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Abstract
The dynamics of cavitation bubbles on water is investigated for bubbles produced optically and acoustically. Single bubble
dynamics is studied with laser produced bubbles and high speed photography with framing rates up to 20.8 million frames
per second. Examples for jet formation and shock wave emission are given. Acoustic cavitation is produced in water in the interior
of piezoelectric cylinders of different sizes (up to 12 cm inner diameter). The filementary structure composed of bubbles is
investigated and their light emission (sonoluminescence) studied for various driving strengths. 1997 Elsevier Science B.V.
Keywords: Cavitation; Bubble dynamics; Sonoluminescence; Shock waves; High speed photography
I transient flashlamp
recorder I groundglass
trigger hydrophone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
plate
pulselaser/
cuvettewith
water
lenses ~ camera
3. Jet formation
Fig. 4. Collapse of a laser produced spherical bubble in water far from boundaries taken at 20.8 million frames per second (48 ns interframe time).
Picture size is 1.5 x 1.8 mm.
Fig. 5. Bubble dynmaics near a flat solid boundary taken at 75 000 flames per second. Frame size is about 7.2 x 4.6 mm, the maximum bubble
radius is 2.0 mm and the distance of the bubble center at maximum from the boundary is d= 4.9 mm.
r e m a r k a b l e way. A flat solid surface n e a r b y causes the Fig. 5 shows a high-speed p h o t o g r a p h i c series of a
b u b b l e to involute from the top (surface below the b u b b l e collapsing in water near a flat solid wall, t a k e n
b u b b l e ) a n d to develop a high-speed liquid jet towards at 75 000 frames per second with a r o t a t i n g m i r r o r
this solid surface. W h e n the jet hits the opposite b u b b l e camera. The jet is m o s t visible in the first r e b o u n d phase
wall from the inside it pushes the b u b b l e wall ahead as the dark line inside the bright central spot of the
causing a funnel shaped p r o t r u s i o n with the jet inside. b u b b l e where the backlight can pass u n d i s t u r b e d
68 W. Lauterborn, C.-D. Ohl / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 4 (1997) 65 75
through the smooth surface of the bubble. The funnel minimum) shape. This is documented in Fig. 7 where a
shaped protrusion downwards is the elongated bubble sequence of a collapsing bubble with jet formation has
wall containing the jet that drives the elongation until been taken at 20.8 million frames per second with an
its energy is used up. Then the long tube of gas and image converter camera. The m a x i m u m bubble radius
vapour becomes unstable and decays into m a n y tiny Rma x is 1.29 m m attained about 90 lam before the first
bubbles. The main bubble surface snaps back to its picture starts. The normalized distance 7 = R,,ax/d to the
former locally spherical shape. Fig. 6 is an enlargement boundary is 1' = 2.4, where d is the distance of the bubble
of a bubble with a jet and its protrusion pointing to the centre at maximum radius to the boundary. The first
solid boundary. shock wave is radiated when the jet hits the (inside
Shock wave radiation is much more involved when moving) opposite wall of the bubble from its interior.
jet formation occurs. There are usually at least three The jet is so broad at its 'tip' that it contacts the lower
shock waves radiated, two from the jet and the third bubble wall at a ring above the lowest point, giving rise
(or more) when the bubble attains its minimum (or near to a torus-like shock wave. This 'jet torus shock wave'
W. Lauterborn, C.-D. Ohl / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 4 (1997) 65-75 69
Fig. 7. Collapse of a bubble near a solid boundary (outside below each frame) taken at 20.8 million frames per second. Maximum bubble size is
1.29 ram. Relative distance to the boundary is ? =2.4. Radiation of three shock waves: jet torus shock wave (frames 8, 9, 10), tip bubble shock
wave (frames 10 and onwards), and main bubble shock wave (frames 13 and onwards). Picture size is 2.0 x 1.4 ram.
later combines to a single outgoing shock wave as the be the violent compression of this part o f the main
shock torus must close u p o n expansion. The jet torus bubble that is responsible for sonoluminescence (see
shock thereby surrounds the bubble, becomes very weak Section 5). In shock collapsed cylindrical bubbles in
and soon ceases to be seen in the frames. The toms-like gelatine this indeed has been observed in Ref. [9]. In
shock wave f r o m the jet implies that, in addition to the frame 13 the bubble is at or near its m i n i m u m volume
bubble becoming a torus by the jet impact, a separate and emits a third shock wave seen detaching from the
tiny bubble ('tip bubble') must be created between the bubble in the subsequent frames. The collapse o f the
jet tip' and the curved lower bubble surface. This bubble main bubble is thus the latest in this series o f shock
will be compressed further by the jet and the ongoing waves. The main bubble collapses in the form o f a torus
bubble collapse giving rise to a second shock wave to whose stability u p o n collapse m a y be questioned. Thus,
be seen in frame 10 o f Fig. 7 and in the subsequent several shock waves m a y emanate from the bubble torus.
