIG. 4.23l
may be inserted in the voltage level sensor. Although this Redundancy with dual loads.

2006 by Bla Liptk

860 Control Room Equipment

Fuse 1 Load 1
Battery
C1 no. 1
Battery +
charger
no. 1 C2 Fuse 2 Load 2
Diode
no. 1 Inverter
Power
(current limited
C2 source
AC power source)
Rectier Main Load 3
Fuse 3
Input no. 1 inverter
C1
no. 1 AC

C2 C3 Output
C2 Load N
AC Rectier Auxiliary Fuse N

Input no. 2 inverter

C2
no. 2
Diode
no. 2
Battery C3
charger
+ power supplied to the remaining branches. In reality, however,
no. 2
Battery
no. 2
source is current-limited, the supply voltage will drop to a
FIG. 4.23m
Threefold redundancy.
handling the full output capacity (both loads). On failure of
either, the remaining unit assumes the full load. Momentary
paralleling is possible to use the stored energy in the filter of
the unit going off. As noted previously, this energy can help
to minimize the transfer transient.
Complete input and output redundancy are diagrammed
in Figure 4.23m. Battery, battery charger, rectifier, and invert-
ers are repeated. Each is sized to handle the full load. Further
redundancy is provided by the AC line. If the main set fails,
the auxiliary set supplies the load. If it, in turn, fails before
the main is repaired, the load is supplied by the line.
Common Bus Branch (Load) Failure
In addition to providing a means of transfer from the output
of an inverter that has failed to an alternate power source,
the transfer switch provides a means of clearing branch cir-
cuit fuses sufficiently fast to protect other loads from a faulted
load. The inverter is frequently current-limited to provide a
finite overload capability. Thus, on failure of one load, the
current limit provides a known amount of current for opening
the fuse in the faulted branch.
By referring to available fuse characteristics, one derives
the information that a number of branches are required with
even the fastest of available fuses in order to provide load
clearing within one half cycle. By using a transfer switch,
which allows the transfer of the load from the inverter output
to the AC line, one can, in effect, increase the short-circuit
current capability, thus providing a means of rapidly clearing
the fuse in the branch circuit. After clearing the faulted branch,
one can retransfer back to the inverter standby systems.
Ideally, a short circuit in one fused branch of an n-branch
load, such as in Figure 4.23n, would have no effect upon the
FIG. 4.23n
Inverter system, which is supplying N fused load branches.
a fuse requires a finite amount of time to clear. If the power
value near zero until the fault is cleared. Unless rapid opening
of the fuse occurs, other loads will become inoperable.
Assuming, for any given supply output capacity, that all
branches of an n-branch load consume nearly equal parts of
the supply power, it follows that the larger the number of
load branches, the smaller the average branch fuse rating. A
10 KVA power source, for example, may have five equally
loaded (2 KVA) branches. Another 10 KVA supply may have
ten equally loaded (1 KVA) branches. In the latter case, the
average branch fuse has approximately one half the current
rating of those in the former case.
In general, the larger the current capacity of a power
source, the shorter the time required to clear a fuse in a short-
circuited branch. Looking at the same relationship in a slightly
different way, we can see that the smaller the fuse rating of a
short-circuited branch, the less time required to clear
itassuming the short-circuited supply capacity remains
constant.
The preceding two paragraphs lead to the generalization
that the smaller the fraction of total supply capacity carried
by a fused load branch, the smaller the time required to clear
a branch fuse and the less serious the load power disturbance.
Conversely, the larger the fraction of total capacity carried
by each branch, the larger the fuses in each and the longer
the time required to clear the fault.
Figure 4.23o demonstrates this generalization. Assuming
that (1) all branches consume equal fractions of load power,
(2) the source always current-limits at 15 amperes, and (3) the
short-circuit load impedance is zero, fuse clearing time is
shown as a function of the number of load branches. The
graph illustrates these data for three different fuse speeds.
A well-designed standby power supply system requires
that consideration be given to all types of failure. The most
often neglected area of consideration is the load bus system.
Selection of the type of branch circuit protector must be
coordinated with the short-circuit characteristic of the
inverter as well as the requirements of the loads.

