RARY ANALYSIS Even though some of the techniques listed below are more often found in poetry, they are sometimes encountered in narrative as well Extensive use of figurative language is what distinguishes literary from non-literary works. The literary tropes focused on here are the following: simile, metaphor, irony, hyperbole, litotes, euphemism, personification, symbols, and images. Definition of terms and concepts Alliteration (La aliteracion) When the same consonant sound is repeated at the beginning of a series of words or in stressed syllables of successive words, alliteration occurs. This device is usually employed to create a particular auditory effect that harmonises with or reflects a mood or situation that the writer is communicating. For example: En una noche oscura con ansias en amores inflamada jh dichosa ventura! Sali sin ser notada, Estando ya mi casa sosegada (San Juan de la Cruz, "En una noche oscura”) Here the alliteration is in line 4, where the first three words begin with the “s” sound. For an additional example see Selection XVIII lines 15 and 16. In this example the alliteration is in the repetition of the “p” sound. Anaphora (La andfora) The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive lines of poetry, or at the beginning of each new stanza, is called an anaphora. This is most evident in poetry, but it is also present at times in other literary genres. An example of anaphora is seen in the poem “A Elisa” by Gustavo Bécquer: Para que los leas con tus ojos arises, para que los cantes con tu clara voz, para que llenen de emocién tu pecho, ...= J In Selection Xill there is much use of anaphora. The repetition of the word “mi” at the | beginning of certain lines, the repetition of "he aqui” in stanza 4, the repetition of the words "jAh, si en mi pais” in alternate lines of stanza 8 and “ni” in the same stanza, are all examples of anaphora. 3 Antithesis (La antitesis) When contrasting ideas in phrases lie side by side, and are expressed in a similar syntactic manner, an antithesis is created, Pues la por quien helar y arder me siento (Luis de Gongora, “Da bienes Fortuna”) {mn this example the concepts of freezing and burning are placed side by side. * Assonance (La asonancia) The repetition of the same or related vowel sounds in the stressed syllables of successive or nearby words is called assonance. El teclado harménico de su risa fina (Ruben Dario, “Era un aire suave") S Atmosphere (E/ ambiente) The general mood or feeling that pervades a literary work or a section of a work is the atmosphere. The atmosphere is created through a description of the setting and the ‘objects chosen to be described, The language used, for example harsh versus soft sounds, the rhythm, pace and descriptive words, all contribute to the creation of a particular atmosphere. For example, notice how in the following quotation the atmosphere of gloom, doom and mystery is created through the predominance of “o” sounds in words like “poco”, “sobre”, “envolviendo”, “cobrar”, “pronto” etc. Words like “penumbra”, “incertidumbre” and “aullar” also aid in creating such an atmosphere. Poco a poco la noche fue cayendo sobre el rio y envolviendo en su penumbra las siluetas de los chopos y mi propia incertidumbre. Con la llegada de la noche, el rio | parecié cobrar de pronto nueva vida: el viento empez6 a aullar entre los juncos (Julio Llamazares, La luvia amarilla) G. Characters and Characterisation (Los personajes y la caracterizacion) All the persons presented in a literary work are the characters. In literary works characters may be stereotypical (flat) or rounded, Stereotypical characters do not surprise the reader. Their behaviour is always predictable. Stereotypical characters are generally used to represent a particular group or class of persons. Rounded characters are more true to life. ( )mstcarespin® The fairness and whiteness of the lady are exaggerated to the extent of saying that she improves the quality of the water in the fountain. Image (La imagen) An image is a word, phrase, or figure of speech that appeals to the senses. An image can bring to mind sounds, smells, tastes, sights, feelings or action, thereby affecting our moods and emotions. For instance, in the second paragraph of the second passage given as an example below (“La noche de San Juan”, p. 10), there is an abundance of visual and auditory images. These serve to create an atmosphere of magic and excitement. lrony (La ironia) An ironic statement expresses the opposite of what one is really thinking, or of what one really means. It can also be the opposite of what is really the truth. In dramatic works, irony is usually expressed in statements which are understood one way by the character who is