Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Lecture 2
Heat
Heat is energy transferred due to temperature differences only.
Note that this law is true regardless of how we measure the property temperature. (Other
relationships we work with will typically require an absolute scale, so in these notes we use
either the Kelvin or Rankine scales.
Page 2 of 5
Lecture 2
Work
Any other means apart from heat for changing the energy of a system is called work.
Push-pull work (e.g. in a piston-cylinder, lifting a weight), electric and magnetic work (e.g. an
electric motor), chemical work, surface tension work, elastic work, etc.
In defining work, we focus on the effects that the system (e.g. an engine) has on its
surroundings.
Positive when the system does work on the surroundings (energy leaves the system).
Negative When work is done on the system (energy added to the system).
For example, in Figure 2-2, a gas (the system), exerting a force on the surroundings via a
piston, which moves through some distance, l. The work done on the surroundings, Wsurr , is
Therefore
it is usually the state of the system that we are interested in. The external pressure can only be
related to the system pressure if . For this to occur, there cannot be any friction, and
the process must also be slow enough so that pressure differences due to accelerations are not
significant. In other words, we require a ``quasi-static'' process, .
Consider
Under these conditions, the process is ``reversible.'' The conditions for reversibility are that:
1. The system and the surroundings will be returned to the original states.
2. To reverse the process we need to apply only an infinitesimal . A reversible
process can be altered in direction by infinitesimal changes in the external conditions
In the case of a ``free expansion,'' where (vacuum), is not related to (and thus,
not related to the work) because the system is not in equilibrium.
For simple compressible substances in reversible processes, the work done can be represented
as the area under a curve in a pressure-volume diagram, as in Figure 2-4
1. Properties only depend on states, but work is path dependent (depends on the path
taken between states); therefore work is not a property, and not a state variable.
2. When we say W1-2, the work between states 1 and 2, we need to specify the path.
3. For irreversible (non-reversible) processes, we cannot use ; either the work must
be given or it must be found by another method.
Along Path b:
Figure 2-5: Simple processes
Page 4 of 5
Lecture 2
where n is the number of moles, is the Universal gas constant, and is the total system
volume. We write the work as above, substituting the ideal gas equation of state,
For polytropic processes the function relationship is pVn = constant, where exponent n may
have any value from , depending on process
1. If the water is the system, then the state of the system will be changed by heat
transferred from the resistor.
2. If the system is the water and the resistor combined, then the state of the system will
be changed by electrical work.
Page 5 of 5
Lecture 2