2006 by Bla Liptk

 4.23 Uninterruptible Power and Voltage Supplies (UPS and UVS) 861

4,000
1000
Fuse clearing time (milliseconds)

3,200

driven alternator ($/k VA)

Cost of gasoline engine-
100
Type A 2,400
Type B
10 1,600

1
Type C
0 Alternator capacity (k VA)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of load branches
FIG. 4.23o
Fuse clearing time expressed as a function of the number of load
branches.
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
It is frequently true that the characterization of the system
itself is dependent on the components available for use in the
system. For each system function, there are a number of
components from which to choose. Arbitrary selection of any
single component without regard to the others can result in
an unworkable or, at best, an inefficient system.
Thus, the designers problem is to choose a compatible
set of components that will satisfy the requirements. Specif-
ically, the designer seeks the optimum compatible set of
components. In order to select the appropriate component for
a given function, it is necessary to understand the character-
istics of the components from which one must select.
Rotating Equipment
Rotating equipment may be subdivided into two general
classes. The first class includes all devices operating from a
source of electric power. This set includes motors and,
because of their intimate relationship, alternators and gener-
ators. The other general category of rotating equipment
includes those devices driven by engines that have the ability
to operate from liquid or gaseous fuels.
The preceding discussion has not covered the nature of
the equipment in the blocks. As an example, the battery
charger could be a motor generator set with appropriate con-
trols. The inverter could, of course, be a DC motor driving
an alternator. The selection of these components is deter-
mined by economic considerations. The economics involve
not only the initial cost, operating cost, and maintenance cost
of the equipment itself but also an evaluation of the need for
reliability based on the importance of the load.
If load failure results in a vacant lot characterized by a hole
or by the need to repipe a plant because of the solidification of
800
0
1 10 100
9 10
FIG. 4.23p
Cost of gasoline engine-driven alternators as a function of their
capacity.
material that under normal circumstances would have been a
usable product, the greatest possible reliability should be built
into the standby power source. On the other hand, if the loss
of power results in some annoyance but not in the loss of plant
capacity or deterioration of product quality, then the ultimate
in redundancy and reliability is not warranted.
The costs of some standby power supply systems using
engines are shown in Figure 4.23p. The engine has been
proved to be a reliable device in many situations and in very
adverse environments. Unfortunately, the engine itself is not
the most frequent cause of failure. Most complaints of poor
reliability of engine-driven sets can be traced to unreliable but
necessary peripheral equipment, such as fuel pumps, cooling
systems, and so forth. Care should therefore be exercised in
the specification of all the engine system components.
Two typical standby power supply systems involving
motors, generators, and alternators are shown in Figures 4.23q
and 4.23r. In Figure 4.23q, the AC line provides power until
it fails. On failure, the battery supplies power to the alternator,
which, in turn, supplies the output voltage.
In Figure 4.23r, the AC motor has been replaced by a
rectifier of the static variety. Now referring to Figure 4.23r and
to Figure 4.23g, it is easy to see that the two are identical, with
the motoralternator set replacing the block marked inverter.
A system involving an engine is shown in Figure 4.23s.
DC
AC motor/ AC
motor generator alternator
AC AC
Line Output
Battery
FIG. 4.23q
Standby power supply system consisting of AC motor, generator,
and alternator.

2006 by Bla Liptk

862 Control Room Equipment

Static DC AC
rectier motor alternator 400

Cost per battery cell ($/cell)

AC Battery AC
charger Output 320
Line
Nickel-cadmium Lead-calcium
240
Battery
160
FIG. 4.23r Lead-antimony
Standby power supply system utilizing a static rectifier. 80

0
Batteries 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225
Cell capacity (ampere hour)
Three types of batteries are in general use for standby sys-
tems: lead antimony, lead calcium, and nickel cadmium. For FIG. 4.23t
their approximate costs refer to Figure 4.23t. Battery cell unit costs as a function of battery type and capacity.

