Mark A. Gluck, Eduardo Mercado and Catherine E.

Myers

Learning and Memory

From Brain to Behavior
First Edition

Chapter 2:
The Neuroscience of Learning and Memory
From Brain to Behavior

How$to$figure$out$what$other$brain$areas$do:

Observe$results$of$brain$damage$
neuropsychology:$animal$models$
(lesion$studies$are$limited$ example$Lashley)

Monitor$changes$in$blood$flow$or$electrical$activity$
neuroimaging:$PET,$fMRI$slow$and$indirect
EEG:$fast,$direct,$cheap

Monitor$changes$after$drug$injection$(systemic$effects)$or$
electrical$inactivation$(TMS).

BRAIN ! BEHAVIOR
CNS
Systems
Maps
Networks
Neurons
Synapses
Molecules

Destroy activity & Lesions Stimulation

observe behavior

Stimulate7activity$&$ natural induced direct indirect

observe$behavior K TMS KSurgery KTMS
Record7activity$ K Surgery
associated$with$
behavior
!!Correlation7=/=7Causation!!

1
Observing$brain$structure$(anatomy)$and$function$(activity)
The$dark$ages$of$brain$science
Drill$holes$through$skull
Postmortem$examination
Phrenology:$assume$that$shape$of$skull$reflects$shape$of$underlying$brain

200$years$later$ scientists$can$see$inside$the$skull$of$a$healthy,$living$person.

The-beginnings-of-brain-imaging
(anatomy)
Conventional$XKrays$do$not$see$the$brain,$due$to$
its$soft$tissue$density,$yet$the$brain$can$be$
indirectly$visualized$on$films$by$filling$the$
ventricles$with$air.$Air$is$injected$into$the$spinal$
canal$via$a$spinal$tap,$which$is$both$painful$and$
harmful.$

Here$the$skull$dominates$and$the$black$curved$
portion.$In$the$middle$is$air$outlining$the$
ventricles.$Abnormalities$could$be$appreciated$
by$skilled$radiologists$as$a$deviation$of$the$
appearance$of$the$ventricles$from$normal.$

Brain-Imaging
CT

Histology PET

MRI

Invasiveness Spatial$and$Temporal$Resolution

2
 ELECTRO/MAGENTIC-
RECORDING
Measure changes in electrical activity
INVASIVE
Single Unit Recording
NON-INVASIVE
EEG (Electroencephalography)
MEG) (SQUIDS)

PHYSIOLOGY
Single$cell$
recordings

KInactivation$
(acute$and$chronic)
KStimulation

PHYSIOLOGY
Monkey$visual$areas Human$visual$areas

KInactivation$(acute$and$chronic)
KStimulation KTMS
KDrugs

Source:$Treue TINS$2001 Source:$Quiroga$et$al$Nature$2005

3
 ELECTRO/MAGENTIC-
RECORDING
Measure changes in electrical activity
INVASIVE
Single Unit Recording
NON-INVASIVE
EEG (Electroencephalography)
MEG (Magnetoencephalography)
(SQUIDS-superconducting quantum interference devices)

EEG/ERP

Measure voltage changes

from the scalp time locked to
a change in a sensory, motor
or cognitive process. Measure
Figure-2.10--Use$of$electroencephalography$to$demonstrate$
of gross electrical activity over learningKrelated$changes
Gluck,$Mercado$and$Myers:$Learning$and$Memory,$First$Edition
many cells. Copyright$$2008$by$Worth$Publishers

Brain7is7always7active
How7to7get7signal7you7care7about?

Figure-2.10--Use$of$electroencephalography$to$demonstrate$learningKrelated$changes
Gluck,$Mercado$and$Myers:$Learning$and$Memory,$First$Edition
Copyright$$2008$by$Worth$Publishers

4
 MEG

SQUIDS
Superconducting-
quantum-
interference-devices

Outside$the$skull,$brain s$magnetic$field$is$
0.1K1$picoTesla$(10K12$$$ or$0.000000000001),$
<$hundredKmillionth$Earth s$magnetic$field.
1$Tesla$=$10,000$Gauss
Earths$magnetic$field$=$~0.5$Gauss:$50$microteslas

Measure the magnetic fields

created by the electric current
change within neurons.
Source:$http://kurage.nimh.nih.gov/meglab/Main/MegFacility$

MEG

Source:$http://kurage.nimh.nih.gov/meglab/Main/MegFacility$

5
 ELECTRO/MAGENTIC-
RECORDING-RR TIME
Measure changes in electrical activity
INVASIVE
Single Unit Recording
NON-INVASIVE
EEG (Electroencephalography)
MEG (Magnetoencephalography)
(SQUIDS-superconducting quantum interference devices)

HEMODYNAMIC-
RECORDING-RR SPACE
Measure changes in blood flow and
oxygenation resulting from changes in
neuronal activity
INVASIVE
CT
PET
NON-INVASIVE
fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Positron-Emission-
Tomography-(PET)

PET$scans$rely$on$radioactive$tracers$that$
emit$gamma$rays,$which$are$recorded$and$
reconstructed$into$slices$of$the$brain.$

Spatial$resolution$
(down$to$5$mm$in$some$cases)$

Temporal$resolution$
(possible$in$<$30$seconds).$

6
 How$to$figure$out$what$other$brain$areas$do:

Note7that7the7brain7is7active7even7during7baseline!
Always7need7to7consider7Confounds!!!

Figure-2.8--Creating$a$difference$image$with$functional$neuroimaging$(PET)
Gluck,$Mercado$and$Myers:$Learning$and$Memory,$First$Edition
Copyright$$2008$by$Worth$Publishers

FUNCTIONAL-MRI
Human$visual$areas

Source:$http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/whole/html/chapter10.htm

Methods$for$measuring$human$brain$activity
Temporal Spatial Cost Invasiveness
resolution resolution

Single Unit Physiology Fast Good High Very

(milliseconds (10-50
over hours) microns)
EEG Fast Poor Low None
(ElectroEncephaloGraphy) (milliseconds) (10
centimeters)
MEG Fast Slightly better Higher None
(MagnetoEncephaloGraphy) (milliseconds) (5 (~$1-2M )
centimeters)
PET Poor Better High Yes
(Positron Emission (under 30 (~5 (~$1-2M )
Tomography) second) millimeters)
fMRI Poor Pretty good High None
(Functional Magnetic (2 seconds) (~1 (~$2-3M )
Resonance Imaging) millimeter)

7
 nonKinvasive invasive

3
brain MEG-&-ERP PET
2

map 1
Optical
fMRI
Imaging
0
columns

layer R1

neuron
R2 Single-Unit
dendrite Light
R3 Patch-Clamp Microscopy

synapse
R4
R3 R2 R1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
msec sec minute hour day month

Log$time$(sec)
Adapted$from$Churchland$&$Sejnowski$(1988)$Science 242,$741K745

Learning and Memory

How to study

Read$the$chapter$before$class
Bring$a$printout$of$the$slides$so$you$can$take$notes
Refer$to$book$after$class$if$material$on$slides$is$confusing

Just$reading$the$book$or$reading$over$your$lecture$notes$is$not$
enough:$it$is$too$passive

Make$your$studying$interactive
Krewrite$your$notes
Kform$a$study$group
Kmake$flash$cards
Kgo$over$the$questions$at$the$end$of$each$chapter
TUTOR?