Curriculum Development Text Book

HMEF5073
CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT
Prof Dr John Arul Phillips
Project Directors: Prof Dato Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Prof Dr John Arul Phillips

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, September 2007

Second Edition, August 2011
Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2011, HMEF5073

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).
Table of Contents
Course Guide xi-xxi
Course Assignment Guide xxv-xxxvi
Topic 1 What is Curriculum? 1

1.1 Definitions of Curriculum 4
1.2 The Hidden Curriculum 7
1.3 Curriculum Approaches 8
1.3.1 Curriculum as Content 8
1.3.2 Curriculum as Product 9
1.3.3 Curriculum as Process 11
1.4 Foundations of Curriculum 12
1.5 Curriculum Development 15
1.6 Curriculum as a Discipline 15
1.7 Curriculum and Instruction 17
Summary 19
Key Terms 19
Discussion 20
References 20
Topic 2 Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum 22

2.1 What is Philosophy? 24
2.2 Philosophy of Education 24
2.3 Philosophy and Curriculum 25
2.4 Perennialism 27
2.4.1 What is Perennialism? 27
2.4.2 The Perennialist Curriculum 27
2.5 Essentialism 31
2.5.1 What is Essentialism? 31
2.5.2 The Essentialist Curriculum 31
2.6 Progressivism 33
2.6.1 What is Progressivism? 33
2.6.2 The Progressive Curriculum 34
2.7 Reconstructionism 35
2.7.1 What is Reconstructionism? 35
2.7.2 The Reconstructionist Curriculum 35
2.8 Abu Nasr Al-Farabi 38
2.8.1 Al-Farabi on Education 39
2.8.2 Al-Farabi on Curriculum 40
2.9 Confucius 41
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.9.1 Confucius on Education 42

2.9.2 Confucius on Curriculum 42
2.10 Rabindranath Tagore 44
2.10.1 Tagore on Education 44
2.10.2 Tagore on Curriculum 45
Summary 46
Key Terms 46
Discussion 47
References 47
Topic 3 Psychological Foundations of Curriculum 48

3.1 Understanding Learning 50
3.2 Behaviourism 51
3.2.1 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) 52
3.2.2 Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) 52
3.2.3 B. Frederick Skinner (1900-1980) 53
3.2.4 Walter Bandura (1925 Present) 55
3.2.5 Behaviourism in the Classroom 56
3.3 Cognitivism 56
3.3.1 The Information Processing Approach 57
3.3.2 Meaningful Learning 59
3.3.3 Levels of Cognitive Development 61
3.3.4 Metacognition 62
3.3.5 Cognitivism in the Classroom 63
3.4 Constructivism 65
3.4.1 Learning is the Active Construction of Knowledge 65
3.4.2 Learning is a Social Activity 66
3.4.3 Constructivism in the Classroom 67
3.5 Humanism 68
3.5.1 Abraham Maslow 69
3.5.2 Carl Rogers 69
3.5.3 Arthur Combs 70
3.5.4 Humanism in the Classroom 71
Summary 73
Key Terms 74
Discussion 74
References 75
Topic 4 Social and Historical Foundations of Curriculum 76

4.1 Society and Curriculum 79
4.2 Changing Economy and Curriculum 81
4.3 The Changing Family Institution and Curriculum 82
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
4.4 Cultural Diversity and Curriculum 83

4.5 Special Interest Groups and Curriculum 84
4.6 Knowledge that is of Most Worth 86
4.7 Evolution of Curriculum 87
4.7.1 Case Study 1: History of the American School
Curriculum 88
4.7.2 Case Study 2: History of Japan's School Curriculum 93
Summary 98
Key Terms 99
Discussion 99
References 99
Topic 5 Curriculum Development Process 100

5.1 The Curriculum Development Process 102
5.2 Models of Curriculum Development 103
5.2.1 The Tyler Model 103
5.2.2 The Taba Model 106
5.2.3 The Saylor and Alexander Model 109
5.3 Goals of Education 111
5.4 Levels of Goals 111
5.4.1 Educational Philosophy 112
5.4.2 Education Goals 115
5.4.3 Curriculum Goals 116
5.4.4 Curriculum Objectives 116
5.4.5 Instructional Goals 118
5.4.6 Instructional Objectives 118
5.5 Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes 119
5.6 Classifying Instructional Objectives or Learning Outcomes 120
5.6.1 Cognitive Domain 121
5.6.2 Affective Domain 122
5.6.3 Psychomotor Domain 124
Summary 125
Key Terms 125
Discussion 126
References 126
Topic 6 Curriculum Design 128

6.1 What is Curriculum Design? 130
6.2 Content Selection 131
6.2.1 What is Content? 131
6.2.2 How Should Students Learn Content? 131
6.2.3 How Should Content be Selected? 132
6.3 Principles of Content Organisation 133
vi TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.3.1 Scope 133

6.3.2 Sequence 134
6.3.3 Integration 135
6.3.4 Continuity 136
6.3.5 Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum 137
6.4 Selection of Learning Experiences 138
6.4.1 What are Learning Experiences? 138
6.4.2 Criteria for Selection of Learning Experiences 139
6.5 Curriculum Designs 141
6.5.1 Subject-Centred Designs 142
6.5.2 Learner-Centred Designs 145
6.5.3 Problem-Centred Designs 147
Summary 149
Key Terms 150
Discussion 151
References 151
Topic 7 Curriculum Implementation 152

7.1 What is Curriculum Implementation? 155
7.2 Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process 156
7.3 Types of Curriculum Change 158
7.4 Resistance to Change 159
7.5 Case Study: Curriculum Reform and Implementation in
Indonesia 162
7.6 Individuals Involved In Curriculum Implementation 164
7.6.1 Teachers 164
7.6.2 Students 166
7.6.3 Principals or Headmasters 167
7.6.4 Parents 168
7.7 Case Study: England's National Curriculum for Secondary
Schools 169
7.8 Implementing Curriculum in The Classroom 170
Summary 174
Key Terms 173
Discussion 175
References 175
Topic 8 Curriculum Evaluation 177

8.1 Curriculum Evaluation 179
8.2 Formative and Summative Evaluation 180
8.2.1 Formative Evaluation 180
8.2.2 Summative Evaluation 181
8.3 Curriculum Evaluation Models 182
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
8.3.1 Context, Input, Process, Product Model (CIPP Model) 182

8.3.2 Case Study: Evaluation of a Programme on
Technology Integration in Teaching and Learning in
Secondary Schools 185
8.3.3 Stake's Countenance Model 186
8.3.4 Eisner's Connoisseurship Model 187
8.4 Phases of Curriculum Evaluation 190
8.5 Instrumentation For Curriculum Evaluation 190
8.5.1 Questionnaires and Checklists 191
8.5.2 Interviews 191
8.5.3 Observations 192
8.5.4 Documents 192
8.6 Case Study: Evaluation of a Mathematics Curriculum in
South Africa 194
Key Terms 196
Discussion 196
References 196
Topic 9 Curriculum Issues and Trends 198

9.1 Some Challenges 200
9.1.1 Information Age 201
9.1.2 Changing Workplace 202
9.1.3 Influence of the Media 202
9.1.4 Participation in the Democratic Process 202
9.2 Curriculum Issues 203
9.2.1 Differentiated Curriculum for the Gifted 203
9.2.2 Compensatory Education 205
9.3 Character Education 207
9.4 Performance Assessment 208
9.5 Retooling Schools for The Future 212
9.5.1 Schools for All 213
9.5.2 Thinking Goes to School 216
9.5.3 Personalised Schools 219
9.5.4 Technology-Based Schools 220
Summary 221
Key Terms 222
Discussion 223
References 223
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 10 Curriculum In Malaysia 224

10.1 Curriculum during the Colonial Period 225
10.1.1 The Cheeseman Plan (1946) 226
10.1.2 The Barnes Report (1951) 226
10.1.3 The Fenn-Wu Report (1952) 226
10.2 Curriculum Initiatives after Independence 227
10.2.1 Razak Report 1956 and
the Education Ordinance 1957 227
10.2.2 Rahman Talib Report and Education Act 1961 228
10.2.3 The Cabinet Committee on Education, 1979 229
10.3 Curriculum Reform 230
10.3.1 The Integrated Primary School Curriculum (ICPS) 230
10.3.2 The Integrated Secondary School Curriculum (ICSS) 231
10.3.3 Teaching Methods 231
10.3.4 Education Bill 1995 232
10.4 The Curriculum Development Process in Malaysia 232
Summary 233
Key Terms 233
Discussion 233
COURSE GUIDE
Table of Contents
Introduction xii
What Will You Get From Doing This Course? xii

Description of the course
Aim of the course
Objectives of the course
How Will You Get The Most From This Course? xii
Course Materials
Course Topics
Course Map
Organisation of Course Content
How Will You Be Assessed? xviii

Assessment Format
What Support Will You Get In Studying The Course?
Seminars
myINSPIRE Online Discussion
Facilitator
Library Resources
Learner Connexxions
How Should You Study For This Course? xix

Time commitments for study
Proposed study strategy
Final Remarks xx
xii COURSE GUIDE
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to HMEF5073 Curriculum Development which is one of the required
courses for the Master of Education (MEd) programme. The course assumes no
previous knowledge and experience in curriculum development, you are
encouraged to tap into your experiences as a teacher, instructor, lecturer or
trainer and relate them to the concepts and principles discussed. This is a 3 credit
course conducted over a semester of 14 weeks.
WHAT WILL YOU GET FROM DOING THIS COURSE?
DESCRIPTION OF THE COURSE

Educators are often faced with the task of conceptualising and developing
different types of curriculum for various levels of education. An understanding
of the development process would be useful for those involved in such activities.
The course explores the various definitions of curriculum, followed by a
discussion on how philosophical beliefs, psychological perspectives, societal
demands and the legacy of history impact the curriculum. Next, the curriculum
development process is discussed with particular emphasis on curriculum
planning, curriculum design, curriculum implementation and curriculum
evaluation. Finally, the course focuses on the issues and future trends in
curriculum development in the context of today's dynamic society.
AIM OF THE COURSE

The main aim of the course is to give you a foundation on the principles and
theories of the curriculum development process and application of the
knowledge and skills gained in analysing and developing curriculum projects.
OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

Upon successful completion of this course, you should be able to:
1. Compare the various definitions of curriculum;
2. Explain how philosophy, psychology, history and society impact curriculum;
3. Describe the phases of the curriculum development process, namely
planning, design, implementation and evaluation;
4. Evaluate the issues in curriculum development;
5. Apply curriculum concepts, principles and theories to real-world curriculum
projects; and
6. Demonstrate the ability to communicate ideas in written form.
COURSE GUIDE xiii
HOW WILL YOU GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE?
COURSE MATERIALS
In this course you are provided with a Learning Package consisting of THREE
kinds of course materials:
1. The Course Guide, which you are currently reading;
2. The Course Content (consisting of 10 topics); and
3. The Course Assignment Guide (which describes the assignments to be
submitted and the examinations you have to sit for).
Please ensure that you have all of these materials.
COURSE TOPICS
To enable you to achieve the SIX objectives of the course, HMEF5073 is divided
into 10 topics (see Course Map and Table). Specific objectives are stated at the
start of each topic indicating what you should be able to do after completing the
topic.
xiv COURSE GUIDE
COURSE MAP
Topic Title Week of Work

1 What is curriculum? 1
2 Philosophical foundations of curriculum 2
3 Psychological foundations of curriculum 3
4 Societal and historical foundations of 4
curriculum
5 Curriculum development process 5-6
6 Curriculum design 7-8
7 Curriculum implementation 9-10
8 Curriculum evaluation 11-12
9 Curriculum issues and trends 13
10 Curriculum in Malaysia 14
Topic 1: What is Curriculum?

The topic examines different definitions of curriculum, what is the hidden
curriculum, approaches in viewing curriculum and a brief introduction to the
curriculum development process.
COURSE GUIDE xv
Topic 2: Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

The topic analyses four main philosophical beliefs (perennialism, essentialism,
progressivism and reconstructionism) and how they influence curriculum.
Topic 3: Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

This topic evaluates four psychological perspectives (behaviourism, cognitivism,
humanism and constructivism) and how they influence curriculum.
Topic 4: Societal and Historical Foundations of Curriculum

The topic explores how societal forces and demands (culture, work, technology
and globalisation) influence curriculum. The curriculum of the United States and
Japan are examined to show how curriculum has changed over time.
Topic 5: Curriculum Planning

The topic compares the curriculum development models of Tyler, Taba,
Alexander and Saylor, and the tasks involved at different levels of curriculum
planning.
Topic 6: Curriculum Design

The topic examines the criteria for content selection (significance, utility,
learnability, feasibility and utility), the principles of content organisation
(sequence, scope, integration and balance) and models of curriculum design
(subject-matter, learner-centred and problem-centred).
Topic 7: Curriculum Implementation

The topic discusses curriculum implementation as a change process, the
categories of curriculum change, the resistance to change, why people resist
change and the role and responsibilities of people involved in curriculum
implementation.
Topic 8: Curriculum Evaluation

The topic compares three curriculum evaluation models (CIPP, Stakes
Countenance model and Eisner's Connoisseurship model) and the techniques of
data collection for decision making.
Topic 9: Curriculum Issues and Trends

The topic critically evaluates different curriculum issues such as the impact of
globalisation, the knowledge economy, national unity and citizenship education.
Also suggested are possible scenarios of the future in determining the
curriculum.
xvi COURSE GUIDE
Topic 10: Curriculum in Malaysia

The topic traces the history of the Malaysian education system from colonial
times until today. Focus is on how school curriculum has changed over time and
the philosophical, psychological, societal and political forces affecting curriculum
decisions.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

In distance learning, the module replaces the university lecturer. This is one of
the main advantages of distance learning where specially designed study allows
you to study at your own pace, anywhere and at anytime. Think of it as reading
the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer might
assign something for you to read or do, the module tells you what to read, when
to read and when to do the activities. Just as a lecturer might ask you questions
in class, your module provides exercises for you to do at appropriate points.
To help you read and understand the individual topics, numerous realistic
examples support all definitions, concepts and theories. Diagrams and text are
combined to make the material visually appealing and easy-to-read. Throughout
the learning package, diagrams, illustrations and tables are used to reinforce
important points and simplify the more complex concepts. The module has
adopted the following features in each topic:
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
COURSE GUIDE xvii
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
Discussion Questions: At the end of each topic a list of articles and topics of
books is provided that is directly related to the contents of the topic. As far as
possible the articles and books suggested for further reading will be available in
OUM's Digital Library which you can access and OUM's Library. Also, relevant
internet resources are made available to enhance your understanding of selected
curriculum concepts and principles as applied in real-world situations.
References: At the end of each topic a list of articles and topics of books is
provided that is directly related to the contents of the topic. As far as possible the
articles and books suggested for further reading will be available in oum's digital
library which you can access and oum's library. Also, relevant internet resources
are made available to enhance your understanding of selected curriculum
concepts and principles as applied in real-world situations.
xviii COURSE GUIDE
HOW WILL YOU BE ASSESSED?

Please refer to myINSPIRE.
WHAT SUPPORT WILL YOU GET IN STUDYING THE

COURSE?
SEMINARS
There are 15 hours of seminars provided in support of the course. There will be
FIVE seminars of 3 hours each. You will be notified of the dates, times and
location of these seminars, together with the names and phone number of your
facilitator, as soon as you are allocated a seminar group.
myINSPIRE ONLINE DISCUSSION

Besides the face-to-face seminar sessions, you have the support of online
discussions. You should interact with other students and your facilitator using
myINSPIRE. Your contributions to the online discussion will greatly enhance
your understanding of the course content, how to go about doing the
assignments and preparation for the examination.
FACILITATOR
Your facilitator will mark your assignments and provide assistance to you during
the course. Do not hesitate to discuss during the seminar sessions or online if:
You do not understand any part of the course content or the assigned
readings.
You have difficulty with the self-tests and activities.
You have a question or problem with the assignments.
LIBRARY RESOURCES
The Digital Library has a large collection of books and journals which you can
access using the student ID.
COURSE GUIDE xix
LEARNER CONNEXXIONS
This is an online bulletin which provides interesting and relevant information to
help you along the programme. There are useful study hints and you can read
about the experiences of other distant learners.
HOW SHOULD YOU STUDY FOR THIS COURSE?

(a) Time Commitments for Study
You should plan to spend about 6-8 hours per topic, reading the notes,
doing the self-checks and activities and referring to the suggested readings.
You must schedule your time to discuss online. It is often more convenient
if you distribute the hours over a number of days rather than spend one
whole day per week to study.
Some topics may require more work than others, although on average, it is
suggested that you spend approximately three days per topic.
(b) Proposed Study Strategy

The following is a proposed strategy for working through the course. If you
run into any trouble, discuss it with your facilitator either online or during
the seminar sessions. Remember the facilitator is there to help you.
1. The most important step is to read the contents of this Course Guide
thoroughly.
2. Organise a study schedule. Note the time you are expected to spend on
each topic, date for submission of the assignments, seminars and
examination date. Details about the assignments are in the Course
Assignment Guide. Put all this information in one place, such as your
diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method you choose to use, you
should decide on and jot down your own dates for working on each
topic. You have some flexibility as there are 10 topics spread over a
period of 14 weeks.
3. Once you have created your own study schedule, make every effort to
'stick to it. The main reason students are unable to cope is because they
get behind with their course work.
xx COURSE GUIDE
4. To begin reading a topic:

Remember in distance learning much of your time will be spent
READING the course content. Study the course map and examine
the relationship of the topic to the other nine topics.
Read the newspaper report at the beginning and try to figure out
how it is connected to the topic.
Read learning outcomes (what is expected of you). Do you already
know some of the things to be discussed? What are the things you
do not know?
Read the introduction (see how it is connected with the previous
topic).
Work through the topic. (The contents of the topic has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow).
As you work through the topic you will be asked to do the Self-
Check at appropriate points in the topic. This is to find out if you
understand what you have just read.
Do the Activities (to see if you can apply the concepts learned to
real-world situations).
5. When you have completed the topic, review the learning outcomes to
confirm that you have achieved them and able to do what is required.
6. If you are confident, you can proceed to the next topic. Proceed topic by
topic through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep
yourself on schedule.
7. After completing all topics, review the course and prepare yourself for the
final examination. Check that you have achieved all topic learning
outcomes and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).
FINAL REMARKS
Once again; welcome to the course. To maximise your gain from this course you
should try at all times to relate what you are studying with the real-world. Look
at the curriculum materials used in your institution and ask yourself whether
they have been appropriately designed and implemented. What are the strengths
and weaknesses of curriculum efforts in your organisation? Do they need to be
revised or improved?
COURSE GUIDE xxi
Most of the ideas, concepts, principles and theories you learn in this course have
practical applications. It is important to realise that much of what we do in
education and training has to be based on sound theoretical foundations. The
contents of this course provide the principles for curriculum development
whether it is in a school, college, university or training organisation.
We wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it interesting,
useful and relevant towards your development as a professional. We hope you
enjoy your experience with OUM and we would like to end with this saying,
"Education's purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one", by Malcolm
Forbes.
COURSE ASSIGNMENT
GUIDE
Table of Contents
Introduction xxvi
Academic Writing xxvi

Plagiarism
What is Plagiarism?
How Can I Avoid Plagiarism?
Documenting Sources
Direct Citation
Indirect Citation
Referencing
Journal
Online Journal
Webpage
Book
Chapter in a Book
Printed Newspaper
Details about Assessments xxviii

Facilitator-Marked Assignment (FMA)
General Criteria for Assessment of FMA
xxvi COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE
INTRODUCTION
This Guide explains the basis on which you will be assessed in this course during
the semester. It contains details of the facilitator-marked assignment, the mid-
term examination and the final examination and participation required for the
course.
One element in the assessment strategy of the course is that all students should
have the same information as facilitators about the answers to be assessed.
Therefore, this guide also contains the marking criteria that facilitators will use in
assessing your work.
Please read through the whole guide at the beginning of the course.
ACADEMIC WRITING
(a) Plagiarism
(i) What is Plagiarism?
Any written assignment (essays, project, take-home exams, etc)
submitted by a student must not be deceptive regarding the abilities,
knowledge, or amount of work contributed by the student. There are
many ways that this rule can be violated. Among them are:
Paraphrases: The student paraphrases a closely reasoned argument of

an author without acknowledging that he or she has
done so. (Clearly, all our knowledge is derived from
somewhere, but detailed arguments from clearly
identifiable sources must be acknowledged).
Outright Large sections of the paper are simply copied from other
plagiarism: sources, and are not acknowledged as quotations.
Other Often include essays written by other students or sold by
sources: unscrupulous organisations. Quoting from such papers
is perfectly legitimate if quotation marks are used and
the source is cited.
Works by Taking credit deliberately or not deliberately for works
others: produced by another without giving proper
acknowledgement. Works includes photographs, charts,
graphs, drawings, statistics, video-clips, audio-clips,
verbal exchanges such as interviews or lectures,
performances on television and texts printed on the web.
The student submits the same essay to two or more
courses.
COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE xxvii
(ii) How Can I Avoid Plagiarism?