Lead Batteries The lead antimony and lead calcium are

lead acid batteries deriving their name from the hardening
material in the lead alloy. Both have approximately the same
ampere-hour characteristics on discharge. The lead antimony
construction costs less, requires more maintenance because
of its higher internal losses, and evolves more hydrogen than
the lead calcium. Life expectancies of 14 to 30 years are
frequently quoted. The life depends on the construction of
the plate and the plate thickness. It also depends in large
measure on the care given the batteries in service.
Both types can operate over a temperature range of 10
to 110F (23 to 43C). The lead calcium cell may be floated
at 2.25 volts per cell without the necessity for equalizing
charge or, at worst, with long periods between equalizations.
Nickel Cadmium Batteries Nickel cadmium batteries are
the alkaline type. They differ from lead acid batteries in that
they have a larger short-time current capability, higher cost,
and lower volts per cell. Little hydrogen is generated by this
cell, and frequent overcharge is recommended. Life expectancy
and operating temperature range are similar to those of the
lead acid types.
Battery Chargers The battery chargers generally used for
standby systems are float chargers. Their cost is a function
of the rated charging current and the float voltage as shown
in Figure 4.23u. They are characterized by relatively constant
output voltage to recharge the battery because their output
current varies from almost zero to rated value. Beyond their
rated current, output voltage drops rapidly with increased
load current. This current limit protects the charger when
applied to the battery in the discharge state.
Satisfactory battery life is dependent on the design and
operation of the battery charger, and so are maintenance
costs. The feedback techniques used to maintain the constant
output voltage and current limit of battery chargers are well
known and will not be discussed in detail. The rectifiers
themselves may take the form of either a polycrystalline cell,
such as selenium or copper oxide, or a monocrystalline cell,
such as germanium or silicon. The trend is toward the silicon
rectifier. Control devices include the magnetic amplifiers and
thyristors.
Motor-generator battery chargers are also available for
standby system recharging service. The use of motor genera-
tors in this application predates that of the drive-type rectifiers.
LEGEND
Single-phase input
Three-phase input
1,000

AC AC
800
Cost of battery charger

vo es

Line DC starter Output

ct tag
)
lt s

motor Battery
ire ol
($/ampere)

600
(d at v
Flo

25
0
400 12
48 0
24
200
AC
motor
generator 0
Clutch 1 10 100
Engine
Flywheel Rated charging current (amperes)

FIG. 4.23s FIG. 4.23u

Standby power supply system using an internal combustion engine Battery charger costs as a function of their current and voltage
as the source of the power. ratings.

2006 by Bla Liptk

 4.23 Uninterruptible Power and Voltage Supplies (UPS and UVS) 863

where
= change in flux level
10,000
N= turns in N3 and N4 coil (identical)
E= supply voltage (appearing across N3)
Static inverter cost ($/k VA)

8,000 t= time

6,000 Eventually the core saturates, requiring an increase in

4,000
2,000
0
1 10
Inverter capacity (K VA)
FIG. 4.23v
Static inverter costs as a function of its capacity.
Static Inverters
The static inverter used in a standby system tends to be the
most complex piece of equipment in that system. The approx-
imate costs of static inverters are given in Figure 4.23v, and
a brief discussion of their operation is provided here.
Transistor inverters are the least expensive of the static
inverters. Their principal area of usefulness is the low input
voltage (24 direct volts and less) and low output capacity
(500 volt-amperes and less) range. This type of inverter can
operate at high frequency and can cease operation under
dangerously high output current overloads. Figure 4.23w
shows a typical circuit for the center-tap transistor inverter;
N1 and N2 are feedback windings, R1 is the feedback resistor,
and R2 is the starting resistor.
The operating cycle can be traced by assuming Q1 closed
and Q2 open. Substantially all the supply voltage E appears
across N3 causing a change in flux level by Faradays law:
10 8 Et
= 4.23(1)
N3
exciting current. To supply this increased collector current,
the transistor must have an increased base current. This can-
not be supplied because of the decreased coupling between
N2 and N3 resulting from core saturation; thus, Q1 begins to
open, reducing exciting current. At this point, the change of
flux reverses, reversing the coil voltage polarity. Q2 is then
100 turned on by N1 and Q1 is turned off by N2. The half cycle
begun in this fashion is similar to that described until a
reversal occurs again, completing the cycle.
Starting resistor R2 provides enough base bias current to
allow exciting current to flow. Natural circuit imbalance ensures
that only one transistor closes, thus starting the oscillator.
Should the load be short-circuited, no feedback is pro-
vided by N1 and N2, and oscillations cease. Other modes of
operation are also possible. Care must be taken to provide
the correct base current (which is dependent on transistor
current gain) so that loading does not excessively shift the
frequency. The amount of this shift is also dependent on the
rounding of the B-H loop.
In the center-tap inverter circuit, each transistor must
withstand a voltage equal to or greater than twice the supply
potential. Transistors having a sufficiently high rating to with-
stand a 48-volt source are more expensive. Usually, above
24 volts it is less expensive to use the bridge circuit shown
in Figure 4.23x.
The bridge circuit operates in a manner similar to that
described for the center-tap circuit. Two starting resistors, Rs1
and Rs2, are necessary. The diodes CR 1, 2, 3, 4 provide
transient voltage suppression for unsymmetrically wound
transformers.
RS1