being addressed, whereas the speaker and the audience are aware of an entirely different and sometimes opposite meaning. In some cases the audience is aware of both meanings, while the person being addressed is only aware of one meaning. For example: Porque mi vida quiero hallar hoy en la muerte del sol (Pedro Calder6n de la Barca, E/ alcalde de Zalamea) The irony in this statement lies in the fact that the Capitan was planning to kidnap and violate Isabel (described as the “sun” because of her beauty) at sunset. He thought that by doing this he would find his life (his happiness). However, he found his death as he was arrested and executed. Litotes (La /itotes) This is a form of understatement. Here the opposite of a situation or quality is presented in a negative way. For instance, a lazy person would be described as “not the most industrious person", or of a slow horse it could be said: “Well, it is not the fastest horse in the stable!” Metaphor (La metdfora) A metaphor is an indirect or implied reference. Someone or something is being compared to someone or something else without the use of the words “as” or “like”. The person or thing is said to be whatever he or she is being compared to. An example of a direct metaphor is in the description of someone as being a “lion in war’. The person’s bravery is compared to that of a lion. Describing the graceful movement of the lady by saying that “she sailed into the room” is an indirect comparison, as the lady is not called a ship but her smooth graceful movement is compared to that of a ship on the water. Another such example could be found in the words: “She anchored herself in front of his door.”We see metaphoric language in Selection XIX lines 12 and 13. In the description of how don Luis felt about Margarita we are told: “le fleché el corazon.” Here she is compared to an arrow that pierced his heart, causing him to fall in love. ‘= Narrative point of view (E/ punto de vista narrativo) The narrative point of view is the perspective from which the author tells the story. Narrative points of view may be first, second or third person As the name suggests, the first-person narration is related in the first person. First-person narrations are usually limited to what is seen, heard and experienced by the narrator, either in his/her interaction with the other characters or as one who is outside the action, relating what he or she observes. In first-person narrations, the story is presented through the eyes of someone who may be (i) the protagonist, (ii) a secondary character who relates what he/she witnesses, or (ii) an observer of the actions of the characters in the work. Narrators who are simply observers provide the most limited of the first-person points of view. This is so because they can only relate what they see or hear. They are like outsiders looking in. They may relate what has happened without knowing why it has occurred, The second-person pronoun "you" is the form of address used in second-person narrations. This is sometimes the most challenging of points of view to identify, since the “you” to whom the story is directed may be the reader, a fictional character or the narrator himself or herself. Third-person narrations are widely used by writers. The content is narrated in the third person by either an omniscient or a limited narrator. In stories presented by an omniscient narrator, the narrator sees and knows everything that is taking place in the work, not just with the protagonist but with all the other characters. He/she knows not just what is observable on the outside, but also the most intimate thoughts and emotions of the characters. Some omniscient narrators may be subjective, that is, in addition to relating the tale, they include their own view, and they comment on and evaluate the actions and motives of characters in the work. Other omniscient narrators are objective. They simply relate the tale impersonally without inserting their own views, comments and evaluations. Some third-person narrators may not have as extensive a knowledge of what is taking place as the omniscient narrator. They present a limited view of the action, in many ways similar to that provided by the observer-narrator presented above. The difference here is that the observations are made in the third person and not in the first person. When commenting on the narrative point of view in a literary work, it is important to take note of the position of the narrator. Ask yourself: Who is telling the story? Is s/he a character in the story? If so, is s/he the main character or a secondary character? How does s/he communicate with the reader? Does s/he have knowledge of all the facts?