Insert quotation marks around 'copy and paste' clause, phrase,
sentence, paragraph and cite the original source.
Paraphrase clause, phrase, sentence or paragraph in your own
words and cite your source.
Adhere to the APA (American Psychological Association) stylistic
format, whichever applicable, when citing a source and when
writing out the bibliography or reference page.
Attempt to write independently without being overly dependent
of information from another's original works.
Educate yourself on what may be considered as common
knowledge (no copyright necessary), public domain (copyright
has expired or not protected under copyright law), or copyright
(legally protected).
(b) Documenting Sources
Whenever you quote, paraphrase, summarise or otherwise refer to the work
of another, you are required to cite its source parenthetical documentation.
Offered here are some of the most commonly cited forms of material.
Direct Simply having a thinking skill is no assurance that children will use it.
In order for such skills to become part of day-to-day behaviour, they
must be cultivated in an environment that value and sustains them.
"Just as children's musical skills will likely lay fallow in an
environment that doesn't encourage music, learner's thinking skills
tend to languish in a culture that doesn't encourage thinking"
(Tishman, Perkins & Jay, 1995, p.5).
Indirect According to Wurman (1988), the new disease of the 21st century will
be information anxiety, which has been defined as the ever-widening
gap between what one understands and what one thinks one should
understand.
(c) Referencing
All sources that you cite in your paper should be listed in the Reference
section at the end of your paper. Here's how you should do your Reference.
xxviii COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE
Journal DuFour, R. (2002). The learning-centred principal. Educational

Leadership, 59(8), 12-15.
Online Evnine, S. J. (2001). The universality of logic: On the connection

Journal between rationality and logical ability [Electronic version].
Mind, 110, 335-367.
Webpage National Park Service. (2003, February 11). Abraham Lincoln
birthplace national historic site. Retrieved February 13, 2003,
from http://www.nps.gov/abli/
Book Naisbitt, J., & Aburdence, M. (1989). Megatrends 2000. London:
Pan Books.
Chapter in a Nickerson, R. (1987). Why teach thinking? In J. B. Baron & R.J.
Book Sternberg (Eds.), Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practice
(pp. 27-37). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Printed Holden, S. (1998, May 16). Frank Sinatra dies at 82: Matchless
Newspaper stylist of pop. The New York Times, pp. A22-A23.
DETAILS ABOUT ASSIGNMENT
Facilitator-Marked Assignment (FMA)

The assignment questions for the course are discussed next. You will be able to
complete the assignment from the information and materials contained in your
suggested readings and module. However, it is desirable in all graduate level
education to demonstrate that you have read and researched more widely than
the required minimum. Using other references will give you a broader
perspective and may provide a deeper understanding of the subject. When you
have completed the assignment, submit them, together with a FMA form to your
facilitator. Make sure that your assignment reaches the facilitator on or before the
deadline.
COURSE ASSIGNMENT GUIDE xxix
General Criteria For Assessment of FMA

In general, your facilitator will be expecting you to write clearly, using correct
spelling (please use your spell checker) and grammar. Your facilitator will be
looking for the following:
You have critically thought about issues raised in the course;
You have considered and appreciated different points of view, including
those in the course;
You give your own views and opinions;
You state your argument clearly with supporting evidence and proper
referencing of sources; and
You have drawn on your own experiences.
Topic What is
1 Curriculum?
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define curriculum;
2. Compare the various definitions of curriculum proposed by different
scholars;
3. Explain the hidden curriculum;
4. Differentiate between the three approaches to curriculum;
5. Identify the foundations of curriculum;
6. Discuss the connection between curriculum and instruction;
7. Describe the curriculum development process; and
8. Argue whether curriculum is a discipline.
2 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
INTRODUCTION
NEWSPAPER HEADLINES
Homework should be made more meaningful

Students cant read properly after 11 years of
schooling
Students are bored with studying the same thing each
year
Teachers are unable to complete the syllabuses
because too much time is spent on co-curricular
activities
Teachers are reluctant to teach beyond what is in the
curriculum, considering it a waste of time
Thinking skills of students need to be developed
Parents passing the responsibility of educating their
children to teachers
Sports is being neglected in schools
Environmental education should be taught
You would have probably come across these headlines in newspapers and
magazines. These headlines are an indication of societys concern with what is
going on in schools and in particular the curriculum. It should be remembered
that a curriculum is a contract between society and those in power stating how its
TOPIC 1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM? 3
next generation of young people will be educated. Hence, the general public has a
right to question how schools are preparing its next generation of citizens.
As society becomes more educated, more of its members are keen in expressing
their views on various issues regarding what schools are doing and what is being
taught in schools. Sometimes it is tempting to ask whether society will ever come
to a consensus on what it wants schools to do.
Some sectors of the population are demanding that schools teach for the mastery
of facts, concepts and principles of a discipline, while others are calling for
reducing content and placing more emphasis on the development of critical and
creative thinking. Still others feel that schools are not paying enough attention
towards developing the character of students. It appears that society is in a state
of confusion not knowing what it wants of its schools. However, what may be
defined as confusion is in reality dynamism because curriculum is a reflection of
our values, choices and perspectives in differing contexts. As society changes so
will the curriculum because it is a reflection of society at a particular point in
time. For example, during colonial times, education in Malaysia was confined to
producing clerks and office assistants for the English administrative system.
Whether we consider curriculum narrowly as a listing of subjects to be taught in

schools or broadly as all learning experiences that individuals acquire while in
school, there is no denying that curriculum affects us all. Curriculum is the
concern of everyone, whether they are teachers, academics, students, parents,
politicians, businessmen, professionals, government officials or the person on the
street.
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Discuss any three headlines listed above that you agree with.
Why?
2. Locate and report other concerns about the curriculum that you
have come across.
1.1 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM
Just like most things in education, there is no agreed upon definition of

curriculum. The word originated from the Latin word currere referring to the
oval track upon which Roman chariots raced (see picture). The New International
Dictionary defines curriculum as the whole body of a course in an educational
institution or by a department, while The Oxford English Dictionary defines
curriculum as courses taught in schools or universities. Curriculum means
different things to different people. Most people, including educators equate
curriculum with the syllabus (Do you agree?) while a few regard curriculum as
all the teaching-learning experiences a student encounters while in school. Since
the early 20th century when Franklin Bobbitt, dubbed the Father of Curriculum,
wrote his book The Curriculum in 1918, various theoreticians and practitioners
have proposed definitions of curriculum. Some examples of these definitions are:
Tanner (1980) defined curriculum as the planned and guided learning
experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through the systematic
reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the
school, for the learners continuous and wilful growth in personal social
competence (p.13).
Schubert (1987) defines curriculum as the contents of a subject, concepts and
tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the desired learning outcomes and
experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society.
Pratt (1980) defines curriculum as a written document that systematically
describes goals planned, objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation
procedures and so forth.
Goodlad and Su (1992) define curriculum as a plan that consists of learning
opportunities for a specific timeframe and place, a tool that aims to bring
about behavioural changes in students as a result of planned activities and
includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of
the school.
Summary of Various Interpretations of Curriculum
Curriculum is:
That which is taught in school;
A set of subjects;
Content;
A programme of studies;
A set of materials;
Sequence of courses;
A set of performance objectives;
A course of study;
Everything that goes on within a school;
Everything that is planned by school personnel;
That which is taught both inside and outside of school directed by the
school;
A series of experiences undergone by learners in school; and
That which an individual learner experiences as a result of schooling.
Source: Peter F. Oliva, Developing the Curriculum. Boston: Little, Brown &
Company. 1982. p. 5
Cronbleth (1992) defines curriculum as answering three questions: What

knowledge, skills and values are most worthwhile? Why are they most
worthwhile? How should the young acquire them?
Grundy (1987) defines curriculum as a programme of activities (by teachers
and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain
educational and other schooling ends or objectives.
Hass (1987) provides a broader definition, stating that a curriculum includes
all of the experiences that individual learners have in a program of education
whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which
is planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past and present
professional practice (p.5).
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Identify the FIVE common features of a curriculum mentioned in

most of the definitions given by scholars in the field (exclude
Peter Oliva).
2. Select SIX interpretations of the curriculum summarised by Peter
Oliva which you think gives a comprehensive definition of
curriculum.
Are you confused with the different definitions? Well, dont be! It is not
necessarily a bad thing having numerous definitions of curriculum. The variety of
definitions demonstrates the dynamism of the field because it reflects the
philosophical beliefs, conceptions of human learning, pedagogical strategies,
political experiences and cultural background of the society the curriculum is
planned for (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). Though much time may be spent on
defining curriculum, it may be time well spent because it encourages exploration
of many possibilities. One should be aware that if a curriculum is too narrowly
defined there is the tendency and likelihood to omit, ignore or miss relevant
factors related to teaching and learning because they are not part of the written
plan. On the other hand, if they are too broadly defined, it would be difficult to
implement because it may be open to different interpretations. This will make the
task of evaluating achievement of the goals and objectives of the programme
more difficult. Despite varying definitions of curriculum, there seems to be a
consensus that it is a statement:
Of what students should know (knowledge or content);
Be able to do (skills);
How it is taught (instruction);
How it is measured (assessment); and
How the educational system is organised (context).
It is a structured plan of intended learning outcomes, involving knowledge, skills,

behaviour and associated learning experiences organised as a sequence of events
that a student acquires through education and training. How we conceive of the
curriculum is important because our conceptions and ways of reasoning about
curriculum reflect how we think, study and act on the education made available
to students. In short, how we define the curriculum reflects our assumptions
about the world (Cornbleth, 1990).
1.2 THE HIDDEN CURRICULUM

You may have heard of the phrase hidden curriculum. What is it? The phrase
hidden curriculum was coined by the sociologist Philip Jackson in his book Life
in Classrooms written in 1968. He drew attention to the idea that schools did
more than simply transmit knowledge from one generation to another. Students
learn things that are not actually taught in the formal curriculum. It could be
viewed as the entire range of educational experiences promoted by schools and
teachers through practices that are not necessarily written down.
As pointed out by Doll (1992), every school has a planned, formal acknowledged
curriculum, but there is also an unplanned informal and hidden one that must be
considered (p.5). The planned, formal curriculum focuses on goals, objectives,
subject matter and organisation of instruction. The unplanned, informal
curriculum deals with socio-psychological interaction among students, teachers
and administrators, especially in relation to their feelings, attitudes and
behaviours
If we only consider the planned curriculum, the official curriculum stated in a

written document, we ignore both the numerous positive and negative
consequences that can result from the planned curriculum. Oftentimes, we fail to
realise the power of the hidden curriculum, which may not be written but will
certainly be learned by students. For example, they learn the following even
without being formally taught:
Rules of the game in the school canteen, playground, corridors of the school
and so forth;
The specific relationships between senior and junior students, male and
female students, and cliques of students;
How order is created and maintained in the classroom, the way individual
teachers interpret the behaviour of students; and
The way teachers and principals or headmasters have different expectations
of students based on interpretations of behaviour in class.
The hidden curriculum involves learning things such as how to respond and cope
with authority, how to get on with others, how to pass the time, how to deal with
boredom, how to establish priorities and how to conform to the expectations of
teachers and their peers.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. What is the hidden curriculum?

2. Why is the hidden curriculum important in education?
3. Give examples of the hidden curriculum other than those stated
in the text.
1.3 CURRICULUM APPROACHES

If you examine the definitions provided by the experts in the field, there are three
ways of approaching a curriculum (see Figure 1.1). First, is to approach it as
content or a body of knowledge to be transmitted. Second, is to approach it as a
product or the learning outcomes desired of learners. Third, is to approach it as a
process or what actually happens in the classroom when the curriculum is
practised.
1.3.1 Curriculum as Content

It is quite common for people to equate a curriculum with the syllabus which is a
concise document listing the topics of a subject. If you have experience in
preparing students for national examinations, you will be familiar with such
documents. What do they contain? Perhaps a list of topics, the concepts to be
mastered and some suggestions on how the topics are to be taught. For example,
a primary school mathematics curriculum will consist of topics on addition,
multiplication, subtraction, division, distance, weight and so forth. A syllabus
will not generally indicate the relative importance of the topics or the order in
which they are to be studied. However, there is a tendency for teachers to follow
the sequence prescribed in the syllabus. In most cases teachers follow the logical
structure of selected textbooks simply because the textbooks have been written to
closely match the syllabus. For example, in secondary school geography
involving the study of countries or regions, textbooks tend to begin with physical
geography such as relief, climate and vegetation followed by economic activities
such as agriculture, mining, industries, urbanisation and so forth.
It has been suggested that if one adopts the content approach to curriculum, focus
will be on the syllabus and the body of knowledge to be transmitted or
delivered to students using appropriate teaching methods. When curriculum is
equated with content, there is the likelihood to limit instruction to the acquisition
of facts, concepts and principles of the subject matter transmitted.
Figure 1.1: Approaches to curriculum
SELF-CHECK 1.3
1. What do you mean when curriculum is approached as content?

2. Why is it a common approach of viewing curriculum?
1.3.2 Curriculum as Product

Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted, it has also been
viewed as a product. In other words, what is it that is desired of students having
been taught using a curriculum. Franklin Bobbitt (1918) in his book The
Curriculum, stated that;
Human life, however varied, consists in the performance of specific

activities. Education that prepares for life is one that prepares definitely and
adequately for these specific activities. However numerous and diverse they
may be for any social class they can be discovered. This requires only that
one go out into the world of affairs and discover the particulars of which
their affairs consist. These will show the abilities, attitudes, habits,
appreciations and forms of knowledge that men need. These will be the
objectives of the curriculum. They will be numerous, definite and
particularised. The curriculum will then be that series of experiences which
children and youth must have by way of obtaining those objectives. (p: 42).
According to Bobbitt, education should prepare people for life with detailed
attention to what people need to know in order to work and live their lives. Go
out into the world and see for yourselves what society needs (the abilities,
attitudes, habits, appreciations and forms of knowledge that men [women] need,
according to Bobbitt). Curriculum should not to be the result of armchair

speculation but the result of systematic study of society. The product from the
curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills and values to
function effectively and efficiently. Ralph Tyler (1949) shares Bobbitts approach
to curriculum when he said that the real purpose of education is to bring about
significant changes in students' pattern of behaviour [We will examine Tylers
view in more detail in Chapter 5]. It is important that any statement of objectives
of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. The
attraction of this way of approaching curriculum is that it is systematic and has
considerable organising power. Central to the approach is the formulation of
behavioural objectives which provide a clear notion of outcomes or desired
products so that content and teaching methods may be organised and the results
evaluated.
In order to measure, things have to be broken down into smaller and smaller
units (numerous, definite and particulariseseries of experiences which
children and youth must have, according to Bobbitt). The result, as many of you
will have experienced, can be long lists of often trivial skills or competencies. This
can lead to a focus on the parts rather than the whole; on the trivial, rather than
the significant. It can lead to an approach to education and assessment which
resembles a shopping list. When all the items are ticked, the person has passed
the course or has learnt something. The role of overall judgment is somehow
sidelined.
SELF-CHECK 1.4
1. How is curriculum as product different from curriculum as

content?
2. What should be the overall purpose of a curriculum according to
Bobbitt and Tyler?
3. How are these objectives to be derived?
ACTIVITY 1.2
Criticisms of the Curriculum as Product Approach
There are a number of disagreements with the Curriculum as Product

approach. The first is that the curriculum can become too technical and
sequential. The tendency is for the curriculum to exist prior to and outside
the learning experiences which takes much away from learners and end up
with little or no voice. They are told what they must learn and how they
will do it. The success or failure of a curriculum is judged on the basis of
whether pre-specified changes occur in the behaviour of learners. If the
curriculum is closely followed it might limit creativity and turn educators
into technicians.
Also, since the approach emphasises measurability, it implies that

behaviour can be objectively, mechanistically measured. There are obvious
dangers here; there always has to be some uncertainty about what is being
measured. It is often very difficult to judge what the impact of particular
experiences has been. Sometimes it is years after the event that we come to
appreciate something of what has happened.
[Source: Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) Curriculum theory and practice, The
Encyclopaedia of Informal Education. www.infed.org/biblio/b-
curric.htm.]
1. To what extent do you agree with the criticisms of the

curriculum as product approach?
2. What are some advantages of this approach?
1.3.3 Curriculum as Process

We have seen that the curriculum as content approach emphasises the content to be
transmitted while the curriculum as product approach is focused on the setting of
instructional or behavioural objectives. Another way of looking at curriculum is via
process. Here, curriculum is not seen as a physical thing, but rather the interaction of
teachers, students and knowledge. It is what actually happens in the classroom such as
the questions asked by the teacher, the learning activities students engage in and so
forth. It is an active process with emphasis on the context in which the processes
occurs. Stenhouse (1975), used the analogy of a recipe in a cookbook which teachers
translate into practice in the classroom. Like a recipe it can be varied according to taste.
So can a curriculum.
According to the process approach, curriculum is seen as a scheme about the

practice of teaching. It is not a package of materials or a syllabus of content to be
covered. The classroom is seen as a laboratory in which the teacher is like a
scientist who tests the ideas stated in the curriculum. The teacher translates an
educational idea into a hypothesis that is tested in the classroom. It involves
critical testing rather than acceptance. The focus is on finding out those processes
which enhance (if it is successful) or hinder (if it goes wrong) a persons learning.
So, the curriculum is not a finished product but rather the proposed educational
ideas that have been verified in the classroom by teachers. So, you may not know
what you are going to get and may differ from what has been specified in the
curriculum document [Life is like a box of chocolates, you never know what
youre gonna get Forrest Gump]. This differs from the product approach
where the desired behaviours have been pre-determined or more or less fixed
and applies to all learners.
The process approach to curriculum treats the learners not as objects to be acted
upon. They have a say in what is going on in the teaching-learning sessions. The
focus is on interaction and attention shifts from teaching to learning. On the other
hand, the product model, by having a pre-specified plan or programme, tends to
direct attention to teaching. A process approach to curriculum theory and
practice, as argued by Grundy (1987), tends towards making the process of
learning the central concern of the teacher with emphasis on thinking and
meaning-making.
1.4 FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