R1
1
R1 CR2
Q1 Q2
2 R2
CR1

Q1 Load
Load
+
R2 3
+ CR4
RS2
R3
E Q4 Q3
4

R4 CR3
Q2

FIG. 4.23w FIG. 4.23x

Typical circuit showing a center-tap transistor inverter. Bridge-type transistor inverter.

2006 by Bla Liptk

864 Control Room Equipment

+
T1 L
RT2
T2
RT1 SCR1
SCR1 SCR2
Source C
Load

Oscillator
SCR1
+
E
Load
+ SCR2

SCR2 SCR1 SCR2

RT2

FIG. 4.23y RT1

L
Typical means of stabilizing inverter frequency.

A typical means of stabilizing frequency is shown in
Figure 4.23y. Since the saturation flux density and turns are
relatively constant, frequency is controlled by the supply
voltage E. Use of a zener diode stabilizes the voltage and
therefore, frequency.
Silicon-controlled rectifier-inverters are the work horse
of static inverters. They operate efficiently and reliably at
high input voltage (130 to 600 direct volts) and high output
capacities (500 volt-amperes and larger). Proper specification
of the equipment is essential to obtaining reliable operation.
The operation of a static inverter may be stimulated by
switches as shown, in Figure 4.23z. Switches 1 and 1 are
operated in unison, as are switches 2 and 2. When 1 and 1
are closed and 2 and 2 are open, load current flows in a
direction shown by the arrow in Figure 4.23z. With 2 and 2
closed and 1 and 1 open, load current flows in the reverse
direction. Thus, whereas the source current is flows in the
same direction when either set of switches is closed, the load
current i1 reverses polarity as each set is alternately closed
and opened. Consequently, the current has been inverted by
the circuit.
The switches used in Fig. 4.23z are not static since a
switch contains moving parts. In Figure 4.23aa, the mechan-
ical switches have been replaced with electrical switches
(silicon-controlled rectifiers). Also shown are the commutat-
ing indicators L and communicating capacitor C. These com-
ponents are necessary to turn the controlled rectifiers off.
FIG. 4.23aa
Bridge-type SCR static inverter.
Turn-on is accomplished by the application of the voltage to
the gate leads of the controlled rectifiers by the oscillator.
Rectifiers diodes RT1, RT1, RT2, and RT2 are not a part
of the basic inverter switching circuit. They serve to clamp
the amplitude of the load voltage to a value approximately
equal to the magnitude of source voltage.
Figure 4.23aa shows the diagram of a bridge-connected
static inverter. This arrangement is frequently used for source
voltages of 130, 260, and 600 volts. For source potentials of
12, 24, and 48 volts, the circuit of Figure 4.23bb is frequently
used. Its operation is seen to be similar to that of the bridge
circuit. It differs in that half the number of controlled recti-
fiers is used, and each must hold off a voltage approximately
equal to twice the supply voltage.
Various types of output waveforms may be obtained from
the square wave, which is the basic output waveform of the
static inverter. Sinusoidal waveforms are most common, but
triangular, sawtooth, and many rectangular combinations are
also possible. Voltage stabilization may be a welcome bonus
provided by the output wave-shaping circuitry. Current lim-
iting is also possible.
+
L
SCR1
Oscillator

+
is SCR1 SCR2 SCR2
1 & 1 closed
1 il 2
2 & 2 open
N N
Direct input
from battery LOAD
1 & 1 open
2 il 1 C
2 & 2 closed
is Load

FIG. 4.23z FIG. 4.23bb

Simulated static inverter using mechanical switches. Center-tap-type SCR static inverter.