frames. This 'tip bubble shock wave' definitely emanates The b r o a d shock 'front' seen in the last row o f Fig. 7 is
from the lower bubble wall as seen by the asymmetric an indication that this in fact m a y have happened. The
propagation in relation to the bubble shape. The collapse protrusion sticking upwards out o f the bubble (see the
of the tip bubble is m u c h faster than the collapse of the last frames o f Fig. 7), formerly called counterjet by us,
main bubble and gives rise to the conjecture that it m a y is presumably the result o f microcavitation inside the
70 I/E Lauterborn, C.-D. Ohl / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 4 (1997) 65 75
4. Acoustic cavitation
I ~ -"IV --J----Liquidfitted
Acoustic cavitation can be produced in a variety of
ways, such as with a vibrating 'horn' dipping into a
liquid or by vibrating the walls of a container. We used
I. ~ ~hottow cytinderof a hollow cylinder of piezoelectric material submerged in
I I ~ , = ~ ~ ~ piezoetedric moteriat
the liquid to be cavitated (Fig. 8). The cylinder had a
length and inner diameter of 76 mm and a wall thickness
Fig. 8. Cylindrical transducer of piezoelectricmaterial to cavitate a of 5 mm. The resonance frequency for half a wavelength
liquid in its interior. across the diameter of the cylinder was about 23 kHz,
slightly dependent on the container and the water height
jet. The jet shock waves not only propagate into the above the cylinder. When the cylinder was driven at this
liquid below the bubble, but also backwards through frequency (fundamental resonance), the maximum
the jet. Thereby they are reflected off the jet wall as sound pressure and tension occurred at the centre of
~,fe
Fig. 10. Forced oscillations of a filamentary structure of cavitation bubbles in water inside a cylindrical piezoelectric transducer dirven at 13 kHz.
Framing rate is 200 000 frames per second.
the cylinder. A second cylinder in use had a length of form a branched structure 'streamers') also called
45.5 m m and an inner radius of 57 m m and was coated acoustic Lichtenberg figures by us in reminiscence of
for cavitation resistence. Besides simply submerging the the electric Lichtenberg figures. A h o m o g e n e o u s cloud
transducer into water, it was also used with P M M A of bubbles was not observed on any occasion; the
plates closing it at both ends and filled with water. In bubbles always organized themselves into filaments.
the latter configuration, the water could be cavitated Fig. 9 shows an example of this filamentary structure.
between 8 and 18 kHz. Obviously, a homogeneous distribution of bubbles in
Beyond a certain threshold of the driving voltage the presence of a strong sound field is unstable. This
applied to the cylinder a hissing noise was heard and can also be shown theoretically. The pattern formed
bubbles danced around in the liquid. These bubbles seems to be unstable as it is steadily rearranging on a
72 l~ Lauterborn, C-D. Ohl / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 4 (1997) 65 75
7ram
Fig. 11. Nonlinear bubble oscillation in the sound field in a cavltating liquid (water).
human time scale, although it is stable over at least of the bubble cluster in the centre where the streamers
hundreds of cycles of the driving sound field. The converge, taken at 100 000 frames per second. A good
processes in the bubble cloud are very complex due to fit to the oscillation can be obtained with a bubble
competing influences made up of attracting and repelling having a radius, at rest, of Rn=248 ~tm driven at a
forces and due to the thousands of tiny interacting sound pressure amplitude Ofpa = 0.323 bar at the experi-
bubbles. mentally given driving frequency of v = 1 2 . 9 6 k H z .
The filamentary structure oscillates with the driving Fig. 12 shows the result of a calculation with the
sound field, i.e. the bubbles collapse every cycle. This Rayleigh Plesset model where the diamonds are from
can be seen in Fig. 10, which has been taken at 200 000 the experiment.
frames per second with a rotating mirror camera. The
frequency of the driving sound field is 13 kHz and
slightly more than one cycle of the driving is covered 5. Sonoluminescence
by these twenty frames. The disappearance and reap-
pearance of the complex filamentary structure is remark- When the cavitation bubble field is observed in total
able pointing to a tightly coupled bubble system. darkness with a dark-adapted eye (after 15-20min),
The bubbles in acoustic cavitation oscillate non-lin- light can be seen emanating from the liquid, often in
early as photographs reveal. Fig. 11 shows a sequence the form of filaments. As the primary input is sound,
V~ Lauterborn, C-D. Ohl / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 4 (1997) 65 75 73
vi/i/i/i/i/i l
O.g
(ICCD=intensified CCD). Fig. 13 shows an image of
the interior of a piezoelectric cylinder (this time of
-PR I I I I I | I I I I
diameter 6.5 cm, length 13 cm) driven at 20 kHz as it
g 1 2 3 ~. ~ 6 appears in its own emitted light. Again, a filamentary
structure is seen. Moreover, it has been found that light
is only emitted in a small window of the driving phase
WATER PO = 1 . O N e BAR
RN = 2~-8.05i~ M't, vO = 13.0~-1 KHZ.O' = 7 2 . 5 0 Y N / C t t
comprising 1/12 the period of the driving. This confirms
PR = g . 3 2 3 B BAR, Tg = ;76.68 / - ~ E C , P = g . O 1 e P O I g E
the highly concerted action of all bubbles as seen in
= 12.960 KHZ. v / v g = 0.99382 , K = 1.k-g Fig. 10. It has already been established (long ago) that
2.g the light is emitted from the bubbles in their collapsed
/V
state and that it must come from bubbles in the approxi-
R/RN mate radius size range 0.8-2 gm.