Debate is still continuing as to the definition of curriculum. Despite this lack of
consensus, it has not hindered institutions, school districts, states and nations
continually developing and improving curriculum in schools, colleges,
universities and training organisations. Imagine what would have happened if
we had to wait for an agreed upon definition of curriculum. The design and
development of curriculum is a team effort involving curriculum planners,
curriculum developers, teachers, academicians, education officers,
administrators, community members and many others. They decide the goals of
the curriculum, what content to include, how it should be organised, suggest how
it should be taught and how to determine whether efforts have been successful.
To help them make these decisions, they have turned to philosophy, psychology,
sociology and history. These have been accepted as the foundations of a
curriculum [We shall discuss the influence of these disciplines in detail in topics
2, 3 and 4 respectively].
These disciplines have produced a vast amount of knowledge that provide

guidelines for people interested in developing curriculum. For example, from
philosophy has evolved numerous beliefs as to how people should be educated
and what knowledge is worthwhile. These beliefs have provided curriculum
developers with guidelines on how they should go about designing curriculum.
From psychology, various perspectives on how humans learn have been
proposed. This knowledge is of great significance since a curriculum is a plan on
what individuals are supposed to learn. Decades of research have provided
insight into the human psyche which curriculum developers have tapped into to
guide decisions on how a body of content is to be taught and acquired at different
levels of human development. The disciplines of sociology, economics, culture,
and politics provide an insight into society. A curriculum is a reflection of societal
values and beliefs it serves. It is usually a response to what society wants and
desires. [Refer to the newspaper headlines listed at the beginning of the chapter].
The community plays an important role in influencing what is taught in the
classroom. Finally, many curriculum plans are an evolution from earlier times
and curriculum developers refer to historical events to better understand the
decisions made at different points of time. It provides a background for better
understanding present day curriculum development efforts [We will examine the
curriculum of early American and Japan in topic 4 to understand how and why
curriculum changes with the evolution of society].
ACTIVITY 1.3
Problems with the Curriculum as Process approach

Teachers who want uniformity in what is taught will find this
approach problematic because the focus is on the learner. So there will
be different content and methods of delivery to cater to individual
needs.
Examinations would be difficult to conduct because learners would be
learning different things and at a different pace. It would not be fair to
have one examination as you might not be assessing the real ability of
a learner.
Examinations do not pay attention to the context in which learning
takes place and so some students might be disadvantaged.
Teachers implementing a curriculum using the process approach have
to believe that learning is the making of meaning and construction of
knowledge. If teachers are not convinced this should be the aim of
education, then the process approach will not succeed.
[Source: Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) Curriculum theory and practice,
The Encyclopaedia of Informal Education. www.infed.org/biblio/b-
urric.htm.]
1. To what extent do you agree with the problems with the

Curriculum as Process approach?
2. Do you think the curriculum as process approach would be easier

to implement if there were no centrally controlled or national
examinations?
3. What is the main difference between the curriculum as product

and curriculum as process approach?
1.5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Curriculum development is a process involving many different people and
procedures. Thus, it is usually linear and follows a logical step-by-step fashion
involving the following phases: curriculum planning, curriculum design,
curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. [We will discuss each
phase in detail in Chapter 5, 6, 7 and 8. If you were to specialise in curriculum,
then each of these phases would be taught as a separate course by itself]. The
phases of the process provide us with guideposts and structure to clarify our
thinking. The phases can be graphically or pictorially illustrated and are
conceived in technical terms with the assumption that one must be
knowledgeable of the process to fully appreciate and understand. Dont worry!
By the end of Chapter 8, you will fully understand the technical terms associated
with each of these phases of curriculum development.
Many curriculum development models have been proposed. Generally, most models
involve four phases. First is, curriculum planning which involves decisions about the
philosophy of education and the aims of education. Having decided on the
philosophical beliefs, curriculum goals and objectives are derived which are later
translated into the classroom as desired learning outcomes among students taught.
The second phase is curriculum design which refers to the way curriculum is
conceptualised and involves the selection and organisation of content, and the
selection and organisation of learning experiences or activities. Among the issues
that have to be resolved is deciding what knowledge is of most worth and, how
should the content be organised to maximise learning. The third phase is
curriculum implementation in the classroom setting. It involves getting people to
practice the ideas in the curriculum, providing them with the necessary resources,
training and encouragement. The fourth phase is curriculum evaluation which is
determining the extent to which the efforts in implementing the ideas of the
curriculum have been successful. It involves identification of factors that have
hindered implementation as well as success stories; and most important whether
students have benefited from the programme.
1.6 CURRICULUM AS A DISCIPLINE

Can curriculum be considered a discipline just like sociology, economics, biology
or political science? Graduate students have been taking courses in curriculum
planning, curriculum evaluation, primary school curriculum and so forth in
various universities. Many graduate schools of education offer doctoral
specialisations in curriculum and instruction, better known as C&I. To arrive at
a decision as to whether an area of study is a discipline, one must first ask the
question, What are the characteristics of a discipline?.If we know the
characteristics of a discipline, than maybe we can decide if curriculum is a
discipline. According to Oliva (1982), a discipline has the following

characteristics:
A discipline should have an organised set of theoretical principles.
A discipline encompasses a body of knowledge and skills pertinent to that
discipline.
A discipline has its theoreticians and its practitioners.
The field of curriculum has its set of principles. For example the term
curriculum itself is a concept describing very complex ideas. In curriculum
planning there are principles such as educational philosophy, curriculum goals
and learning objectives which are applied in developing programmes for school,
universities and training centres. In curriculum design, the principles of scope,
sequence and balance are used in the organisation of content to be taught. The
field of curriculum has its own body of knowledge and skills, though much of it
has been borrowed from a number of pure disciplines. For example, in the
selection of content (What to teach?), curriculum has relied on the principles,
knowledge and skills from psychology, philosophy and sociology. In the
organisation of content, curriculum has drawn from the fields of management
and organisational theory. In the implementation of curriculum, various ideas
from systems theory, organisational behaviour and communication theory have
been used to enhance effectiveness. For example, research in organisational
behaviour has been used to bring about change among teachers, educational
administrators and the community. Has the field of curriculum its own body of
knowledge and skills? Applying the ideas drawn from the different disciplines
and through experimentation it has generated its own body of knowledge and
skills, or at least, new interpretations of principles as applied in the educational
setting.
The field of curriculum has its list of theoreticians and practitioners and they
include curriculum planners, professors of curriculum, curriculum developers
and so forth, who are termed as curriculum specialists. These specialists are well-
versed in areas relating to curriculum, such as the history and origin of a
curriculum (to know of earlier successes or failures), curriculum planning and
how a particular curriculum is to be implemented in schools successfully. The
specialist is well-informed about how students learn, how teachers react to
change and obstacles to improvement. The curriculum specialist generates new
knowledge by recombining existing programmes, adapting approaches and
constructing new curriculum. [Perhaps, after completing this course you might be
more convinced that curriculum meets the requirement of a discipline or maybe
not!]
SELF-CHECK 1.5
1. Why do curriculum developers rely on the knowledge and skills

of other disciplines?
2. How would you justify the field of curriculum to be a
discipline?
1.7 CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION

Now that you have an idea of what is a curriculum; what is the relationship
between curriculum and instruction? Simply put, curriculum is what to be taught
while instruction is how it is taught. The relationship between curriculum and
instruction is a partnership. We may think of the curriculum as a plan stipulating
the content to be taught along with the learning experiences to be included.
Instruction may be thought of as methodology, the teaching act and assessing of
achievement. In other words, it is putting into practice what has been planned.
Oliva (1982) described curriculum and instruction as two entities. You could have
a situation in which the two entities are apart, called the dualistic model (see
Figure 1.2a). What takes place in the classroom under the direction of the teacher
has little relationship to what is stated in the curriculum plan. Planners ignore
what teachers are doing and vice-versa. The curriculum or the instructional
process may change without affecting one another. This separation will do
serious harm to each other. On other occasions, curriculum and instruction are
mutually interdependent as shown in the concentric model (see Figure 1.2b). In
this model curriculum assumes the superordinate position while instruction is
subordinate; that is, instruction is a subsystem of curriculum which is itself a
subsystem of the whole system of education. This model implies a system that is
hierarchical, with curriculum dominating instruction. Instruction is not a separate
entity but a very dependent portion of the curriculum entity. In other situations,
curriculum and instruction may be separate entities with a continuing circular
relationship, called the cyclical model (see Figure 1.2c). Curriculum makes a
continuous impact on instruction and similarly instruction impacts on
curriculum. This model assumes that instructional decisions are made after
curriculum decisions are made. But, these curriculum decisions are later modified
when they have been implemented and evaluated in the classroom. This process
is continuous, repeated and never-ending.
Figure 1.2 (a): Dualistic Model
Figure 1.2 (b): Concentric Model
Figure 1.2 (c): Cyclical Model
Figure 1.2: Curriculum and instruction relationship

[Source: Peter Oliva, (1982). Developing the curriculum.
Boston: Little Brown & Co. pp.12-13]
Of all the models, the cyclical model seems to the best alternative as it emphasises
the need for a close working relationship between implementers and planners.
Though curriculum and instruction may be different entities they are
interdependent and cannot function in isolation. It is impossible to plan
everything that happens in the classroom in the curriculum document. It should
be accepted that what is planned on paper may not work exactly because the
numerous factors operating in the classroom are impossible to predetermine. The
constant feedback from the classroom as to what works and what does not work
has to be recycled to curriculum developers so necessary adjustments and
modifications can be made to the curriculum plan. This may explain the need for
pilot-testing a curriculum before it is widely implemented.
Curriculum is a statement of what students should know, be able to do, how

it is taught, how it is measured, and how the educational system is organised.
Curriculum can be approached as content (knowledge, skills and values),
product (desired learning outcomes) and process (interactions in the
classroom).
Curriculum development is a process involving planning, designing,
implementation and evaluation.
Curriculum can be considered a discipline because it has an organised set of
theoretical principles; it includes a body of knowledge and skills and has its
theoreticians and its practitioners.
The relationship between curriculum and instruction is interdependent,
continuous, repeated and never-ending.
Curriculum Curriculum development

Curriculum as: Curriculum as a discipline
content Curriculum and instruction
product dualistic model
process concentric model
Hidden curriculum cyclical model
1. Write down your definition of curriculum.

(a) What does your definition of curriculum include?
(b) Does it include a process? . . a product? . . materials for
teaching? . . an approach to education and methods of
instruction that fosters certain values and attitudes?
(c) Compare your definition with the definitions given by
scholars in the field. How similar or different is yours?
2. The curriculum on paper and the curriculum in action.
What do you understand by these statements?
3. The curriculum is too examination-oriented and children are
deprived of their childhood. Discuss.
4. An over-loaded curriculum is a concern of many teachers.
Increasingly, teachers are feeling that there is not enough time to
cover all the traditional material being put into the curriculum.
(a) To what extent do you agree?
(b) Suggest solutions to overcome the problem.
Alistair, R. (2000). Curriculum: Construction and critique. London: Falmer Press.

Chapter 1: What is the curriculum? [available at eBrary].
Ornstein, A. & Hunkins F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles and
issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Chapter 1: The field of curriculum.
Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000). Curriculum theory and practice. The encyclopaedia of
informal education,www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.
Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice-Hall. Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and
products.
Woods, R. N. (1989). Introduction to philosophy of education. London:

Routledge.
Chapter 3: Curriculum theory [available at eBrary]
Topic Philosophical
2 Foundations
of Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define philosophy;
2. Define educational philosophy;
3. Compare the philosophical beliefs of perennialism, essentialism,
progressivism and reconstructionism;
4. Explain the influence of the four educational philosophies on
curriculum;
5. List the main features of the educational philosophies of Farabi,
Confucius and Tagore; and
6. Discuss the implications of the philosophies of Farabi, Confucius and
Tagore on curriculum.
INTRODUCTION
In Topic 1, we discussed the different definitions of curriculum. We also briefly

discussed the foundations of curriculum, the curriculum development process
and the relationship between curriculum and instruction. In this topic and the
TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 23
following two topics, we will examine in greater detail the foundations of

curriculum. In other words, how different traditional disciplines have influenced
curriculum. A curriculum is developed based on certain beliefs and orientations,
conceptions of learning and the demands of society. In this topic, we will focus
on the philosophical beliefs that influence curriculum and in Topic 3 we will
focus on the psychological perspectives that impact curriculum. In Topic 4 we
will discuss the role of society in determining what is to be included in a
curriculum as well as the legacy of significant historical events.
Consult Private Sector on Curriculum

Kuala Lumpur, Sat-The Prime Minister "Consultation to get views of the
wants education officials to consult the private sector should be for Sijil
private sector when drawing the Pelajaran Malaysia-level and onwards
curriculum for secondary and tertiary (Year 11 onwards). This approach is
level education to produce the right important because of the rapid and
people for the job market. Datuk Seri dynamic industrial development taking
Abdullah Ahmad Badawi said that shape. We cannot run away from
private sectors manpower needs and supplying a workforce needed by
future trends would allow adjustments industries for nation building,"
to be made to the current curriculum. Abdullah said after opening the two-
day second Malay Education Congress
The curriculum must see that those today.
entering the work market after
completing their secondary education,
diploma or degree courses are [Source: New Straits Times, March, 27,
equipped with knowledge that is useful 2005]
to the nature of their jobs, he added.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Read the newspaper report on Consult Private Sector on Curriculum.

1. What do you understand by the phrase "equipped with knowledge
that is useful to the nature of their jobs"? Give specific examples.
2. "We cannot run away from supplying a workforce needed by
industries for nation building". To what extent do you agree that
this should be the role and function of schools and universities?
24 TOPIC 2 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
2.1 WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

Lets begin with philosophy. The word philosophy is a combination of the Greek
word "philos" (love) and "Sophia" (wisdom) which translated means "love of
wisdom". Philosophers are people who seek wisdom and are curious about the
world while seeking to understand the nature of things. Oftentimes, the result of
philosophy is not so much putting forward new philosophies or propositions but
making existing philosophies or propositions clearer. Philosophers study the
works of other philosophers and state anew what others have put forward as
well as proposing new philosophies. A philosopher can be a person who knows
philosophy even though he or she engages in little or no philosophising.
Philosophy also refers to the collective works of other philosophers. It can mean
the academic exploration of various questions raised by philosophers.
For centuries, philosophers have been interested with such concepts as morality,
goodness, knowledge, truth, beauty and our very existence. Among the questions
philosophers ask are:
What is truth? Why do we say a statement is correct or false?
How do we know what we know?
What is reality? What things can be described as real?
What is the nature of thought and thinking?
What is special about being a human being?
Is there anything special about being alive at all?
What is ethics?
What does it mean when something is right or wrong; good or bad?
What is beauty?
How do beautiful things differ from others?
Philosophers use certain methods of inquiry. They often frame their questions as
problems or puzzles about subjects they find interesting and confusing.
Popularly, the word philosophy may also refer to someone's perspective on life
(philosophy of life) or the underlying principles or method of achieving
something.
2.2 PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

Now, let us examine a branch of philosophy, namely; philosophy of education.
What is philosophy of education? Philosophy of education is the study of
questions such as "What is education?", What is the purpose of education?,
"What does it mean to know something?" and What is the relationship between
education and society?". The philosophy of education recognises that the

development of a civil society depends on the education of the young as
responsible, thoughtful and enterprising citizens which is a challenging task
requiring deep understanding of ethical principles, moral values, political theory,
aesthetics and economics; not to mention an understanding of children
themselves.
Most of the prominent philosophers in the last 2000 years were not philosophers of
education but have at some point considered and written on the philosophy of
education. Among them are Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Dewey, Adler, Confucius, Al
Farabi, Tagore and many others [we will discuss their contributions to education
later in the topic]. These philosophers have been key voices in the philosophy of
education and have contributed to our basic understanding of what education is and
can be. They have also provided powerful critical perspectives revealing the
problems in education.
2.3 PHILOSOPHY AND CURRICULUM

What is the connection between philosophy and curriculum? For example, when
you propose the teaching of a particular body of knowledge, course or subject,
you will be asked, "What is your philosophy for introducing that content?" If you
are unable to answer the question, you may not be able to convince others to
accept your proposal. Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision
making and is the basis for all subsequent decisions regarding curriculum.
Philosophy becomes the criteria for determining the aims, selection, organisation
and implementation of the curriculum in the classroom. Questions like "What
subjects are of value?" and "How should students learn the content?", also helps
us to answer more precise tasks such as deciding what textbooks to use, how to
use them, what homework to assign and how much of it, how to test and use the
results.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. What do philosophers do?

2. List the concepts philosophers have been interested in.
3. What is philosophy of education? How is it related to the
curriculum of a school system?
In modern times there are opposing views about the practice of education.
There is no general agreement about what the young should learn either in
relation to virtue or in relation to the best life; nor is it clear whether their
education ought to be directed more towards the intellect than towards the
character of the soul. And it is not certain whether training should be
directed at things useful in life, or at those conducive to virtue, or at non-
essentials. And there is no agreement as to what in fact does tend towards
virtue. Men do not all prize most highly the same virtue. So naturally they
differ also about the proper training for it.
Would you believe that the above statement was written more that 2000 years
ago by the Greek philosopher Aristotle and we are still debating the same issues
today? Sometimes one wonders whether we know what we want! We lament
about the poor level of basic skills of students and call for a return to the basics.
At the same time we want students to develop critical thinking skills and call for
lesser emphasis on rote learning. Through the centuries, many philosophies of
education have emerged, each with their own beliefs about education. In this
topic, we will discuss four philosophies; namely perennialism, essentialism,
progressivism and reconstructionism proposed by Western philosophers. Also,
we will look at the viewpoints of three Eastern philosophers; namely al-Farabi,
Tagore and Confucius. Each of these educational philosophies is examined to see
what curriculum is proposed and how teaching and learning should be
conducted.
2.4 PERENNIALISM
2.4.1 What is Perennialism?

Perennial means "everlasting", like a perennial flower that blooms year after year.
Perennialism, the oldest and most conservative educational philosophy has its
roots in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Two modern day proponents of
perennialism are Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. The perennialists
believed that humans are rational and the aim of education is "to improve man as
man" (Hutchins, 1953). The answers to all educational questions derive from the
answer to one question: What is human nature? According to them, human
nature is constant and humans have the ability to understand the universal truths
of nature. Thus, the aim of education is to develop the rational person and to
uncover universal truths by training the intellect. Character education should be
emphasised in an effort towards developing one's moral and spiritual being.
Perennialism is based on the belief that some ideas have lasted over centuries
and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived. These ideas should
be studied in school. A list of the Great Books covering topics in Literature,
Art, Psychology, Philosophy, Mathematics, Science, Economics, Politics and so
forth, was proposed. Examples of such books are: Robinson Crusoe written by
Daniel Defoe, War and Peace written by Leo Tolstoy, Moby Dick written by
Herman Melville, Euclids book Elements on geometry, Newtons book on
Optics, The Sexual Enlightenment of Children written by Sigmund Freud, An
inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith
and many others. The book selected had to have contemporary significance, that
is, it should be relevant to the problems and issues of present times. The book
should espouse ideas and issues that have occupied the minds of thinking
individuals in the last 2000 years. The book should attract people to read it again
and again and benefit from it. The perennialists believed that these are history's
finest thinkers and writers. Their ideas are profound and meaningful even today
as when they were written. When students are immersed in the study of these
profound and enduring ideas, they will appreciate learning for its own sake as
well as develop their intellectual powers and moral qualities.
2.4.2 The Perennialist Curriculum

Based on the beliefs of perennialism, the curriculum proposed had the following
characteristics:
The Great Books programme or more commonly called the liberal arts will
discipline the mind and cultivate the intellect. To read the book in its original
language, students must learn Latin and Greek. Students also had to learn
grammar, rhetoric, logic, advanced Mathematics and Philosophy (Hutchins,

1936).
The study of philosophy is a crucial part of the perennialist curriculum. This
was because they wanted students to discover those ideas that are most
insightful and timeless in understanding the human condition.
At a much later time, Mortimer Adler (1982) in his book the Paideia Proposal,
recommended a single elementary and secondary curriculum for all students.
The educationally disadvantaged had to spend some time in pre-schools.
Perennialists were not keen on allowing students to take electives (except
second languages) such as vocational and life-adjustment subjects. They
argued that these subjects denied students the opportunity to fully develop
their rational powers.
The perennialists criticised the vast amount of disjointed factual information
that educators have required students to absorb. They urge that teachers
should spend more time teaching concepts and explaining how these
concepts are meaningful to students.
Since enormous amount of scientific knowledge has been produced, teaching
should focus on the processes by which scientific truths have been
discovered. However, the perennialists advise that students should not be
taught information that may soon be obsolete or found to be incorrect
because of future scientific and technological findings.
At the secondary and university level, perennialists were against reliance on
textbooks and lectures in communicating ideas. Emphasis should be on
teacher-guided seminars, where students and teachers engage in dialogue
and mutual inquiry sessions to enhance understanding of the great ideas and
concepts that have stood the test to time. Students should learn to learn and
not to be evaluated.
Universities should not only prepare students for specific careers but to
pursue knowledge for its own sake. "University students may learn a few
trees, perennialists claim, but many will be quite ignorant about the forests:
the timeless philosophical questions" (Hutchins, 1936).
Teaching reasoning using the Great Books of Western writers is advocated
using the Socratic method to discipline the minds of students. Emphasis
should be on scientific reasoning rather than mere acquisition of facts. Teach
science but not technology, great ideas rather than vocational topics.
Perennialists argue that the topics of the great books describe any society, at
any time, and thus the books are appropriate for American society. Students
must learn to recognise controversy and disagreement in these books because
they reflect real disagreements between persons. Students must think about
the disagreements and reach a reasoned, defensible conclusion.
Schools should teach religious values or ethics. The difference between right
and wrong should be emphasised so that students will have definite rules
that they must follow.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. Identify the main features of the perennialist curriculum.