2006 by Bla Liptk

 4.23 Uninterruptible Power and Voltage Supplies (UPS and UVS) 865

within a system, it is necessary to urge that one pay careful

Alternate attention to the selection. In-rush current on start-up, transient
source Failure variation of the input voltage, and transient load variation
sensing each present particular problems. A frequent experience is
Synch
that the protective system may be the least reliable of the
Battery Filter system components. This is not intended to mean that the
disconnect component itself fails, but rather that the system fails through
+ contactor
action of the protective device under normal operating con-
Inverter Filter Load
ditions. Whenever the standby power supply system fails to
provide output, whether the components are damaged or not,
FIG. 4.23cc the resulting damage is the same.
No-break power system with hybrid transfer switch.

STANDBY POWER SUPPLY SYSTEMS

Bus Transfer Switches
Bus transfer switches have historically been of the electro-
mechanical type. Various techniques have been used to speed
the transfer from one source to the other. These techniques
have included a pulsing arrangement on the coil of the elec-
tromechanical switch in order to overcome the inherent iner-
tia. Make-before-break sequences have also been used.
A newer development has been the use of the static switch
for more rapid transfers. Generally, thyristors have been used
as the power-handling switching component. Figure 4.23cc
represents a hybrid transfer switch on the output side of the
inverter. Momentary paralleling of sources is achieved by the
drop out time of the electromechanical contactor. Fast turn-
on is achieved by the thyristors. Sensing is performed at the
output of the inverter switch (prior to the filter) in order to
anticipate output failure.
A static set that serves the same function is shown in
Figure 4.23dd. In this case, momentary paralleling is
achieved by the logic circuit that supplies the gating pluses.
A number of standby power supply systems have been pre-
sented in the previous discussion. These have been catego-
rized in terms of the type of power failure but not in terms
of the class of system they represent. It was noted earlier that
the systems themselves could be classified by virtue of the
time it takes to transfer from the primary to the secondary
power source. This grouping is more nearly akin to the think-
ing of the purchaser than is the classification by power failure
noted previously.
Multicycle Transfer System
In general, multicycle transfer systems involve either elec-
tromechanical transfer switches or engine- or motor-driven
equipment that must start up. Figures 4.23ee and 4.23ff show
two composite systems using both rotating and static equip-
ment. In Figure 4.23ee both a battery input and an engine-
driven generating input are provided to the inverter.

Commercial Commercial
Protective Components AC input AC input

It is essential to the proper operation of the emergency power

supply system that adequate thought be given to the protec- K1
tive devices. Available as protective devices are fuses of var- Battery
charger K1
ious speeds and circuit breakers. The application of fuses to
the load circuit was discussed earlier in this section.
Although it is not possible to provide a clear definition DC
of the components to be used for the specific applications load K1 K1
Or
AC
Inverter
load
K2
K1
Line input (Ignition) K2
engine-driven
generator
Ground
Load DC
Inverter load
input
FIG. 4.23ee
FIG. 4.23dd Composite multicycle transfer system using both batteries and an
Static no-break power system. engine-driven generator.