{s all that is being said, thought and felt communicated to the reader? Does the narrator reveal his/her feelings about what is being communicates? Does the narrator relate what is taking place without allowing his/her feelings about the events to be known? Oxymoron (E/ oximoro) The bringing together of two terms that are usually considered to be opposites results in an ‘oxymoron. For example este rustico desierto, donde miserable vivo, siendo un esqueleto vivo siendo un animado muerto. (Pedro Calderon de la Barca, La vida es suefio, Skeletons are devoid of life. But here the poetic voice describes himself as a “living skeleton” (esqueleto vivo) and as a “living dead” (animado muerto) Personification (La personificacion) When qualities possessed by humans are given to non-human objects, the technique is called personification. For instance, if you read in a work that “the stars are smiling at the happy newly-wed couple”, that would be an example of personification, since the stars ere said to be smiling, which is a human attribute. Plot (La trama) Simply put, the plot is the subject matter of the story. All the actions and events in a literary work combine to form the plot. So when you are asked to summarise the plot of a piece of literature, you give a summary of the main events that take place in the work. Rhyme (La rima) Words rhyme when there is a partial or complete correspondence in their sounds. Rhymes may be end rhymes. This occurs when the rhyming words are found at the end of the lines. Internal rhymes are found within the line of poetry. Rhymes may also be partial or total. Rhymes are partial when only the vowels rhyme (this is the same as assonance, mentioned above). Total rhyme is the rhyming of vowels and consonants. Examples: (i) End rhyme: Las patas heridas, las crines heladas (Federico Garcia Lorca, “Nana”)(ii) Internal rhyme ensangrentados por ojos llenos de ira amargura (Alan Persico, “Amor ausente”) Note that there are two sets of internal rhyme in these two lines of poetry. oe Sarcasm (E/ sarcasmo) A remark is sarcastic when criticism or ridicule is communicated in language that, on the surface, seems to be extending praise. For instance: "Someone of your prominence clearly has a right to demand honour and respect, don't you think!” 2! Setting (E/ escenario) The setting of a literary work refers initially to the physical and temporal space in which the action takes place. A work may be set in a specific locality (Buenos Aires, Argentina), or during a specific time period (the 1960s). More and more in contemporary works of fiction, however, works are set in fictional localities or may only take place in the mind of the protagonist. In the latter instance, the space in which the work takes place is psychological and not physical. The setting plays a key role in the development of the plot 22. Simile (E/ simi) A simile is a direct Lomparison between one person or element in a work and someone or something else. Usually the words “as ... as” or “like” (tan ... como; como in Spanish) are used with similes. For example: . blanca, derramada sobre sus hombros como leche de cal ardiente la piel (Rosario Ferré, Cuando las mujeres quieren a los hombres) The woman's white skin is here compared to the milk of burning lime An additional example of simile is seen in Selection XIX line 11: don Luis era tan pobre como una rata 23 Symbol (E/ simbolo) Symbols are created through the use of words, objects or things that take the meanings of other things through the use of various kinds of figurative language, such as similes and metaphors. Certain symbols are universal, for instance the dove as a symbol of peace, or the serpent as the symbol of evil or the enemy. For example, in Selection XXY, it is symbolic that the protagonist, a man who displayed great contempt towards God in his former life, returned as a cockroach — an insect that is despised by all.24 Theme (E/ tema) The theme is the central “concept or doctrin ne reader is encouraged to embrace. A See respi or doctines hia gaa also have sub-themes. These are secon re Presented tenes of the work, Common themes in literature include te folowing ie. Ml Us death, existence, alienation, social discrimination, Seen a confict em i tity, Cul /, 7 dehumanisation of man, the search for ident oo eed in interpersonal communication, patriotism/nationalism, re Bes op caf tg 3 technology on human values, problems of adolescence a , discrimination. which runs through a work and than one theme. Some asTime (E/ tiempo) ime is not always In more modern works, time is also treated in a non tracition= aa as z Gan es in a li _ Necessarily chronological, or clock-time that mov it can move backwards; it can jump forwards into the future, or even fluctuate between) various time periods,