2. According to perennialism, what should be emphasised in the
classroom?
ACTIVITY 2.2
The Great Books

The Great Books refer to a curriculum and a book list that came about as
the result of a discussion among American academics and educators,
starting in the 1920s and 1930s. It was initiated by John Erskine on how to
improve higher education by returning to the western liberal arts tradition
of broad cross-disciplinary learning. Notable among the academics and
educators was Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler.
They felt that the emphasis on narrow specialisation in American
universities and colleges had harmed the quality of higher education by
failing to expose students to the important products of Western
civilisation and thought.
The Great Books started out as a list of 100 essential texts which were
selected based on the criteria that it had relevance to present problems
and issues and it is relevant to a large number of the great ideas and great
issues that have occupied the minds of thinking individuals.
The Great Books covered topics including fiction, history, poetry, natural
science, mathematics, philosophy, drama, politics, religion, economics
and ethics. Examples of the books are:
Homer's The Iliad and The Odyssey;
Works of Aristotle and Plato;
Archimedes Measurement of a Circle, On Spirals, Treating
Mechanical Problems;
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales;
Shakespeares complete works;
Descartes The Geometry;
Isaac Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy;
Karl Marx's Das Kapital;
Leo Tolstoys War and Peace; and
William James' The Principle of Psychology.
The Great Books was criticised as being elitist and giving importance to
dead white males, while ignoring the contributions of females and
minorities (such as Afro-Americans). Another harmful criticism was that
the books were more to create the illusion of being cultured without any
real substance behind it.
[Source: Great Books of the Western World. Available at
http://www.answers.com]
1. What other books of The Great Books do you know?

2. What were the main arguments put forward by the perennialists for
using The Great Books?
3. Do you agree with the criticisms of The Great Books?
2.5 ESSENTIALISM
2.5.1 What is Essentialism?

Essentialism comes from the word essential which means the main things or
the basics. As an educational philosophy, it advocates instilling in students with
the "essentials" or "basics" of academic knowledge and character development.
The term essentialism as an educational philosophy was originally popularised
in the 1930s by William Bagley and later in the 1950s by Arthur Bestor and
Admiral Rickover. When it was first introduced as an educational philosophy in
American schools, it was criticised as being too rigid. In 1957, the Russians
launched Sputnik which caused a panic in educational circles as Americans felt
they had fallen behind the Soviet Union technologically. A rethinking of
education followed, that led to interest in essentialism.
Essentialism was grounded in a conservative philosophy that argues that schools

should not try to radically reshape society. Rather, they should transmit
traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become
model citizens. Essentialists believe that teachers should instil traditional virtues
such as respect for authority, fidelity to duty, consideration for others and
practicality. Essentialism placed importance on science and understanding the
world through scientific experimentation. To convey important knowledge about
the world, essentialist educators emphasised instruction in natural science rather
than non-scientific disciplines such as philosophy or comparative religion.
2.5.2 The Essentialist Curriculum

Based on the beliefs of essentialism, the curriculum proposed has the following
characteristics:
The basics of the essentialist curriculum are Mathematics, natural Science,
History, foreign language and Literature. Essentialists disapprove of
vocational, life-adjustment, or other courses with "watered down" academic
content.
Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading and
measurement. Even while learning art and music (subjects most often
associated with the development of creativity) students are required to
master a body of information and basic techniques, gradually moving from
less to more complex skills and detailed knowledge. Only by mastering the
required material for their grade level are students promoted to the next
higher grade.
Essentialist programs are academically rigorous, for both slow and fast
learners. Common subjects for all students regardless of abilities and
interests. But, how much is to be learned is adjusted according to student
ability.
It advocates a longer school day, a longer academic year and more
challenging textbooks. Essentialists maintain that classrooms should be
oriented around the teacher, who serves as the intellectual and moral role
model for students.
Teaching is teacher-centred and teachers decide what is most important for
students to learn with little emphasis on student interests because it will
divert time and attention from learning the academic subjects. Essentialist
teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores as a means of evaluating
progress.
In an essentialist classroom, students are taught to be "culturally literate," that
is, to possess a working knowledge about the people, events, ideas and
institutions that have shaped society. Essentialists hope that when students
leave school, they will possess not only basic skills and extensive knowledge,
but also disciplined and practical minds, capable of applying their knowledge
in real world settings.
Discipline is necessary for systematic learning in a school situation. Students
learn to respect authority in both school and society.
Teachers need to be mature and well educated, who know their subjects well
and can transmit their knowledge to students.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
1. What are the THREE main features of the essentialist classroom?

2. Identify the strengths and weaknesses of an essentialist
curriculum?
2.6 PROGRESSIVISM
2.6.1 What is Progressivism?

Progressivism is a philosophical belief that argues that education must be based
on the fact that humans are by nature social and learn best in real-life activities
with other people. The person most responsible for progressivism was John
Dewey (1859-1952).
The progressive movement stimulated American schools to broaden their

curriculum, making education more relevant to the needs and interests of
students. Dewey wrote extensively on psychology, epistemology (the origin of
knowledge), ethics and democracy. But, his philosophy of education laid the
foundation for progressivism. In 1896, while a professor at the University of
Chicago, Dewey founded the famous Laboratory School to test his educational
ideas. His writings and work with the Laboratory School set the stage for the
progressive education movement.
According to Dewey, the role of education is to transmit society's identity by

preparing young people for adult life. He was a keen advocate of democracy and for
it to flourish, he felt that education should allow learners to realise their interests and
potential. Learners should learn to work with others because learning in isolation
separates the mind from action. According to him certain abilities and skills can only
be learned in a group. Social and intellectual interaction dissolves the artificial
barriers of race and class by encouraging communication between various social
groups (Dewey, 1920). He described education as a process of growth and
experimentation in which thought and reason are applied to the solution of
problems. Children should learn as if they were scientists using the scientific method
proposed by Dewey (1920):
(a) To be aware of the problem (e.g. Plants need sunlight to grow).

(b) Define the problem (e.g. Can plants grow without sunlight?).
(c) Propose hypotheses to solve it.
(d) Test the hypotheses.
(e) Evaluate the best solution to the problem.
Students should be constantly experimenting and solving problems;

reconstructing their experiences and creating new knowledge using the proposed
five steps. Teachers should not only emphasise drill and practice, but should
expose learners to activities that relate to the real life situations of students,
emphasising learning by doing.
2.6.2 The Progressive Curriculum

Progressivists emphasise the study of the natural and social sciences.
Teachers should introduce students to new scientific, technological and social
developments. To expand the personal experience of learners, learning
should be related to present community life. Believing that people learn best
from what they consider most relevant to their lives, the curriculum should
centre on the experiences, interests and abilities of students.
Teachers should plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push students
towards higher order thinking and knowledge construction. For example, in
addition to reading textbooks, students must learn by doing such as field
trips where they can interact with nature and society.
Students are encouraged to interact with one another and develop social
virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view.
Teachers should not be confined to focusing on one discrete discipline at a
time but should introduce lessons that combine several different subjects.
Students are to be exposed to a more democratic curriculum that recognises
accomplishments of all citizens regardless of race, cultural background or
gender.
By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics,
progressivists strive to make schooling both interesting and useful. Ideally,
the home, workplace, and schoolhouse blend together to generate a
continuous, fulfilling learning experience in life. It is the progressivist dream
that the dreary, seemingly irrelevant classroom exercises that so many adults
recall from childhood will someday become a thing of the past. Students
solve problems in the classroom similar to those they will encounter outside
school.
SELF-CHECK 2.4
1. What are the main arguments of the progressive movement?

2. List some of the main features of the progressive curriculum.
3. What are the main differences between the progressive
\curriculum and the essentialist curriculum?
2.7 RECONSTRUCTIONISM
2.7.1 What is Reconstructionism?

Reconstructionism was a philosophy uniquely popular in the U.S. during the
1930's through the 1960's. It was largely the brain child of Theodore Brameld
from Columbia Teachers College. He began as a communist, but shifted to
reconstructionism. Reconstructionists favour reform and argue that students
must be taught how to bring about change. Reconstructionism is a philosophy
that believes in the rebuilding of social and cultural infrastructures. Students are
to study social problems and think of ways to improve society. Another
proponent of reconstructionism was George Counts (1932), who in a speech titled
Dare the School Build a New Social Order, suggested that schools become the
agent of social change and social reform. Students cannot afford to be neutral but
must take a position.
Most advocates of reconstructionism are sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity and

differences in socioeconomic status. Related to reconstructionism is another belief
called critical pedagogy. It is primarily a teaching and curriculum theory,
designed by Henry Giroux and Peter McLaren, which focuses upon the use of
revolutionary literature in classrooms that is aimed at "liberation." Radical in its
conception, critical pedagogy was based on Marxist ideology which advocates
equality in the distribution of wealth and strongly against capitalism. More
recent reconstructionists such as Paulo Freire in his book Pedagogy of the
Oppressed (1968) advocated a revolutionary pedagogy for poor students in
which people can move through different stages to ultimately be able to take
action and overcome oppression. He argued that people must become active
participants in changing their own status through social action to bring about
social justice.
2.7.2 The Reconstructionist Curriculum

In the reconstructionist curriculum, it was not enough for students to just
analyse, interpret and evaluate social problems. They had to be committed to
the issues discussed and encouraged to take action to bring about
constructive change.
The curriculum is to be based on social and economic issues as well as social
service. The curriculum should engage students in critical analysis of the
local, national and international community. Examples of issues are poverty,
environment degradation, unemployment, crime, war, political oppression,
hunger, etc.
There are many injustices in society and inequalities in terms of race, gender,
and socioeconomic status. Schools are obliged to educate children towards
resolution of these injustices and students should not be afraid to examine
controversial issues. Students should learn to come to a consensus on issues
and so group work was encouraged.
The curriculum should be constantly changing to meet the changes in society.
Students are aware of global issues and the interdependence between
nations. Enhancing mutual understanding and global cooperation should be
the focus of the curriculum.
Teachers are considered the prime agents of social change, cultural renewal
and internationalism. They are encouraged to challenge outdated structures
and entrusted with the task of bringing about a new social order which may
be utopian in nature.
In general, the curriculum emphasised the social sciences (such as History,
Political Science, Economics, Sociology, Religion, Ethics, Poetry and
Philosophy), rather than the Sciences.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Identify the Educational Philosophies

Which of the following statements reflect the four philosophical traditions that
have been discussed? Mark:
'E' for essentialism;
'P' for progressivism;
'PN' for perennialism; and
'R' for reconstructionism.
Check your answers for your score. Since the statements are subjective, it is
possible that you may disagree with the classification. Support your
argument.
1. A school curriculum should include a common body of

knowledge that all students should know.
2. The curriculum should focus on the great ideas that have
survived through time and related to present day challenges.
3. Schools should prepare students for analysing and solving the
social problems that they will face as adults.
4. Each student should determine his or her individual
curriculum, and teachers should guide and help them.
5. Students must be taught about change and how to bring about
change.
6. Teachers and schools should emphasise academic rigour,
discipline, hard work and respect for authority.
7. Students must be questioned and probed until they discover
the truth in the texts selected.
8. Schools should develop students ability to think deeply and
analytically rather than focus on temporary issues such as
social skills and current trends.
9. For a country to be competitive in the global marketplace,
schools should seek to produce more competent workers.
10. Since students learn effectively though social interaction,
schools should plan for increased social interaction in the
curriculum.
11. Students are too immature to decide what they need to learn and
so the school should decide for them.
12. Teaching should emphasise relating what is learned to the real-
world through field trips and internships.
13. Education is not primarily concerned with producing future
workers but should emphasise learning for its own sake and
students should enjoy reading, learning and discussing
interesting ideas.
14. Education should enable students to recognise injustices in
society, and schools should promote projects to redress social
inequalities.
15. Students should be active participants in the learning process,
involved in democratic class decision making and reflective
thinking.
16. Students should be taught to be more sensitive to race, gender,
ethnicity, and differences in general.
SELF-CHECK 2.5
1. What is the main argument of proponents of

reconstructionism?
2. What are the recommendations of the reconstructionists with
regards to the curriculum?
2.8 ABU NASR AL-FARABI

Al-Farabi (872-950 AD) was born in Wasij, in the province of Farab in Turkestan,
of a noble family. To understand the universe and humankind he undertook the
meticulous study of ancient philosophy (particularly Plato and Aristotle) which
he integrated into his own Islamic-Arabic civilization whose chief source was the
Quran. Al-Farabi used a number of terms to describe education: discipline
(tadib), training (tahdhib), guidance (tasdid), instruction (talim), exercise or
learning (irtiyad) and upbringing (tarbiya) (quoted in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993). He
believed that the first aim of knowledge was knowledge of God and His
attributes. He emphasised the need for unity of society and the State to be
achieved by unity of thought, wisdom and religion.
2.8.1 Al-Farabi on Education

(a) According to him the whole activity of education is the acquisition of
values, knowledge and practical skills leading to perfection and the
attainment of happiness. The perfect human being (al insan al kamil) is one
who has acquired:
(i) theoretical virtue (intellectual knowledge); and
(ii) practical moral virtues (moral behaviour).
(b) Virtue is the state of mind in which the human being carries out good and
kind deeds such as wisdom, common sense, inventiveness, cleverness,
temperance, courage, generosity and justice (Al-Farabi, Talkhis, cited in
Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
(c) Theoretical and practical virtues can only be obtained within society, for it
is society that nurtures the individual and prepares him or her to be free.
Thus, one of the goals of education is the creation of the ideal community,
the one whose cities all work together in order to attain happiness (Al-
Farabi, Mabadi ahl al-madina al-fadila, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
(d) Another aim of education is to educate political leaders, because ignorance
among them is more harmful than it is in the common person.
(e) He considered the method of dialogue or debate as important in
instruction. The method of argument and the method of discourse could be
used orally or in writing. For the common people, the methods used must
be closely related to what they can grasp and understand.
(f) He also emphasised on the need for scientific discourse; that by which the
knowledge of something is obtained either through asking questions, or
from the replies obtained, or by resolving a scientific problem (Al-Farabi,
Kitab al-huraf, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
(g) In this book Al-Alfaz, Al-Farabi argues that there are two types of learning:
learning through speech and learning by imitation (observing other
peoples actions with the intention of imitating or applying them).
(h) The method of instruction must be appropriate to the level of learners. For
example, the method of imagination is encouraged for teaching the hard-to-
grasp concepts. The educator resorts to metaphors and illustrations in
teaching, especially for people who are reluctant to learn (Al-Farabi, Tahsil,
cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
(i) According to Al-Farabi, understanding is better than memorisation because

the former deals mainly with details which could go on forever and may
not be useful. The action of understanding concerns meanings, universals
and laws which are valid for all.
2.8.2 Al-Farabi on Curriculum

(a) Al-Farabi classified the sciences and learning not just for the sake of listing
them, but with an educational objective in mind.
(b) Content to be taught as suggested by Al-Farabi are as follows:
(i) Language and its structure (to express oneself and understand others).
(ii) Logic (mantiq) which includes verbal expression and intellectual
procedures.
(iii) Mathematics, which he divided into seven parts:
Arithmetic (beginning with numbers and proceeding to
measures);
Geometry (use of geometric shapes to stimulate imagination);
The science of optics;
Astronomy (study of instruments and observation skills);
Music (making and listening to musical instruments);
Dynamics (e.g. momentum); and
Science of machines.
(iv) Natural Sciences.
(v) Religion and scholastic theology (kalam).
(vi) Political Science or Civics.
(vii) Jurisprudence (fiqh) and law (qanun).
Mathematics known as the teachings (taalim) was given importance
because it trains students toward the path of precision and clarity. The
student is to begin with studying arithmetic (numbers) followed by
geometry, optics, astronomy, music, dynamics and last of all, mechanics. The
student moves in stages from the immaterial and the immeasurable to what
needs some matter. (Al-Farabi, Ihsa' al-'ulum, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
On evaluation, Al-Farabi emphasised that the aim of an examination is to find
out the learner's ability or level in the field being studied. He believed that
the questions students ask could have either an educational or an

experimental character. Educational is when students demonstrate that they
have mastered something. Experimental is when students test themselves
using instruments (such as compass, abacus, ruler, tables) to determine
whether they know the rules.
Al-Farabi drew attention to the purpose of educational games and the role of
play in human activity. He recommended games that stimulate creativity.
Play should be used appropriately to develop the learner's capabilities to take
on more challenging tasks.
SELF-CHECK 2.6
1. What are some of al-Farabi's views on teaching? How relevant

are they today?
2. What are the main features of the curriculum proposed by
al-Farabi?
2.9 CONFUCIUS
Confucius (551-479 BC), born in Quyi in the principality of Lu, is one of Chinas
most famous philosophers. He spent a lifetime learning as well as teaching. He
stated that education plays a fundamental role in the development of society and
of individuals alike. Education should seek to produce virtuous individuals
which will change human society. By raising the moral standard of individuals,
society will become more virtuous, the country well-governed, and its citizens
law-abiding. He rejected feudalism in which the status of an individual was
passed from one generation to the next based on birth which was prevalent
during his time. His recommendations are in the Analects (Lun Yu) which is a
record of his speeches and those of his disciples, as well as the discussions they
had. It literally means "discussions over words". Confucian thought was not
confined to China. It spread to Japan, Vietnam, North and South Korea, and parts
of Southeast Asia.
2.9.1 Confucius on Education