2006 by Bla Liptk

866 Control Room Equipment
AC input
K1
K1
Inverter
Battery AC
(solid-state
charger load
switching)
DC load
K2
K2
K1
(Ignition)
engine-driven
alternator
FIG. 4.23ff
Alternative arrangement of a multi-cycle transfer system.
If the engine-driven generator is started prior to the
time the energy contained in the battery is completely used by
the inverter and the load, no interrupt time occurs. Note that
the commercial AC power input provides the load normally.
On failure of the power lines, the contactor K1 operates to
insert the inverter. Since the inverter is started on the fallout
of the contactor K1, some start-up transient must occur in the
inverter, requiring some time between the failure of the com-
mercial AC input source and the inverter source. Note that the
use of a static switch in position K1 would increase the speed
of operation of the electromechanical contactor but would not
materially affect the start-up of the inverter.
Note that a rearrangement of the components of
Figure 4.23ee results in the system shown in Figure 4.23ff.
This system may not have a transfer time since the battery
would normally be chosen to have a capacity sufficient to
cover the energy required by the inverter and load during the
time it takes to start the engine-driven alternator. Should that
interval be long, multicycle startup will result. Note, however,
that in this system there is no protection for inverter failure.
The system of Figure 4.23ff does have a bypass to the AC
commercial line, providing some protection in the event of
component failure in the system.
Sub-Cycle Transfer System
Sub-cycle transfer systems are generated by the use of static
switches on the output side of the inverter. Thus, the circuits
of Figures 4.23j, k, l, m, dd and ee may be sub-cycle transfer
systems depending entirely on the arrangement of the switch
itself and, in the case of Figure 4.23ee, the start-up time of
the inverter.
No-Break Transfer System
The so-called no-break transfer system may be no-break in
the sense that if the AC commercial source fails, no cessation
2006 by Bla Liptk
in output power results. No-break may also be applied to
those systems having a redundant source on the output side
of the inverter. Figures 4.23c, g, h, i, and 4.23ff are examples
of no-break systems with redundant input sources so that no
break occurs in the output power should the AC commercial
source fail.
The switching systems shown in Figures 4.23cc and dd
can be used in many of the previously defined circuits to
provide no-break switching under the right sequence of oper-
ations. Figures 4.23j, k, l, and m are of this type.
SYSTEM REDUNDANCY
The subject of system redundancy has been frequently men-
tioned in the previous discussions. Two basic classifications
of system redundancy are made on the basis of input and
output. Redundancy in the input circuit to the inverter results
from the use of multiple battery sources, multiple input lines
coming from separate power feeders, or various types of
rotating alternators and generators with either motor or engine
drives. Figures 4.23c, h and i illustrate the various types of
input redundancy.
Redundancy in the output circuit of the inverter is
obtained by use of a switch that will provide a path to an
alternate source. Output redundancy may involve switching
from the inverter output to the power line. More complex
schemes involve switching from one inverter standby system
to another inverter standby system. Figures 4.23j, k, l, and
m provide examples of output redundancy.
The previous examples have shown the wide number of
choices available for component redundancy in standby
power supply systems. In order to select the best system for
a given application, it is necessary first to evaluate the degree
of integrity required for the application. It is then essential
that the standby system be evaluated to determine which
component is most likely to fail. A decision can then be made,
balancing the cost of redundancy versus the needs of the
application.
SPECIFICATIONS
Considerable activity is underway to attempt to provide spec-
ifications for standby power supply systems and system com-
ponents. It is essential that the user provide in the specifications
certain types of information that are important in ensuring
system reliability.
It is suggested that consideration be given not only to the
immediate load requirements but also to future load require-
ments. It is generally less expensive to purchase additional
capacity when the system is first acquired than to add capac-
ity to that system at a later date.
In many cases, the characteristics of the loads are most
important. Power factor as well as transient characteristics
 4.23 Uninterruptible Power and Voltage Supplies (UPS and UVS)
should be clearly defined. These definitions are particularly
important if static equipment is involved.
Transient data on the input sources are important in
proper design of the system. If a battery source is used, it
is desirable to know the transients that can exist on the
battery bus. These transients should be specified in terms of
their maximum voltage as well as their energy content. If
an existing battery installation is used, any loads that are
switched will generally institute a transient voltage because
of the inductance of the lines themselves. A knowledge of
this transient voltage is particularly important in the proper
design of static equipment.
Although it is difficult to obtain any meaningful data
regarding the number and duration of outages of the utility
power lines, it is necessary to provide information concerning
the length of time the power supply must produce power for
the loads without having the primary input source available.
This evaluation can best be performed on the time required
to shut down the load system rather than with reference to
the input failure.
Particular note should be taken of the characteristics of
static inverters. Three overload ratings are important. In order
that sufficient commutating capacity can be designed into the
inverter, it is necessary to know the maximum instantaneous
current. It is also necessary to know the overload current for
a one- to two- minute interval in order that ample cooling be
provided to the semiconductor devices. The final overload
rating of importance is the one- or -two hour overload nec-
essary in order to provide ample thermal capacity in the
magnetic components. This third overload rating is also of
importance in defining rotating equipment.
In the event that the standby system includes a means of
transferring the load of the inverter output to an alternate
source, the characteristics during transfer and retransfer
should be amply defined. Among those characteristics is the
length of time, during which switching between the two
sources, that zero voltage can be tolerated. Phase shift in
voltage from one source to the other should also be stated,
2006 by Bla Liptk
867
together with the transient voltage characteristics on transfer
or retransfer. These characteristics can be defined by an eval-
uation of the sensitivity of the loads to varying phase angle,
frequency, and transient voltage. If dynamic loads are
included, the transient response and time constant of these
loads should be stated.
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