A certain minimum sound pressure amplitude is
l.g needed for the filamentary structure to appear. However,
it has been found that there is also an upper threshold
where the filaments cease to exist and light is emitted
from just one centre. Fig. 14 shows this bifurcation or
0.0 phase change in the bubble structure in a sequence of
g f ~ 1 15~.? ' ' 2 3 1 '. 5 ' '31,-7'.2 ' ' ~.63.0
Fig. 13. The light output of a liquid insonified at 20 kHz taken with an ICCD camera: a luminescence image.
74 W. Lauterborn, C-D. Ohl / UltrasonicsSonochemistry 4 (1997) 65 75
17 SV lgOV 2 ~ =,':
Fig. 14. Integrated luminescenceimages at differentdriving voltages. Frame size is 3.4 x 3.7 cm.
in the light emission. At still higher driving, the emission primary Bjerknes force becomes repelling and the bubble
shrinks to a single stable emission centre (200 V). This becomes positionally unstable. Thus, the bubble has to
centre starts to move around in the liquid (210 V) giving leave the high pressure region. When it does so, it
the integrated appearance of a large quite-unstructured experiences a lower amplitude of the driving and also
emission region. Below, in Fig. 15, time-resolved meas- lowers its oscillation amplitude. The repelling force then
urements are given to underpin this interpretation. At ceases. In a rotationally symmetric system, the bubble
still higher driving, the emission centre splits up into would settle somewhere away from the maximum sound
two and again a richer structure appears (220 V, 230 V). pressure on some surface, being free to move along it
This sequence has been obtained reproducibly, whereby upon slight additional disturbances. That way, the seem-
changes in the actual values of the voltages may occur. ingly irregular motion observed in Fig. 15 may be
Noteworthy is the appearance of a single stable emis- explained.
sion centre and its motion at higher driving. Fig. 15
shows time-resolved images of the dancing emission
centre. A possible explanation relates to the strong non- 6. Summary
linearity of the bubble oscillation. It has been found
that a small bubble can be kept stable in the pressure The dynamics of bubbles in liquids has been investi-
antinode only in the case of not too large non-linearity gated. Violent processes take place in the collapse of
in the oscillation of the bubble, otherwise the attracting bubbles manifesting themselves in the emission of shock
W. Lauterborn, C.-D. Ohl / Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 4 (1997) 65-75 75
Fig. 15. Luminesenceimages in the course of time in the dancing bubble regime.
waves and light. Single bubble dynamics has been effort over a long time collected most of the results
studied with laser produced bubbles and high-speed reported here. Special thanks go to R. Blatt for loan of
photography. Detailed results on bubble collapse and the I C C D camera to photograph the light emitted by
shock wave emission could be obtained. Asymmetric the bubbles. The work has been sponsored by the
bubble collapse results in the emission of (normally) Fraunhofer Gesellschaft, Mtinchen, and the Deutsche
three shock waves: two which are jet induced and one Forschungsgemeinschaft, Bonn.
induced by bubble compression. The two jet-induced
shock waves combine into one in the case where the
curvature of the jet tip is higher than the curvature of
the bubble wall that is hit. This happens for ~ smaller
than about two and larger than about 1.2. Bubbles References
appearing in the process of acoustic cavitation assemble
themselves into filamentary structures that breeze in the [ 1] C.E. Brennen, Cavitation and Bubble Dynamics, Oxford Univer-
rhythm of the driving (Fig. 10) and radiate light sity Press, Oxford, 1995.
(Fig. 13). From the single bubble studies it can be [2] T.G. Leighton, The Acoustic Bubble, Academic Press, London,
1994.
conjectured that also in the case of acoustic cavitation [3] J.R. Blake, J.M. Boulton-Stone, N.H. Thomas (Eds.), Bubble
with many bubbles the individual bubble collapse will Dynamics and Interface Phenomena, Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1994.
be similarly fast and often resemble that shown in Fig. 5, [4] F.R. Young, Cavitation, McGraw-Hill, London, 1989.
as a bubble nearby another one corresponds to an [5] K.S. Suslick (Ed.), Ultrasound: Its Chemical, Physicaland Biologi-
induced asymmetry similar to that of a solid boundary. cal Effects, VCH, New York, 1988.
[6] L. van Wijngaarden (Ed.), Mechanics and Physics of Bubbles in
Thus, highly involved processes can be expected to occur Liquids, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1982.
in a bubble cloud as given in Fig. 9. It is conjectured [7] W. Lauterborn (Ed.), Cavitation and Inhomogeneities in Under-
that these processes will play a role in sonochemistry. water Acoustics, Springer, Berlin, 1980.
[8] L.A. Crum, Phys. Today 47 (1994) 22.
[9] N.K. Bourne, J.E. Field, J. Fluid Mech. 244 (1992) 225.
Acknowledgement