According to Confucius, the aim of education is to produce capable
individuals (ziancai) whom he called shi (gentlemen) or junzi (men of
quality) who combined competence with virtue. They would serve the
government and bring about an ideal managed by men of virtue. The
cultivation of virtue was to be through observation, study and reflective
thought.
Among the virtues given priority are: filial piety (xiao), respect for the elderly
(ti), loyalty (zhong), respectfulness (gong), magnanimity (kuan), fidelity (xin),
diligence (min), altruism (hui), kindness (liang), frugality (jian), tolerance
(rang), wisdom (zhi) and courage (yong).
Education was to be made available to all, regardless of socioeconomic status
or social standing. He denounced favouritism and the passing of office from
one generation of nobles to the next (Yang Huanyin, 1993).
According to Confucius, Study without thought is labour lost; thought
without study is dangerous. He saw learning as a process of observation of
some type of subject matter, whether it be books, objects or people, followed
by reflection.
He saw learning as a highly personal and individualised activity but when
awakened by real learning, would be repeated by the student. Teachers
should be committed to their work and have good mastery of the knowledge
to be imparted.
A good teacher must love his students, know them well, understand their
psychological uniqueness and give thought to the ways and means of
facilitating their access to knowledge (Yang Huanyin, 1993).
A mistake is acting on premature knowledge based on insufficient
observation and insufficient processing. A lie is having full knowledge and
deliberately misrepresenting that knowledge.
2.9.2 Confucius on Curriculum

Confucius stipulated that the main emphasis of the curriculum should be
moral instruction and the imparting of knowledge. Moral education was thus
for Confucius the means whereby his ideas concerning virtue might be
realised.
The following is the content to be taught as proposed by Confucius:

His six books; the Book of Odes, the Book of History, the Book of Rites,
the Book of Music, the Book of Changes and the Spring and Autumn
Annals which dealt with subjects such as philosophy, politics,
economics, culture and musicianship;
Music;
The Code and Manner of Proper Conduct (Li);
Poetry;
Literature; and
History.
His emphasis on political and moral principles led to ignoring the natural
Sciences, Trade and Agriculture.
His curriculum served as the curriculum for 2000 years in feudal China and
the following pedagogical strategies were proposed:
To match learning with the aptitudes of students (consider the age of
learners).
To inspire and guide learners by stages.
To instruct oneself while teaching others.
To explain the present in the light of the past.
To combine theory with practice.
To encourage independent thought.
To set a good example.
To correct one's errors and improve oneself.
To welcome criticism.
To curb evil and exalt the good.
SELF-CHECK 2.7
1. What are the main features of the Confucian system of

education?
2. How relevant are the ideas of Confucius in today's schools?
2.10 RABINDRANATH TAGORE

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) born in Calcutta, India was known for his
socio-religious and cultural innovations. In 1901 he founded a school at
Santiniketan (that developed into a university) based on the ancient forest
schools which emphasised three basic elements of Indian culture, namely
Advaita (non-duality) in the field of knowledge, friendship for all in the field of
feeling and fulfilment of one's duties without concern for the outcomes in the
field of action (Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994).
2.10.1 Tagore on Education

Education should aim for the all-round development of the individual
personality through interaction and union with the environment. Education
should provide the individual with a satisfactory means of livelihood
followed by fulfilment and completeness. Schools should be made more
lively and enjoyable. They should be more attractive and productive.
The ideal school should be established away from the turmoil of human
habitation under an open sky and surrounded by the fields, trees and plants.
Classes were held outdoor (whenever the weather permitted) so that students
gained from being in a natural setting while learning (Tagore, Siksha cited in
Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994).
He was against bookish learning because it deprives one of learning from the
real-world. Students should gather knowledge and materials from different
sources of nature through their own efforts.
On university education, he suggested that it should be based on knowledge
of economics, agriculture, health, medicine and other subjects that reflects life
in the surrounding villages. Universities should attempt to push for the
growth of rural areas (Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994).
Emphasis should be more on self-motivation rather than on discipline and on
fostering intellectual curiosity rather than competitive excellence.
He insisted on open debate on every issue and distrusted conclusions based

on a mechanical formula, no matter how attractive that formula might seem
in isolation.
2.10.2 Tagore on Curriculum

He put great emphasis on the use of the national language as the medium of
instruction at all stages of education. The younger generation should be
aware of their cultural heritage but at the same time they should be exposed
to the cultures of other countries and learn from them.
He wanted women and men to be offered similar theoretical courses with
separate practical courses for women, since their roles in life differed from
those of men.
In his view, education was not intellectual development alone. It should also
develop a student's aesthetic nature and creativity. The quest for knowledge
and physical activity in an agreeable environment were integral parts of the
process.
Nature walks and excursions were part of the curriculum and students were
encouraged to follow the life cycle of insects, birds and plants.
Aesthetic development was just as important as intellectual development; if
not more so. This would include music, art, literature, drama and dance
which should be given prominence in the daily life of the school (OConnell,
2003).
He advocated a teaching system that analysed history and culture for the
progress that had been made in breaking down social and religious barriers.
Such an approach will integrate individuals of diverse backgrounds and
narrow the gap between rich and poor (Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994).
The curriculum was flexible. Class discussion could move from Indian
traditional literature to contemporary as well as classical Western thought
and then to the culture of China or Japan or elsewhere.
SELF-CHECK 2.8
1. What are the main aims of education according to Tagore?

2. What are the main features of the curriculum proposed by
Tagore?
Philosophers are people who seek after wisdom and are curious about the
world; they seek to understand the nature of things.
Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision and it becomes
the criteria for determining the aims, selection, organisation and
implementation of the curriculum in the classroom.
The perennialists believe that the aim of education is to develop the rational
person and to uncover universal truths by training the intellect.
The essentialists argue that schools should transmit the traditional moral
values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model
citizens.
The progressivists believe that education must be based on the fact that
humans are by nature social and learn best in real-life activities with other
people.
The reconstructivists favour reform and students must be taught how to
bring about change.
According to Al-Farabi, the whole activity of education is the acquisition of
values, knowledge and practical skills leading to perfection and the
attainment of happiness.
According to Confucius, education is to produce capable individuals whom
he called gentlemen or men of quality who combined competence with
virtue.
According to Tagore, education should aim for the all-round development of
the individual personality through interaction and one-ness with the
environment.
Al-Farabi on education Philosophy

Confucius on education Progressivism
Educational philosophy Reconstructionism
Essentialism Tagore on education
Perennialism
1. Write down your personal philosophy of education and share it

with others.
2. What is the current "status" of the essentialist orientation to
curriculum? How widespread is this approach in curriculum
planning at the elementary, middle, secondary, and higher
education levels?
3. What is the current "status" of the progressive orientation to
curriculum in primary and secondary schools?
4. To what extent do you agree with the reconstructionist
perspective on curriculum?
5. Which ideas of al-Farabi, Confucius and Tagore are practiced in
the school curriculum in your country?

Chapter 1: What is the curriculum? [available at eBrary].
Heslep, R. (1997). Philosophical thinking in educational practice. London:
Greenwood Publishing.
Chapter 1: The study of educational philosophy [available at eBrary].
Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles and
Chapter 2: Philosophical foundations.
Prospects: Quarterly review of comparative education (1993). Thinkers on
Education.
http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/Publications/Thinkers/thinho
me.html
Shaw, L. Five educational philosophers.
http://edweb.sdsu.edu/LShaw/f95syll/philos/phessent.html
Tanner, E., & Tanner, L. (1980). Curriculum development: Theory into practice.
New York: Macmillan Publishing Co.
Chapter 4: Curricular sources and influences.
Topic Psychological
Foundations
3 of Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain why curriculum developers need to understand how humans
learn;
2. Compare the four major theoretical perspectives explaining human
learning;
3. Identify the application of behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist and
humanist principles in the classroom; and
4. State your values and beliefs about the nature of learning.
INTRODUCTION
In Topic 2, we discussed how different philosophical orientations and beliefs
influence curriculum. We examined both Western and Eastern philosophers and
their beliefs on how schools should educate the young. In this topic we will focus
on how different psychological perspectives impact curriculum. Psychology
deals with how humans learn and behave. After all, the main goal of any
curriculum is to bring about learning. Hence, curriculum developers need to
know how humans learn so that they can incorporate psychological principles
when they design, develop and implement curriculum. Just as there are varying
philosophical orientations, there are also varying conceptions of human learning
and how the curriculum should be conceived especially with regards to learning
in the classroom.
TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 49
"Strokes of Genius from a Wonder Boy"

Lost in his own world, 11-year-Yeak Ping Railway Station and charcoal etchings of
Lian kneels on the floor, humming softly Tun Mahathir Mohamad and Datuk Seri
as he doodles on a yellow paper. He is Abdullah Badawi, the Prime Minister of
oblivious to my presence. "Say hello to the Malaysia.
lady", Sarah Lee said to her son who
reluctantly moved away from his Ping Lian's artistic talent is extraordinary.
drawing. But, like any ordinary child, he is
hyperactive and has a short attention
"Hello", he mumbles while engulfing me span, loves root beer float and biscuits
in a hug. His eyes settle on the flowery and enjoys watching Sesame Street and
motif of my dress. "Paint", he retorts in a Toy Story. His latest preoccupation is the
clear voice and then runs to his worktable electronic keyboard.
and waits. "Paint flower!" he repeats
louder. Unlike ordinary children, however Ping
Lian is autistic and diagnosed with
The home is swamped with Ping Lian's Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder.
art on the walls, stacked up against Although he has an excellent memory
banisters and under the tables. They are and reads well, he has limited speech
done in charcoal, pencil, ink and marker vocabulary, usually expressing himself in
pens with watercolour and acrylic. single or double words.
While some resemble infantile He is home-tutored and attends

scratchings, there are others that seem supplementary lessons for special needs
impossible for an 11-year-old to produce, children at the Emanuel Care Centre. He
such as the Petronas Twin Towers, the also takes Kumon classes in mathematics.
Kuala Lumpur
[Source: Strokes of genius from an 11-year-old autistic child, by Vivienne Pal,
New Straits Times, February 3, 2005]
ACTIVITY 3.1
Read the newspaper report on Stroke of Genius from a Wonder Boy.

1. What are the unusual abilities of Yeak Ping Lian?
2. How is he presently educated?
3. Are there special schools in your country to educate autistic
children?
50 TOPIC 3 PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
3.1 UNDERSTANDING LEARNING

The scientific study of human learning began only in the late 19th century
although philosophers such as Aristotle, Socrates, al-Farabi and Confucius had
attempted to explain human learning much earlier. For example, John Locke, an
18th century philosopher, compared children's minds to blank slates or tabula
rasa. He believed that children's experiences are etched or carved into their
minds in much the same way that one writes on slates with a chalk. Learners are
visualised to be empty buckets into which information is poured into by the
teacher. However, today we know that children are not empty vessels but come
to school with many different experiences, prior knowledge and expectations.
There is so much interest in studying human learning and various disciplines
besides psychology that have inquired into the mysteries of the mind.
Neuroscientists, linguists, cognitive psycholinguists, organisational
psychologists, philosophers and computer scientists, to name a few are engaging
in studying the brain hoping to unravel its mysteries and better understand how
humans learn and think.
A variety of research approaches and methods have evolved in studying how

humans learn. Introspection and the use of computers produced abundant
research in cognitive psychology and increased our understanding of human
competence, memory, knowledge representation, problem solving ability and
decision making skills in areas such as Mathematics, Science and Economics.
Developmental psychology provided some answers to how children think and
understand concepts as they grew chronologically while work in social
psychology revealed that learning takes place in cultural settings.
Psychology is derived from the Greek word psyche which means soul. It is a
discipline devoted to the study of behaviour, mind and thought. Specifically, it
deals with the study of mental processes that determines a person's behaviour
and thinking. When applied to teaching and learning, it provides the basis for
understanding how students learn and understand a body of knowledge. The
curriculum developer has to know how students' learn and to take into
consideration individual differences when designing a curriculum. It is only
when students learn and gain from the curriculum will the curriculum be
considered to be successful.
The curriculum developer is interested in knowing how the organisation of the

curriculum can enhance learning. Ralph Tyler, a well-known scholar in curriculum
development proposed in the 1960s that anything that is to be taught in the
classroom should be subjected to a psychology "screen" to establish whether they are
congruent with how humans learn. (We will examine in detail about Ralph Tyler in
Topic 5). While there is a great deal of interest in studying human learning, anyone
involved in curriculum work should also be aware that there are many different
explanations of human learning. We have not been able to say with certainty how
people learn. Generally, there are four psychological perspectives or schools of
thought that have had an impact on curriculum; classified as behaviourism,
cognitivism, humanism and constructivism (see Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Psychological perspectives influencing curriculum

and their proponents
3.2 BEHAVIOURISM
In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory in Germany dedicated to
the scientific study of human thought processes which is often regarded as the
beginning of modern psychology. His approach to using experiments in studying
the human mind moved psychology from the domain of philosophy to the
laboratory. Through introspection, Wundt and his colleagues tried to get their
subjects to reflect on their thought processes. By the turn of the century, the
behaviourist school emerged as a reaction to the method of introspection used by
Wundt. Proponents of behaviourism argued that the introspection method was
too subjective and felt that scientific study of psychology must be restricted to the
study of behaviours that can be observed and the stimulus that brings about the
behaviour. The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be traced to the
philosophic traditions of Aristotle, Descartes and Locke. They argued that
behaviour can be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, by
manipulating and giving a certain stimulus, a certain response can be produced.
Motivation to learn was assumed to be driven by drives such as hunger, rewards
and punishment.
3.2.1 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

The famous Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov introduced the theory of classical
conditioning through a series of experiments with dogs (see Figure 3.2). Based on
the Law of Association proposed by Greek philosophers such as Aristotle, he
showed that an organism can associate a particular stimulus (S) with a particular
response (R). Learning is the result of an association formed between a stimulus
(such as food) and a response (the animal salivating). Later, one could substitute
food with the sound of a bell (a neutral stimulus) and yet the animal salivates.
Such associations or "habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature
and frequency of the S-R pairings. For example, when the organism realises that
the sound of the bell does not result in food, the animal stops salivating and the
behaviour is said to be extinct.
Figure 3.2: Pavlovs experiment with dogs

Source: http://www.filisofie.science.ru.htm
3.2.2 Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

Thorndike also worked with animals and defined learning as habit formation. In
his experiments, a hungry cat was placed in a box and could escape and eat the
food by pressing a lever inside the box (see Figure 3.3). After much trial and error
behaviour, the cat learned to associate pressing the lever (Stimulus) with opening
the door (Response). This S-R connection when established resulted in a
satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). Each time the animal was put in
the box, it took lesser time to press the lever and escape because the animal has
learned. Based on these experiments, Thorndike proposed three laws which he
called:
Figure 3.3: Thorndikes puzzle box

Source: http://www.freeclipart.com
Law of Effect If a response (e.g. doing a mathematics problem) is followed

by a pleasurable or rewarding experience (e.g. student gets the right answer
and is praised by the teacher), the response will be strengthened and become
habitual.
Law of Exercise Connections between stimulus (e.g. getting the right
answer) and response (e.g. doing a mathematics problem) is strengthened
with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued.
Law of Readiness Certain behaviours are more likely to be learned than
others because the nervous system of the organism is ready to make the
connection leading to a satisfying state of affairs. It is preparation for action.
The task of the teacher is to arrange the classroom and learning activities so as to
enhance connection between a stimulus and response.
3.2.3 B. Frederick Skinner (1900-1980)

The theory of Skinner was based upon the idea that learning is a function of
change in overt behaviour. He introduced the term 'operant' which means to act
upon. He put a hungry rat in a box and each time the rat pressed the lever, a food
pellet would be given. This resulted in the rat pressing the lever each time it
wanted food. The change in behaviour or learning by the rat is the result of the
animal's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. For example,
a child will do her homework because she knows that she will be allowed to
watch her favourite TV programme. When a particular response or behaviour is
reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer could be

anything. It could be a parent saying good work or the child obtaining an A
in history which gives the child a feeling of accomplishment and satisfaction.
These are examples of positive reinforcement. However, there are also negative
reinforcers which are any stimuli that give rise to a response when it is
withdrawn. For example, the rat will press the lever to stop the electric shock
given (see Figure 3.4). A mother will pick up her child who is crying because she
cannot bear to hear him cry. Similarly, when you enter a car, you put on the
safety belt to avoid the irritating sound of the buzzer. In other words, the
behaviour of picking up the baby and putting on the safety belt is performed
to avoid unpleasantness. On the other hand, punishment is administered when
you want to reduce the occurrence of a particular behaviour. For example, a boy
who does not help his mother is not allowed to go out to play football. In other
words, the mother is depriving the boy the pleasure of playing football. Based on
a schedule of rewards and punishment, the behaviour of an organism can be
modified.
Figure 3.4: Skinners box

Source: http://www.csus.edu/ClassLectureThreeOperant.html
What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

In classical conditioning, the organism is not able to change the environment. For
example, in Pavlov's experiments, the dog had no choice whether to salivate or
not when given food or the sound of the bell. In operant conditioning, the
organism has the choice to act or not to act because its response is determined by
the stimulus or the food given. Operant conditioning has been widely applied in
behaviour modification, classroom management and instructional design.
Programmed instruction based on Skinner's ideas was widely adopted in the
1960s and is still used today (with modifications). For example, in programmed
instruction students are presented with manageable chunks of information in
gradual steps and feedback is immediately provided to reinforce understanding.
Good performance is provided with reinforces such as verbal praise, prizes and
good grades. Remember the gold or silver star you would get next to your name
in primary school for good behaviour or good grades! Behaviour that is
positively reinforced will be repeated and information presented in small
amounts can reinforce and shape the formation of the behaviour desired.
3.2.4 Walter Bandura (1925 Present)

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasised the importance of observing
and modelling the behaviours, attitudes and emotional reactions of others.
According to Bandura, learning would be a slow process if people had to rely solely
on their own efforts to do anything. Fortunately, a substantial amount of human
behaviour is learned by observing others. For the student to learn, he or she must
watch and pay attention to the model and the behaviour being modelled. The
information observed must be retained in some form in memory. Next, the student
must have the necessary motor and cognitive skills to reproduce the modelled
behaviour. The motivation to observe and reproduce the modelled behaviour
depends on whether the student will derive satisfaction from reproducing the
behaviour observed.
Among the most common and pervasive examples of social learning situations
are television advertisements. Advertisements suggest that drinking a certain
beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the
admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes
involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behaviour shown
in the advert and buy the product being advertised. Individuals are more likely
to model behaviours that result in something that is valued or if the model is
similar to the observer and has admired status.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. What are the differences and similarities between operant

conditioning and social learning?
2. Give examples of classical conditioning, operant conditioning
and social learning in daily life.
3.2.5 Behaviourism in the Classroom

The following is a list of behaviourist principles applied in teaching and learning:
Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning.
When learning factual material, provide immediate and frequent feedback for
complex and difficult concepts.
Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts.
Break down complex tasks into smaller and manageable sub-skills.
Sequence material to enhance understanding; e.g. teach simple concepts first
before proceeding to more difficult and abstract concepts.
Model the behaviour which students are to imitate and repeat
demonstrations when necessary.
Reinforce when students demonstrate the modelled behaviour.
State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and
students.
Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what rewards
will be given.
ACTIVITY 3.2
1. Which of the behaviourist principles listed in 3.2.5 do you think

are widely practiced in classrooms? Give specific examples.
2. Select a textbook and examine how any of the behaviourist
principles have been used.
3.3 COGNITIVISM
In the 1950s, there was a realisation that behaviourism did not fully explain
human learning. Although behaviourism emphasised learning that was
observable and measurable, there was something missing, namely mental events.
In other words, what is going on in the minds of the learner when he or she is
learning or thinking (see Figure 3.5)? Cognitivists felt that it was necessary to
investigate how learners make sense of what they learn, even though such
mental events are difficult to observe and measure objectively. For example,
when students are asked What is the capital of China?, one student responds
Beijing while another responds Shanghai. Why did one student answer
correctly while the other got it wrong? By observing the responses individuals
make to different stimuli, cognitivists make inferences of the mental processes
that produce those responses.
Figure 3.5: The mystery of the black box
Cognition can be defined broadly as the act or process of knowing. Cognitive

theories of learning focus on the mind or black box and attempt to show how
information is received, assimilated, stored and recalled. However, it should be
noted that unlike behaviourism there is no single theory explaining cognitive
processes or the mysteries of the black box. Evidence seems to indicate that
learning is a multi-faceted, complex and dynamic process. Research in cognitive
psychology has been prolific and many theories have been proposed based on
empirical evidence. This is not surprising since the human mind is so complex
and attempting to unravel its mysteries is only just beginning. The various
theories proposed examine a small facet of cognition and for this reason there are
many explanations of how humans think, solve problems, make decisions and
learn.
3.3.1 The Information Processing Approach

All learning has to do something with memory. If we cannot remember from
what we have experienced we will never be able to learn anything. For example,
one morning you are introduced to Shalin. That afternoon you see her again and
say something like, "You're Shalin. We met this morning". Clearly you have
remembered her name. Memory is crucial in learning and the Stage Theory
proposed by Atkinson and Shriffin (1968) argue that information is received,
processed and stored in three different stages. This theory has also been
described as the Information Processing Approach (see Figure 3.6).
Figure 3.6: Three stages of memory (Atkinson and Shriffin, 1968)
The sensory memory receives information from various sources (visual, auditory,
smell, touch and taste) and the brain will only focus on information that has been
attended to. For example, we normally are not aware of the sensory properties of
stimuli, or what we are exposed to unless we are asked to specifically identify such
information. People are more likely to pay attention to information that is interesting
or important to them. Sensory memory is very short and lasts for about second.
Information that is attended to is encoded into short term memory (STM). Encoding
is transforming information received into a form that can be deposited or stored in
memory. A striking feature of short term memory is its very limited capacity. On the
average it is limited to seven chunks, give or take two i.e. 7 plus or minus 2 (Miller,
1956). A chunk is a unit that could be a number of words, digits, sentences or even
paragraphs. To keep information active in STM you must do something to it. For
instance, when you look up a phone number you repeat it over and over in your
mind in order to retain it until you have dialled the number. We keep information
active by rehearing it, either by repeating it (maintenance rehearsal) or give it
meaning by relating it to something we already know (elaborative rehearsal) to
prevent it from fading from STM.
Information that is encoded and rehearsed is stored in long-term memory which

consists of information that has just happened a few minutes ago or as long as a
lifetime. It has been said that all you have learned and experienced in your
lifetime is stored in long term memory; nothing is lost. Long term memory has an
unlimited capacity or storage area.
When you are unable to recall from long term memory, it is the result from a loss
of access to the information rather than from a loss of the information itself. It is
there but cannot be found. That is, poor memory may reflect a retrieval failure
rather than a storage failure. Failure to find your car keys does not necessarily
mean it is not there; you may be looking in the wrong place or it may simply be
misfiled in your brain, and therefore inaccessible. Research has identified that
successful retrieval from long term memory is enhanced when the information is
properly organised and the context in which you retrieve the information is
similar to the context in which you encoded it. For example, at a meeting you met
various professionals doctors, teachers, journalists and accountants. When you
later try to recall their names, you would do better if you organised your recall
by profession: Who were the doctors I met? Who were the teachers? And so
forth. A list of names or words is far easier to recall when you sort the words into
categories and then recall the words on a category-by-category basis.
Organisation improves retrieval, presumably by making memory search more
efficient.
Information is stored in long term memory as a network and the more we

elaborate on it, the more you will remember. In other words, the more
connections that are established between the new information and what is
already stored, the greater the number of retrieval possibilities. Information in
long term memory is usually encoded in terms of its meaning. Memory can be
improved by making meaningful connections between what is known and what
is new.
3.3.2 Meaningful Learning

The search for meaning or making sense of one's experiences is innate and the
need to act on one's environment is automatic. Our brain has been described as
both artist and scientist as it is designed to perceive and generate patterns. When
confronted with meaningless or unrelated isolated pieces of information, it tries
to make sense and create order. Learners are constantly patterning, or perceiving
and creating meanings all the time in one way or another. Information is
processed at multiple levels depending upon its characteristics. The "deeper" the
processing, the more that will be remembered (Craik and Lockhart, 1972).
Information that involves strong visual images or many associations with
existing knowledge or elaborations will be processed at a deeper level. Things
and events that are meaningful are better remembered because it requires more
processing than meaningless stimuli. The greater the processing of information
during learning, the more it will be retained and remembered.
Learning is seeing patterns; teaching is surrounding learners with the patterns

that are already known by the culture. And the difference between Nobel
Prize winners and others is that they see patterns that have not been seen
before.
(John Polanyi, Nobel Laureate)
Schools cannot stop learners from creating meaning, but can influence the
direction. Although much of what students are to learn is predetermined by the
curriculum, the ideal process is to present information in a way that allows the
learner to extract patterns, rather than try to impose the patterns. The learning
environment needs to be stable and familiar. At the same time, provisions must
be made to satisfy the learner's need for curiosity and hunger for discovery and
challenge. Lessons need to be exciting, meaningful and offer students abundant
choices. All students need to be provided with a rich environment with complex
and meaningful challenges.
David Ausubel (1960), a medical practitioner, argued that learning occurs when
one's current organisation of knowledge is changed, either because a subsuming
concept has been elaborated with the new information or because existing
concepts are now connected by a new subsuming concept. This indicates that
learners change their knowledge in a meaningful and coherent way based on
prior knowledge.
Students come to school with quite sophisticated theories about the world and an
intuitive understanding of language, numbers, and science based on their
previous experiences. They are capable of complex thinking which they apply to
problems in their daily lives, even without mastering some of the basic skills.
However, also included in this prior knowledge are preconceived ideas and
misconceptions such as stereotypes (e.g. of race, gender, etc) and simplistic
notions about the workings of the real world. When you ignore such prior
knowledge, you miss a tremendous opportunity to place new knowledge in
context and to challenge pre-existing mistaken ideas. If efforts are not made to
figure out what students believe and then confront their flawed or incomplete
notions about the world, they will continue to hold on to many misconceptions,
some of which will make it impossible for them to ever truly understand more
complex concepts.
3.3.3 Levels of Cognitive Development

According to genetic epistemologist, Jean Piaget (1955), information that is
attended to is absorbed by the senses and the human mind goes to work to
organise it and to impose personal understanding by relating it to what it already
knows. When the new information is assimilated through existing ideas and
beliefs, it is usually combined with existing knowledge and reinforces the
existing views. On the other hand, when learners have to consider information
through a new schema they may be required to transform their beliefs to
accommodate the information which is the basic process for conceptual change.
Through observation of his children, Piaget proposed the following theory of
cognitive development:
(a) Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2): In the early stage, the child's reactions
are based on reflex operations and progresses towards being able to
differentiate self from objects. By the end of this stage the child achieves
object permanence and realises that objects continue to exist even when
they cannot be seen or felt.
(b) Preoperational stage (2-7 years): The child learns to use
language and able to represent objects symbolically.
For example, a chair is used for sitting. Thinking is
egocentric in which the child finds it difficult to
consider the viewpoints of others. He or she is able to
classify objects by a single feature. For example, the
child groups together all the red objects regardless of
shape or all the square objects regardless of colour.
(c) Concrete operational (7-11 years): The child can think logically about
objects and events. For example, by age 7, the child knows that when 500
millilitres of water in a tall glass is poured into a flat container, the volume
of water is the same. The child can classify objects according to several
features and can order them in series along a single dimension such as size.
(d) Formal operations (11 years and onwards): The young person can think
logically about abstract ideas, evaluate data and test hypotheses
systematically. He or she is able to analyse ideas and comprehend spatial
and temporal relationships. At this stage, there are few or no limitations on
what the young person can learn depending on his intellectual potential
and environmental experiences.
Piaget's view on how children think and develop has had a significant impact on
educational practice and curriculum development. His ideas have been the basis
for designing kindergarten and primary school curriculum. For example,
learning materials and activities are designed to meet the appropriate level of
cognitive development and to avoid asking students to perform tasks that are
beyond their cognitive capabilities.
3.3.4 Metacognition
For many people, learning feels like a random activity; it just happens (or it
doesn't). However, this has shown to be not true because learners who order
their thoughts and focus to make sense of the information such as relating it to
prior knowledge are engaging in metacognitive thought (Flavell, 1977).
Metacognition is thinking about thinking and involves:

Your knowledge of the task;
Awareness of your own ability; and
The action you will take.
Knowledge: Unless you know how to order your thoughts, attention goes to
whatever is in the surroundings.
Awareness: Awareness of your cognitive behaviour includes being:

Aware of the purpose of the task;
Aware of what you know about the task;
Aware of what needs to be known; and
Aware of the strategies which facilitate or impede learning.
"Knowing that you know and knowing that you do not know".
Action: Action is the ability to use self-regulatory mechanisms to ensure

successful completion of the task such as:
Planning your next move;
Checking the outcome of any move made; and
Evaluating the effectiveness of any attempted move.
Experts in any field carry with them very well-developed patterns of knowledge
in their field. They draw on these known patterns whenever they encounter new
information and recognise patterns and features that are not noticed by novices.
But how do they acquire the patterns in the first place? They start with prior
learning, organise it into accessible categories or patterns, and routinely question
what they know when confronted with new patterns and new contexts. They
learn for understanding by paying attention to their learning, monitoring what
they are learning and using the feedback from this self-monitoring to make
adjustments, adaptations and even major changes to what they hold as
understanding (Brown, 1978). Students can enhance their metacognitive skills to
control their own learning. When they have skills like planning, organisation,
monitoring, revising and refocusing they enhance their metacognitive ability.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. What are the characteristics of the three memory stores?

2. What is meant by meaningful learning?
3. What is metacognition? How does it influence learning?
3.3.5 Cognitivism in the Classroom

The following is a list of cognitivist principles that may be practiced in the
teaching and learning of various subject areas:
Gain the students' attention:

Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin.
Move around the room and use voice inflections (changing tone).
Bring to mind relevant prior learning:

Review previous day's lesson.
Have a discussion about previously covered content.
Point out important information:

Provide handouts.
Write on the board or use transparencies.
Present information in an organised manner:

Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.
Go from simple to complex when presenting new material.
Show students how to categorise (chunk) related information:

Present information in categories.
Teach inductive reasoning.
Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information:

Connect new information to something already known.
Look for similarities and differences among concepts.
Show students how to use coding when memorising lists:

Make up silly sentences with the first letter of each word in the list.
Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method.
Provide for repetition of learning:

State important principles several times in different ways during
presentation of information (STM).
Have items on each day's lesson from the previous lesson (LTM).
Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills (LTM).
Source: Adaptation of Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to

cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive.
chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc.html
ACTIVITY 3.3
1. Which of the cognitivist principles listed in 3.3.5 do you think

are widely practiced in classrooms? Give specific examples.
2. Do you think schools should teach students how to learn? Why?
3.4 CONSTRUCTIVISM
A baby is born and soon takes her first step. In that short period the amount of
learning and understanding of her immediate environment is enormous. The
early years are significant because it provides the basis for language, physical
dexterity, social understanding and emotional development for the rest of the
childs life. Just imagine the vast amount of knowledge that would have been
acquired by the time the child enters school. Increasingly there is evidence to
suggest that not everything the child learns is taught by adults. The child teaches
herself by absorbing information and experiencing the world around her. Such
learning is the basis of constructivism, an idea that has generated much
excitement and interest among educators.
3.4.1 Learning is the Active Construction of

Knowledge
Constructivism is a perspective of learning that has its origins in the works of
Bruner, Piaget and Vygotsky. The knowledge, beliefs and skills an individual
brings to a learning situation should be given due importance. Learners are not
passive recipients of information but are active agents engaging in constructing
their own knowledge. According to Piaget (1955), this is done through three
mechanisms; namely assimilation (fitting a new experience into an existing
mental structure), accommodation (revising an existing schema because of a new
experience) and equilibrium (seeking cognitive stability through assimilation and
accommodation). In other words, learning involves the construction of new
understanding by combining prior learning with new information. In other
words, knowledge is constructed in the mind of the learner (Brooks and Brooks,
1993).
If this be the case then knowledge is seldom transferred intact from the mind of
the teacher to the mind of the student. "Knowledge is the result of an individual
subjects constructive activity, not a commodity that somehow resides outside the
knower and can be conveyed or instilled by diligent perception or linguistics
communication" (von Glaserfeld, 1990, p.37). Knowledge is something which is
constructed personally by individuals in an active way, as they try to give
meaning to that knowledge. Learners construct their own knowledge by looking
for meaning and order; they interpret what they hear, read and see based on their
previous learning, habits and experiences. Students who do not have appropriate
background knowledge will be unable to accurately "hear" or "see" what is before
them.
What does this mean for classroom learning? Students should not be treated as
passive learners but rather as active learners exploring and going beyond the
information given. They should be provided with authentic and challenging
projects that encourage students and teachers working together. Authentic
settings provide learners with opportunities to see a problem from different
perspectives as well as negotiate and generate solutions through sharing and
exchanging ideas. In an authentic environment, learners assume responsibility
for their own learning. The goal is to create learning communities that is more
closely related to collaborative practice in the real world.
3.4.2 Learning is a Social Activity

Constructivism emphasises that learning is a social activity. The environment in
which young people learn has a very powerful influence on them. The subtle and
overt cues that pervade a community influence them. Often it is social
experiences, rather than what is taught in schools, that accounts for much of the
variation in student learning. The community is the basic fabric of student
learning encompassing the values, beliefs, norms habits and behaviours of a
culture (Vygotsky, 1978). As students enter adolescence, the social fabric of their
learning expands as their contacts broaden and they become more closely
identified with peers. Within their peer group, young adolescents encounter
many new ideas and points of view.
If learning is social and students are social, it seems logical that social
engagement is a powerful vehicle for enhancing learning. Cooperative,
collaborative and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas,
beliefs, conceptions, inconsistencies and misconceptions with their peers and
teachers. Learning is enhanced when students learn how to learn together,
engage in serious discussion examine important topics, and have shared
responsibility for applying what they know to new situations. Organising for this
kind of learning is a much more complex kind of teaching compared to lecturing
or demonstrations.
Every child's learning develops in the context of a culture and through culture
students acquire much of the content of their thinking as well as the tools of
intellectual adaptation. Culture teaches children both what to think and how to
think and through problem solving share experiences with others such as the
teacher, parent, sibling or significant others. A difference exists between what a
student can do on his own and what the student can do with help or the zone of
proximal development (Vygotsky, 1962). What learners can do on their own is on
the level of actual ability and what they can do with help is their level of
potential ability. So, with appropriate adult help, students can often perform
tasks that they are incapable of completing on their own. Schools need to create
the conditions within which students can come to recognise their own beliefs and
engage in challenging the phenomena in their environment through exploration,

reading, laboratory investigation, debate, etc.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
1. In your words, explain the following:

(a) Students constructing their own knowledge; and
(b) Learning is a social activity.
2. Why are authentic and real world situations important in
learning?
3.4.3 Constructivism in the Classroom

Student autonomy and initiative are accepted and encouraged:
Respect students' ideas and encourage independent thinking.
Teachers help students attain their intellectual potential.
Students take responsibility for their own learning.
Higher-level thinking is encouraged:

Teachers challenge students to make connections, analyse, predict, justify and
defend their ideas.
The way which teachers ask questions will influence student response.
Teacher asks open-ended questions and allows wait time for responses.
Students are engaged in dialogue with the teacher and with each other:
Students present what they know and build their personal knowledge.
Free to express their ideas to allow for meaningful learning.
Students are engaged in experiences that challenge hypotheses and encourage

discussion:
Students generate varying hypotheses about phenomena.
Provide opportunity to test their hypotheses through dialogue.
The class uses raw data, primary sources, manipulatives, physical and
interactive materials.
Involve students in real-world situations.
Curriculum:
Curriculum emphasises big concepts, beginning with the whole and
expanding to include the parts.
Knowledge is seen as dynamic and ever changing with experience.
Source: Adapted from Brooks, J. G., and Brooks, M. G. (1993). In search of understanding:
The case for constructivist classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
ACTIVITY 3.4
1. Which of the constructivist principles listed in 3.4.3 do you

think are widely practiced in classrooms? Give specific
examples.
2. What are some problems with implementing constructivist
principles in the classroom?
3.5 HUMANISM
The humanistic approach to learning refers to a wide variety of ideas and
techniques. While there may be many interpretations, they all advocate
humanising teaching and learning. The learner is a person who has feelings,
attitudes and emotions. Emotions such as self-efficacy, self-assurance, intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation determine how a student approaches learning.
However, not all emotions facilitate learning. Stress and constant fear have a
profound effect on learners' ability to think and learn effectively. Past experience
such as grades and failures have a major impact on a student's current ability to
learn. Three noteworthy personalities who have had an impact on the emergence
of humanistic psychology are Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Arthur
Coombs.
3.5.1 Abraham Maslow

He observed that humans are constantly striving to control their behaviour and
seeking to gratify themselves. He proposed his well-know theory called
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (1943). According to this theory, individuals
satisfy their needs as follows:
(a) Survival needs: food, water, air and rest.
(b) Safety needs: to be safe and avoid danger.
(c) Belongingness and love needs: gain affection of people and need to belong
to a group.
(d) Esteem needs: to be recognised and feeling worthwhile.
(e) Knowing and understanding needs: a desire to know, learn and understand
things.
(f) Self-actualisation needs: to develop one's full potential and to fulfil one's
aesthetic needs.
Everything possible should be done to ensure that the lower-level needs of
students are satisfied, so that they are more likely to function at the higher levels.
Parents and society play a significant role in ensuring that the physiological,
safety, love, belonging and esteem needs of children are satisfied. While schools
cannot control all the influence that impinges on a learner, they can create an
atmosphere of trust, warmth and care. Schools need to create a non-threatening
environment where students feel safe and comfortable.
3.5.2 Carl Rogers

Carl Rogers was a psychotherapist who believed that the client was the most
important person and developed what he called client-centred therapy. The
therapist was not to tell the client what to do but rather the client should learn
how to control his or her own behaviour. He established a warm, positive and
acceptant atmosphere in which he was able to empathise with his clients and
sense their thoughts and feelings. When applied to education, he proposed that
classrooms become learner-centred and teachers should facilitate learning. The
teacher helps students explore new ideas about their lives, their school work,
relations with others and their interaction with society. Letting students talk
about their feelings and finding ways to vent their emotions productively can
help them to learn.
3.5.3 Arthur Combs

Arthur Combs believed that how a person perceives himself or herself is most
important and that the basic purpose of teaching is to help each student develop
a positive self-concept. The roles of the teacher are that of facilitator, encourager,
helper, colleague and friend of his or her students. Combs elaborated on these
points by listing six characteristics of good teachers:
(1) Well-informed about their subject;
(2) Sensitive to the feelings of students and colleagues;
(3) Believe that students can learn;
(4) Have a positive self-concept;
(5) Believe in helping all students do their best; and
(6) Use many different methods of instruction.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
1. What is the humanistic view of learning?

2. What do you understand by the statement teacher as
facilitator?
3. What are the six characteristics of good teachers according to
Arthur Combs?
3.5.4 Humanism in the Classroom

The following are some humanistic techniques in the classroom:
Establish a warm, democratic, positive and non-threatening learning
environment in which learner's self-concept and self-esteem are considered
essential factors in learning.
When it seems appropriate, function as a facilitator where he or she works
and shares ideas with students.
When the teacher is comfortable, the teacher may occasionally show his or
her "real person" by telling students how he or she feels.
Provide learning experiences that will lead to the development of habits and
attitudes that teachers want to foster.
Teachers should be role models and set good examples.

Students and teachers plan together the experiences and activities of the
curriculum.
Students are given choices (with limitations) and freedom (with
responsibilities); the extent of choices and freedom is related to the maturity
level and age of students.
Learning is based on life experiences, discovery, exploring and
experimenting.
ACTIVITY 3.5
1. Which of the humanistic principles listed in 3.5.4 do you think

are widely practiced in your school? Give specific examples.
2. Do you think schools give enough attention to the affective
(emotions, feelings) aspects of learning?
ACTIVITY 3.6
Curriculum for Western Australian Schools

Principles Guiding Teaching and Learning
The following are 7 principles of teaching and learning that form the basis
of the learning environment in Western Australian Schools. These
principles are based on contemporary research and knowledge about how
learning can be supported. The focus is on the provision of a school and
classroom environment which is intellectually, socially and physically
supportive of learning.
Opportunity to learn: Learning experiences should enable students to
observe and practice the actual processes, products, skills and values
which are expected of them.
Connection and challenge: Learning experiences should connect
with students' existing knowledge, skills and values while
extending and challenging their current ways of thinking and
acting.
Action and reflection: Learning experiences should be
meaningful and encourage both action and reflection on the part
of the learner.
Motivation and purpose: Learning experiences should be
motivating and their purpose clear to the student.
Inclusivity and difference: Learning experiences should respect
and accommodate differences between learners.
Independence and collaboration: Learning experiences should
encourage students to learn both independently and from and
with others.
Supportive environment: The school and classroom setting
should be safe and conducive to effective learning.
Source: Government of Western Australia, Curriculum Council.

Available at http://www. curriculum.wa. edu.au/pages/framework
/framework03g.htm
Questions:
1. Based upon what has been discussed in this topic, can you identify
which psychological perspectives are emphasised?
2. What is meant by the term learning experiences?
3. To what extent are these principles of learning emphasised in your
school curriculum?
Psychology deals with the study of learning, behaviour, attitudes and

abilities.
Behaviourism views human learning as the association between a stimulus
and the accompanying response.
Operant conditioning argues that the connection between a stimulus and a
response can be strengthened by reinforcement.
Social learning occurs when a person attends, retains and reproduces the
modelled behaviour and is motivated to do so because it is of value.
Cognitivism involves the study of the mental activities or events that takes
place when a person learns, solves a problem or makes decisions.
Meaningful learning is making connections between prior learning and the
new information learned.
Metacognition is the knowledge one has about ones thinking.
Constructivism argues that learning is not passive but involves the
construction of knowledge by the learner.
Constructivism suggests that learning is a social activity.
According to the humanist approach, learning should take into consideration
the emotions and feelings of students.
Humanism argues that the role of the teacher is that of a facilitator.
Psychology Constructivism
Behaviourism Construction of knowledge
Classical conditioning Learning as social activity
Operant conditioning Humanism
Social learning Hierarchy of needs
Cognitivism Teacher as facilitator
Information processing
approach
Meaningful learning
Cognitive development
1. According to the behaviourist perspective, instruction is essentially

"teacher-centred" and learning tends to be passive. Discuss.
2. In your view as a teacher or instructor, to what extent does the
curriculum in your institution take into account the needs and
interests of learners? Given the opportunity, what modifications
would you recommend to curriculum planners that would
accommodate these learners?
3. To what extent can constructivist principles be applied in the
classroom?
4. How would you incorporate humanistic principles in your
teaching? Give specific examples.
Bentham, S. (2002). Psychology and education. London: Routledge.

Chapter 1: Perspectives on Learning: The Cognitive Approach
Chapter 2: Perspectives on Learning: The Behaviourist and Humanistic
Approaches. [available at eBrary]
Ornstein, A. & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles and
Chapter 4: Psychological Foundations of Curriculum.
Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum: An integrative introduction. Upper Saddle River, J:
Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 6: Studies of Learners.
Stuart-Hamilton, I. (1996). Introduction to psychology. London: Jessica Kingsley
Publishers.
Chapter 7: Learning Theory [available at eBrary].
Funderstanding. (2001). About Learning,
www.funderstanding.com/about_Learning.cfm.
Teaching Resources Center, University of Berkeley. Theories of Learning.
gsi.berkeley.edu/resources/learning/
Topic Social and
4 Historical
Foundations
of Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how the changing economy has influenced curriculum;
2. Suggest how curriculum has to cater for cultural diversity;
3. Discuss how the changing family institution influences curriculum;
4. Identify the demands of some special interest groups regarding
curriculum;
5. List the criteria for what can be considered knowledge of worth;
6. Identify the underlying beliefs determining school curriculum in
early America and Japan; and
7. Give reasons for the changing curriculum emphasis in these two
countries.
TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM 77
INTRODUCTION
In Topic 2 we discussed how educational philosophy influences curriculum.

Then, in Topic 3, we saw how psychological perspectives impact curriculum. We
will now examine two factors that influence a curriculum, namely, society and
history. Specifically, we will attempt to answer the following questions: What are
some of the demands of society with regards to curriculum? How have the needs
of society been considered when developing curriculum? What are some of these
needs? What historical events have influenced curriculum?
Schools are part and parcel of a society and exist for the society. Society
influences schools through the curriculum. Schools, through their teaching of the
curriculum, can shape and mould society and society in turn can impact the
curriculum. There is rarely a curriculum that is developed without reflecting the
society. People today are more vocal in expressing their views and are eager to
see their opinions influence what is going on in schools. With advancements in
information and communication technology, people are talking and sharing
views across the globe. They are seeing things happening in other school systems
and would like to see some of these practices in their own schools.
78 TOPIC 4 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
nces 'A Big Fat World Problem'

DAVOS, Switzerland, Mon. Two big problems identified were
Concern over mounting levels of mislabelling and advertising as
obesity has sparked a lively companies sought the upper hand in a
debate among food sector cut-throat sector.
professionals and health experts
about how to halt a trend that is One of the biggest concerns raised at
medically and economically the debate was the lack of physical
harmful. education at school and snack food in
canteens and vending machines. They
The World Health Organisation agreed that companies had to
said more than one billion people properly label their foods and social
worldwide are overweight, habits had to change. Parents were
including 300 million regarded as afraid to let their children play on the
obese, a medical condition inking streets, while computers and
excess fat to long-term health television kept young people indoors.
risks.
Countries should incorporate
The causes of growing obesity consumer and health education in the
range from social, such as lack of curriculum and promote the
exercise at school and home, peer importance of physical education in
pressure to eat the latest fads and schools. Students have to be taught
centuries of habit, to corporations good nutritional habits at an early age.
involved in price fixing and
mislabelling of foods to suggest
they contain less fat and sugar or
[Source: New Straits Times, February 1, 2005]
more fibre than they do.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Read the newspaper report on "A Big Fat World Problem".

1. Can you identify the concerns of the society?
2. What has been suggested to address the problem? Do you agree?
3. Do you have other suggestions to alleviate the problem?
4.1 SOCIETY AND CURRICULUM

Education systems are closely tied to the institutional network of society. Thus, to
understand how the content of schooling is shaped in any society, we must
understand the relationship between education and other institutions in society.
In other words, to understand what is taught, how it is taught and why it is
taught, we need to look at the social forces that shape the curriculum. When
designing curriculum, the following questions must be addressed:
To what extent should curriculum consider the world outside of school?
How do changes in society affect curriculum?
Knowing the social foundations of curriculum is crucial in making decisions

about what should be included in the curriculum and eventually what happens
in the classroom. Schools exist within the context of society and influence culture
which in turn shapes the curriculum. The story Curriculum of Forest School
illustrates this point. A curriculum should be able to prepare students for the
present and the future. In other words, a curriculum should address the wants
and needs of learners by responding to social conditions locally, nationally and
globally (McNeil, 1995). Students might ask, "Why do I need to study algebra? I
do not intend to be a mathematician, computer scientist or engineer". The utility
of certain subjects in a curriculum may not be obvious to learners but teachers
know that solving problems in algebra involve thinking skills which may not
seem immediately relevant but will serve students indirectly in many professions
and jobs later in their lives. According to Burks (1998), content is useful:
If it relates to the general body of knowledge needed by average human
beings for conducting their daily life (e.g. reading, writing);
When it is related to the specific present or future situation of the student (eg.
to be a journalist one needs good language skills);
If it develops thinking skills that would probably increase the student's
success in other subject areas or in general life-decisions (e.g. geography
develops spatial thinking, art develops design skills); and
If it fulfils unavoidable requirements imposed by society as entry
qualifications to certain vocational and professional programmes (e.g.
mathematics as requirement for technical jobs).
Curriculum of Forest School
Once upon a time the animals in the forest decided to start a school. They agreed that
the curriculum should include the following subjects: swimming, hopping, climbing,
running, flying, digging and slithering. All animals were required to take all subjects.
Everything went on well until the third day when the principal, Wise Old Owl
noticed some disturbing trends. For example, the rabbits were excelling in hopping
but performed poorly in flying tests. The cheetahs were scoring As in running but
were getting D's in digging. The ducks were getting straight As in swimming but
were failing in the slithering course. The snakes easily got As in slithering but had
difficulty flying.
An emergency staff meeting was held among the teachers to find out whether is was
due to poor teaching or was it a curriculum problem. It was agreed that the teachers
were good and dedicated, practicing research-based instructional strategies. Professor
Lion from Forest State University was called in as a consultant. He discovered that
the problem was not due to poor teaching but rather the low level of curriculum
utility. He pointed out that ducks really do not need to know how to slither and
cheetahs should not be forced to learn digging skills. Neither should the snakes be
asked to take flying classes.
Prof. Lion concluded that the animals were forced to learn skills that were not
relevant to their situations. However, there are certain skills that every animal needs
to know such as finding food and water. He proposed that the curriculum be revised
to include instruction in generic skills such as food-acquisition principles and social
skills. But, animals were allowed to specialise in subjects most applicable to their
species (eg. swimming, running). The animals all rejoiced when the recommendations
were implemented and shouted "Now this is a useful curriculum".
Source: Adaptation of Buscaglia, L. F. (1972). Love. Thorofare, NJ: C.B. Slack, cited in
R. Burks (1998). A theory of secondary curriculum utility. Available at
http://www.randallburks.com/curriculum.htm
4.2 CHANGING ECONOMY AND CURRICULUM

Few would disagree that the main function of education is to produce people
with appropriate skills and knowledge to enable them to participate in the
nation's economy (refer to the "Curriculum of Forest School"). The nature of
schooling tends to reflect the nature of the society in which it is found (see Figure
4.1). For example, in the latter part of the 19th century, life in the United States
was farm based and schools mirrored that lifestyle. The one-room school house
was sufficient to meet the needs of an agrarian society. School started late and
ended early in the day to allow time for students to help their families with farm
work. School dismissed entirely during the summer so that children could help
their parents in the fields. Education was primarily didactic and learning was less
book-based than it is today. Controlled largely by the teacher, education focused
predominantly on basic skills. Teachers taught reading, writing and arithmetic to
complement the skills students learn outside school. Since relatively few students
progressed further than grade 6 or 7, the need for higher levels of education was
minimal.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the industrial revolution brought about
drastic changes in the economy of many countries. More people moved to live in
cities and worked in factories. As a consequence, new skills were needed in an
industrial society. It was then that a great change took place in education: the
model of schools as a factory emerged. Students were taught the facts and skills
they needed for industrial jobs, which they were likely to hold their entire lives.
One-room schools were eventually replaced by large buildings. Students were
sorted by grades and sat in straight rows, with a teacher at the front of the
classroom in control of learning. The curriculum was compartmentalised and
taught in separated bits and pieces similar to the way that work is completed
on an assembly line. Schools became efficient social institutions with the goal of
turning out identical products.
Figure 4.1: Changing economy and curriculum

The appearance in the early 70s of the microprocessor and the explosive growth
of networking and information technologies in the 80s and 90s witnessed the
growth of the knowledge economy. Multimedia innovations and the growth of
the internet have transformed our ability to access information. Despite all these
changes, we are still educating students in factory-model schools. Many of the
skills being taught currently are intended for jobs that either no longer exist or
will be radically different by the time a student graduates. While being aware of
the trend, educators are still unsure as to what the curriculum of the post-
industrial-style classroom should be.
Without doubt, in the post-industrial or information society, a new curriculum

will be needed. It is envisioned that in the new model, education will be more
personalised. In other words, education will be more differentiated to meet each
student's learning requirements. Students will be challenged with higher
expectations of learning, and encouraged to think critically and creatively as they
solve problems. They will spend more time using information technology and
learn independently. The knowledge gained, skills acquired and attitudes
nurtured will support them throughout life.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. State how change from an agrarian economy to an industrial

economy has influenced curriculum?
2. List some of the features of a curriculum for an information
society. Suggest other features.
4.3 THE CHANGING FAMILY INSTITUTION

AND CURRICULUM
In an agrarian or pre-industrial society, gender determined the role of
individuals. Men worked at their various crafts or the farm. When boys were old
enough they worked alongside their fathers. Women, on the other hand,
maintained the house, caring for the children and training the girls. They also
sewed, processed food (such as milling cereal) and produced clothing. Thus,
men, women and often children worked for the betterment of the whole family
and there was no individual bread-winner. Families were large and the extended
family where parents lived with their adult children was common.
The shift to the industrial economy brought about changes to the family
institution. The extended family where parents lived with their adult children
and their children rapidly declined, especially in urban areas. The family
changed from an extended kinship family to a nuclear family which consisted of

parents and their children only. Men moved from working in farms and cottage
industries to work in offices or factories owned by corporations. Women also
moved out of households to work in businesses, factories and offices. Double
income families gradually became common in many of today's society. As
parents worked away from home, children suffered. Conditions at work
sometimes strained the relationship between father and mother which led to
stress in children affecting their performance in school. To compound the
problem, families were disrupted with divorce which saw an increase in single-
parent families. Some adults remarried and formed new families from previous
marriages, posing many challenges of their own.
As more and more families moved to live in urban areas, a different set of values
was acquired. For example, in the early days, family, religion and school
complemented each other as social institutions. A shift in values has resulted in
changes in the relationship between family, education and religion. Social norms
that guided the behaviour of earlier generations have relaxed and these social
institutions (family, education and religion) are increasingly losing their ability to
guide the behaviours desired of today's generation (Sowell, 2000). Children could
now support their own families with their own earnings and as a result no longer
needed the blessings of their elders. Since advancement on the job depended on
the individuals ability and not kinship ties, obedience was no longer a necessity
(Roberts, 1990).
Families have also been disrupted with stress, violence, crime and having to live in
poor neighbourhoods. This led to the depletion of parents' personal resources
leaving them with very little energy to handle their children appropriately. Parents
are distancing themselves from schools and are passing on the task of educating
their children to the school. Schools are finding it difficult to cope with the job of
educating the next generation without the active involvement of parents in the
education of their children.
4.4 CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND CURRICULUM

Society is increasingly becoming diverse, especially in urban areas. Societies are
becoming more multicultural, multiethnic and multi-religious and it is important
that curriculum understands and reflect these changes. As stated by Ornstein and
Hunkins (1998), "the complexion of our students is changing from one colour to
various shades of colour and this adding of colour and cultural diversity will
continue into the foreseeable future" (p.146). As the world moves towards
becoming a global village, society will become even more diverse with people
bringing in new values, new languages and a new way of life.
Addressing diversity in the curriculum will continue to be a challenge for

educators. It is a task that will at times be politically sensitive. One concept that
has interested educators is assimilation or integration of the diverse groups. In
the 60s and 70s the melting pot approach was adopted in some countries (most
notable is the United States) in an attempt to assimilate people of different
cultural, ethnic and religious backgrounds. It is a metaphor for the way in which
diverse societies develop, in which the ingredients in the pot (people of different
cultures, languages and religions) are combined so as to lose their distinct
identities resulting in a final product that is quite different from the original
inputs. Usually, it involved the blending of minority groups with the majority. It
was hoped that a national identity would evolve from these varied attributes.
However, in practice the culture of the majority became dominant. This approach
has proven to be less successful in assimilating people and has been replaced by
the salad bowl approach. Here people of diverse backgrounds are all in the same
salad but maintain their own unique features. Cultural diversity of pluralism
recognises that most societies are composed of many voices and many ethnic
groups. It is a framework in which groups show respect and tolerance of each
other; coexist and interact without conflict. Power and decision making is shared
leading to more widespread participation and greater feeling of commitment
from society members.
How should curriculum address cultural diversity or pluralism? The challenge

confronting educators is developing a curriculum that is responsive to students'
diverse social and cultural values and at the same time capable of creating a
national identity based on core values and practices. It may be necessary to have
different programmes, different pedagogical approaches, flexible curriculum and
even varied educational environments to address the needs of all students. No
society can afford to socially or economically marginalise any student and the
curriculum must nurture students to become active participants in a dynamic
and emerging society (Schon, 1993).
4.5 SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS AND

CURRICULUM
Curriculum decision making is political. Various special interest groups
continually propose what should be included in the school curriculum. The
topics range from substance abuse to the rights and responsibilities of citizens.
The following are some examples of proposals from special interest groups:
Environmental groups insist that students should be taught about conservation
and preservation and the inculcation of values to love the environment. Among
the concerns of these groups are caring for our rivers, industrial pollution, saving
the whales and leatherback turtles.
Substance abuse is another society concern. Substance abuse includes drugs

(such as heroin, marijuana, ecstasy pills, etc), alcohol, cigarettes, glue sniffing and
so forth. Society has repeatedly emphasised the need for substance abuse
prevention programmes to be included in the school curriculum. The groups
involved in prevention of drug addiction are keen to see that students are taught
about drug addiction in the hope that they will be more aware of the problem
and say "no" to the habit.
Consumer advocates are keen to see that students are taught about their rights
and responsibilities as consumers in the hope that they will be more prudent
consumers as students and later as adults.
Health groups have also suggested that schools introduce programmes about
HIV and AIDS awareness, nutritional information, and other health related
issues. As society becomes more developed, the rise in obesity is of concern in
terms of its consequences on the health system, especially in worker productivity
and increased expenditure on health care [refer to Activity 4.1].
Sex education has been a topic that has been proposed at various points;
especially when statistics and instances of teen pregnancy and promiscuity are
highlighted by the media and government reports.
Crime prevention by educating the community on crime prevention techniques
and involving citizens in crime prevention activities such as neighbourhood
watch to reduce the number of crimes and increase the quality of life of citizens.
Governments are also determined to ensure that students are taught about their
rights and responsibilities as citizens. Citizenship education has been proposed
in an effort to politically socialise students with democratic ideals, principles and
practices. Being prepared to play a part in political institutions is essential, such
as the ability to make informed decisions at a personal and societal level.
Similarly, to be educated to take an active part in the cultural life of society such
as holding on to religious and moral beliefs, the ability to use and interpret a
wide range of media, socialisation of children and so forth.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. What changes are happening to the family institution? List other

changes not mentioned in the text.
2. What is the difference between the melting pot and salad bowl
approaches in assimilating people of diverse backgrounds?
3. Identify other special interest groups and interested parties who
have voiced their opinions on what should be taught.
4.6 KNOWLEDGE THAT IS OF MOST WORTH

As society changes so does knowledge. Knowledge is growing at a rapid rate and
educators are finding it a challenge as to what to include in the curriculum.
Increase in knowledge, especially in science and technology is the result of
increasing subdivisions and specialisations within the fields. The proliferation of
several new fields of study or branches has contributed to an exponential
increase in the quantity of knowledge. For example, in the field of information
technology alone, information is expanding daily. Just look at the number of new
words and terminologies being coined in the field of computer science,
telecommunication and genetic engineering. There is a continuing debate on
what knowledge should be included in the curriculum of primary, secondary
and even tertiary level education. Some segments of society argue that students
should be given a general education which will equip them with generic skills to
function effectively in society. Others argue that students should be given the
knowledge and skills of specific disciplines to prepare them for specific careers.
Futurists such as John Naisbitt and Alvin Toffler assert that knowledge should
prepare students for the future. "Nothing should be included in the required
curriculum unless it can be strongly justified in terms of the future. If this means
scrapping a substantial part of the formal curriculum, so be it" (Toffler, 1972,
p.132).
Ornstein and Hunkins (1998, p.153) provided the following guiding principles in
selecting knowledge for a society that is changing rapidly:
1. Knowledge should comprise basic tools (this includes reading, writing,
arithmetic, oral communication and computer literacy).
2. Knowledge should facilitate learning how to learn (provide learners with
skills and tools to be efficient and effective independent learners).
3. Knowledge should be applicable to the real world (to be able to apply their
knowledge in the solution of real-world problems).
4. Knowledge should improve learners' self esteem and personal integrity
(learners to feel good about themselves and be able to get along with
others).
5. Knowledge should consist of many forms and methods (because there are
different ways of learning, various options and alternatives should be
provided in acquiring knowledge).
6. Knowledge should prepare the individual for the world of technology (able
to keep abreast with and function in an accelerating world of science and
technology).
7. Knowledge should prepare individuals for the world of bureaucracy (able
to deal with various types of bureaucratic organisations in the government,
business, industry and services).
8. Knowledge should permit the individual to retrieve old information (to

modify and transform old knowledge to produce new knowledge).
9. Knowledge acquisition should be a lifelong process (schools provide the
basics and beyond those, individuals learn from other sources such as
books, newspapers, television and the Internet).
10. Knowledge should be taught in context with values (teaching has to
incorporate values because interpretation of knowledge reflects the value
structure of the individual).
ACTIVITY 4.2
1. To what extent do you agree with the guidelines proposed by

Ornstein and Hunkins on knowledge that is of most worth for
schools?
2. Examine the suggestions in relation to your primary and
secondary school curriculum?
4.7 EVOLUTION OF CURRICULUM

Have you ever wondered what school was like in 1930? What subjects were
taught to the primary school child during that time? What textbooks were used?
In Malaysia, during the 1950s the textbooks used in the primary school were
biased towards life in England. For example, students learned about the English
farmer and his daily activities. If you trace the history of any education system,
you will be able to identify many events which have influenced the curriculum.
Curriculum is created by people based on the circumstances and beliefs during
that period of time. The curriculum is reflective of the political ideologies,
economic systems, religious convictions and conceptions of knowledge at a
particular point in time. To understand how these beliefs and practices have
influenced curriculum throughout history, we will examine the educational
systems of the United States of America and Japan beginning from the 17th
century to early 20th century.
4.7.1 Case Study 1: History of the American School

Curriculum
Europeans came to America and established the first colony in Jameston, Virginia
in 1607. Many of the people who settled in America came to escape religious
persecution. The Pilgrims, founders of Plymouth, Massachusetts, arrived in 1620.
Later they settled in the other New England region in the states of Maine,
Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New Hampshire. In the south, other
than Virginia, they settled in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and
Maryland. Slaves were brought in to work in the tobacco and cotton plantations
and by 1770 there were more than 2 million people living the colonies under
British rule.
School Curriculum in Colonial America (Before 1776)

At the primary level, the main purpose of schooling was to teach children to read,
write and spell for the purpose of reading the Bible, government notices and
common law. The first primary school was built in Massachusetts. There were two
main types of schools, the town school and private schools. The town school was a
locally controlled primary school. Often it was a crude, one-room structure attended
by both boys and girls of the community (see Figure 4.1). Students sat on benches
and studied their assignments until called on by the teacher to recite. In that one-
room were children from ages 6 to 14 years. Attendance was not always regular
depending on weather conditions and the farming cycle. Which time of the farming
cycle do you think attendance would be low? The private schools were established
by religious groups and specific ethnic groups to educate their own children. These
primary schools also focused on reading and writing and religious education and
were attended by upper-class children.
Figure 4.1: A One-Room Schoolhouse in Colonial America

Teachers were expected to know many subjects as they taught students of different age
groups attending different grades in one classroom.
Source: http://www.newdeal.feri.org/library/ab95.htm
At the secondary level there were two types of schools; Latin grammar schools
and the Academy. The sons of the upper class attended Latin Grammar School
for preparation toward entering university. The curriculum consisted of studying
Latin, Greek, arithmetic, classical literature, ancient history and religious
education. These schools followed closely the model of European schools and
their role was to support the religious and social institutions of that era
(Morrison, 1990). The Academy was established to offer a practical curriculum
for those not going to university. Its curriculum consisted of English grammar,
classics, composition, rhetoric and public speaking. Latin was not considered a
crucial subject. Students could choose a foreign language based on their
vocational needs. For example, those who wanted to go into business could do
German, French or Spanish. Mathematics and history were given importance,
together with the teaching of specific skills such as carpentry, engraving,
printing, farming, and book keeping.
With regards to university education, most students from Latin grammar schools
went to Harvard or Yale. The curriculum consisted of courses in Latin, grammar,
logic, rhetoric, astronomy, ethics, metaphysics, ancient history, Greek, Hebrew
and natural sciences.
The education system described above was to a large extent confined to the New
England States. What was happening to the rest of the United States? In the
Southern colonies (such as South Carolina, North Carolina, Maryland and
Georgia), education was left to the family or home education. Wealthy
landowners employed private tutors to educate their children and some sent
their children to England to finish their education. For most poor whites who
worked on their farms, formal education was nonexistent. Unable to read and
write, many grew up to be subsistence farmers like their parents before them.
Children of black slaves in the plantations were forbidden to learn to read and
write and were cast aside as the underclass of society. Children were taught from
an early age that mankind was divided naturally by race; each race having
certain physical and mental characteristics which had remained fundamentally
unchanged throughout history. Southerners justified slavery on the basis that
blacks were incapable of improvement, all the while denying them access to any
type of formalised education.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
1. What was taught in primary schools in the New England states

during the colonial period?
2. How were children in the Southern colonies of the United
States educated?
School Curriculum After Independence: (1776 -1900)

The American Revolution of 1776 had ended British rule in the colonies. The new
government set a new mission for education. Emphasis was on life, liberty and
equality as enshrined in the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights
which formed the constitution of the United States of America. Emphasis on
democracy, the development of a strong federal government, the idea of religious
freedom and the new discoveries in natural science saw the decline of religious
influence over primary and secondary schools (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). For
example, individuals like Benjamin Rush and Thomas Jefferson asserted that
American schools should be reformed to focus on subjects such as science,
reading, writing, geography and higher mathematics. Education should be made
accessible to the wider population and not confined to the upper-class and
privileged few. Mass education was essential if citizens are to actively participate
in the democratic process.
The monitorial system taken from Europe was introduced in American schools
by Joseph Lancaster (1778-1838), in which academically superior students or
monitors were taught by the teachers and they in turn taught their classmates.
The system enabled a small number of adult masters to educate large numbers of
students at low cost in basic and often advanced skills. Instruction was highly
structured and based on rote learning and drilling of reading, writing and
arithmetic. The system was practiced both in primary and secondary schools.
Later this system gave way to schools that were graded and students of the same
age groups were grouped together.
The common school, today's public school, evolved as a result of the belief that a
well-educated citizen was essential to the survival of a new-found democracy.
Through a common programme of civic education, it set out to inculcate an
American identity and loyalty. Its major purpose was to integrate children of
various social, economic and ethnic backgrounds into the broad American
community. The aim of the common school was to develop the basic literacy
skills of students that could be used in everyday life as well as skills and attitudes
that made one into a competent shopkeeper, merchant, artisan and worker. The
education provided was to facilitate upward mobility and occupational choice
(Ornstein & Levine, 1985). Schools were financed by the state and the local
community who governed them. The coming of the common school laid the
foundation of the American public school system. By 1900, the majority of
children aged 6 to 13 were enrolled in primary schools. Table 4.1 traces the
curriculum of the American primary school from 1800 until 1900.
Table 4.1: The American Primary School Curriculum 1800-1900
1800 1825 1850 1875 1900

Reading Reading
Declamation Declamation Literature Literature
Spelling Spelling Spelling Spelling Spelling
Writing Writing Writing Penmanship Writing
Religion Good Conduct Conduct Conduct
behaviour
Arithmetic Arithmetic Mental Arithmetic Arithmetic
arithmetic Primary/Advance
- Manners and Manners - -
morals
- Bookkeeping Bookkeeping - -
- Grammar Grammar Grammar Grammar
- Geography Geography Home geography Geography
Text geography Text geography
- - US History US History History studies
- - Object lessons Object lessons Nature study
- - - Science Science
- - - Drawing Drawing
- - - Physical exercises Physical
training
- - - - Music
Play
Sewing
Cooking
Source: From Cubberley, E. P. (1920). The history of education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
p.756, cited in Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, principles
and issues. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, p.74
Later in the 19th century, the public high school was fashioned to complete the
educational ladder that led to the state college and university. As the common
school movement expanded, the ideal was to provide as much education as
possible for all children and youth. The slogan was "more education for more
people" and high schools were established and it gradually replaced the
Academy. By 1890 there were 2526 high schools in the United States with an
enrolment of more than 200,000 students. In 1900 about 10% of the youth aged 14
to 17 were in school, which then rose to 50% in 1930. The provision of public
secondary schools became an obligation of the states, rather than a volunteer
matter for parents and the local district to decide.
Between 1800 and 1825, the curriculum of American secondary schools consisted
of Latin, Greek, classical literature, writing, arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry,
bookkeeping, grammar, rhetoric, surveying, astronomy, geography, philosophy
and foreign languages (Spanish, German and French). Between 1875 and 1900,
the curriculum included all subjects listed earlier plus the following subjects:
meteorology, chemistry, physiology, health education, botany, zoology, biology,
physics, world history and ancient history. The curriculum was expanded to
allow students to explore their interests and capabilities.
ACTIVITY 4.3
List of Punishments in a North Carolina School, 1848.
Rules of School Lashes (Strokes)

___________________________________________________
Boys and girls playing together 4

Fighting 5
Playing cards in school 4
Telling lies 7
Nicknaming each other 4
For misbehaving to girls 10
For having long finger nails 2
Wrestling in school 4
Unable to recall a word from memory without excuse 1
___________________________________________________
1. Comment on the punishment for breaking schools rules in
early American schools.
2. Compare the punishment for breaking school rules above
with your school system.
Source: Coon, 1915 cited in G.R. Lefrancois, 1982, Psychology for
teaching. Belmont, CA.: Wardsworth, p.53
4.7.2 Case Study 2: History of Japan's School

Curriculum
School Curriculum: Tokugawa Era (1603-1867)
A significant date in Japanese history is the ending of wars between different
warlords in 1603 and the founding of the Tokugawa Regime by Tokugawa Ieyasu.
The Tokugawa family took over control of the country and ruled as Shogun or
"generalissimo", in the name of the Emperor. The Shogun's government, called the
Bakufu (or tent-government) was the national government of Japan which had
jurisdiction over areas controlled by the Tokugawa family as well as areas controlled
by many feudal lords. The Tokugawa shoguns established a highly bureaucratic
government, giving great control over Japanese society from its system of education
to its business practices and religious institutions. Japanese society was stratified as
follows: daimyo (lords), samurai (warrior), farmers, artisan, merchants and others
(actors and outcasts). During the Tokugawa period, there were five types of schools,
namely; shogunal schools, daimyo schools, shijuku, terakoya and gogaku.
The shogunal schools were for the children aged between 8 and 15 years from the
samurai or warrior class. Emphasis was on the teaching of Confucianism (it was
forbidden to teach other doctrines), gunnery, technology and cartography.
Confucian classics were memorised, and reading and reciting them were common
methods of study. With this form of education the role of the samurai gradually
changed from warrior to administrator. By the end of the Tokugawa era there were
27 shogunal schools.
The daimyo schools were set up in all the feudal domains of Japan and provided
education for the samurai but later extended to commoners. The curriculum was
based on Confucian ideas but included history of Japan and China, calligraphy,
composition and etiquette. Some of the domain schools also taught Chinese and
Western medicine, Dutch studies, military science, geography and astronomy.
There were nearly 300 domain schools and about half opened their doors to
commoners. Many of the schools emphasised different curriculum for the
different ranks of the samurai. For example, for the higher ranked samurai
children, character education was most important with focus on proper manners,
proper language to superiors and inferiors, frugality, toughness, moderation in
food and drink. The aim was to prepare them to take over the governing class
and to be future leaders. Practical subjects such as arithmetic and Western
subjects which produced technicians was introduced to the lower samurai class
and commoners but not the higher samurai class.
The shijuku (private academies) were private schools which provided education
for the samurai class from primary until higher education. Similar to the domain
schools, many of them opened their doors to commoners. There were about 1,100
shijuku schools by the end of the Tokugawa era. These schools offered a
curriculum consisting of medicine, Dutch studies, Western subjects, military

subjects and navigation. Since they were private schools, they were freer than
other schools to teach doctrines and subjects that were forbidden (Passin, 1982).
These schools became the centres which held strong views against the Tokugawa
shogunate. They produced leaders who helped spread Western ideas and
knowledge. The idea of merit was being practiced in these schools as opposed to
the class students originated from. For example, an individuals performance and
examination grades were emphasised rather than his social class.
Figure 4.2: Terakoya schools during the Tokugawa period

Temple schools educated children of common people. Students were taught to read, write
and use the abacus. In the capital city of Edo, the literacy rate was 86% for boys and 30% for
girls. In the outlying areas, the literacy rate for boys was 56% and for girls it was 15%.
Source: http://www.honco.net/.../01/ caption/ caption-3-09.html
The terakoya (children of the temple) was the most important and widespread
school for commoners. These schools were originally run by Buddhist temples
but later became secular for the common people (see Figure 4.2). Though the
majority of terakoya schools were concentrated in the towns and cities, some
were established in the rural areas to improve the literacy levels of farmers and
artisans. The majority of terakoya schools focused on reading, writing and
arithmetic. Some schools also taught vocational subjects, etiquette, morals and
accounting while others taught geography, history, science, military arts and
even English. Students were not divided into grades. Although education was
the norm, there were far fewer girls than boys, and the two groups were rigidly
separated in seating arrangements. Attendance requirements were casual and
easily adjusted to the work routines of shop or farm. During the busy agricultural
season, village terakoya schools were closed and students were given time to
keep up with their household chores.
By the end of the Tokugawa era there were 14,000 terakoya schools and over
17,000 teachers. Teachers were not trained or licensed. Most were volunteers
consisting of retired officials, public-spirited samurai and educated commoners.
Students did not pay fees and teachers were not paid. Schools were maintained
by donations. Teachers were highly respected and had great authority.
According to a well-known textbook, "the pupil should be careful not to step on
the teacher's shadow or to come within seven paces of him" (Passin, 1982, p.33).
Teaching methods were not standardised and the basic subjects were taught
using simple primers (elementary textbooks) prepared by teachers which were
closely linked to the daily life and occupational expectations of students. The
following are some examples of these primers:
Farmer's Reader;
Increased Profits for Farmers;
Bumper Crops;
Merchant Reader;
Navigation and Shipping Reader; and
Wholesaler's Reader.
SELF-CHECK 4.4
1. What were the main differences between the curriculum of the

shogunal, daimyo and shijuku schools during the Tokugawa
era?
2. What are the main features of the curriculum of the terakoya
schools? Why was such a curriculum preferred?
Apart from formal schooling, a highly developed apprenticeship system

provided direct vocational training. This was carried out mainly in the family,
though some involved apprenticeship in commercial houses. Besides learning a
trade, the training also included discipline and proper behaviour. The
educational achievements and the high respect for learning of Tokugawa Japan
played a large role in Japan's smooth transition to the modern age in the Meiji
period. With a large number of schools for both samurai and commoner children,
the country had achieved a high general literacy rate. The Tokugawa shogunate
showed great interest in learning even from foreign countries. They supported
the translation and study of Western works on science, geography, medicine,

military science and other subjects. These studies allowed the Japanese to be
exposed to Western technology and ideas, which facilitated the transition of
Japan to a modern country in the Meiji era.
School Curriculum: Meiji Era (1867 - 1900)

When the Tokugawa period began, few common people in Japan could read or
write. By the period's end, learning had become widespread. Tokugawa
education left a valuable legacy: an increasingly literate populace, an ideology
based on meritocracy (even though it practiced feudalism) and an emphasis on
discipline and competent performance. Under subsequent Meiji leadership, this
foundation would facilitate Japan's rapid transition from a feudal country to a
modern nation. Internally Japan was faced with an entirely new form of
government; having been ruled under a feudal system since 1600, the Japanese
were not individually prepared to become a modern nation. To better prepare
themselves for modernisation, a national education system was introduced to
help Japan catch up with the West. The education system would not only raise
the level of common education, but would also work toward instilling a sense of
national pride.
Initially the Japanese hurriedly translated western text books and used them in
their classrooms. However, they soon learned that schooling can be used as a
boost to national pride; by replacing American or European stories of triumph
with those of Japanese war heroes. The education system was used to establish a
strong sense of Japanese patriotism. Also, the new system of education was
geared toward creating a distinctively Japanese culture; no longer would the
Japanese use traditional Chinese symbols in formal writing, instead they
developed a system of casual writing that would be understood broadly. The
education system was developed in a manner that would prepare the youth for
more technical positions all the while creating a strong sense of nationalism and
love for the Emperor.
Even with the progress in the field of education, more had to be done to remove
the feudal traditions of the past. In order to prepare the population for a centrally
administered government, the traditional feudal districts were gradually
consolidated into larger blocks. The larger districts allowed for a more efficient
system of administration and gave the government more power to control the
people.
In educating their society, the Japanese not only sent thousands of students
abroad to study at foreign universities, they also selected individuals who would
visit other countries and study specific niches of culture, industry, or military.
From their experiences the Japanese then consciously decided which methods to
adopt. They looked to the United States for educational reforms. As an indication
of its success, elementary school enrolments climbed from about 40 or 50 percent

of the school-age population in the 1870s to more than 90 percent by 1900.
By the 1890s, after the earlier intensive preoccupation with Western ideas, a
conservative and traditional orientation evolved: the education system became
more reflective of Japanese values. The emperor when visiting a local school,
found out that some Japanese students speaking in English were unable to
translate back into Japanese the English that they spoke. In 1879, he issued the
Great Principles of Education and argued that the decline of Japanese culture was
due to Western education. Confucian precepts were stressed, especially those
concerning the hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the new state,
the pursuit of learning, and morality. In the early twentieth century, education at
the primary level was egalitarian and virtually universal, but at higher levels it
was highly selective, and elitist. College education was largely limited to the few
national universities. Three of the imperial universities admitted women, and
there were a number of women's colleges, some quite prestigious, but women
had relatively few opportunities to enter higher education.
ACTIVITY 4.4
Education and Social Mobility
In modern society, occupational stratification is relatively open. People can

achieve different levels of socioeconomic status. They can be socially mobile,
up or down the stratification system. However, this is not always with some
systems of stratification. For example:
(a) In slave societies, such as the American South in the 18th century, the
slave was legally owned by their master and their positions were
fixed.
(b) In caste societies, such as in India, position in the stratification system
is fixed at birth and strictly no social mobility is allowed. However,
this is gradually breaking down today.
(c) Similarly, in feudal societies, such as in Europe and Japan in the 15th
and 16th century, social positions were fixed and clearly defined (i.e.
lords, vassals and fiefs). People could not move up the social ranks.
(i) How has education enabled social mobility? Give specific
examples.
(ii) Why do you think a sector of the population was either
deprived of education or given a different form of education in
those societies?
(iii) Is social stratification still prevalent in society? Give specific
examples.
Curriculum is a reflection of societal values and beliefs.

The changing economy determines the characteristics of the curriculum.
Curriculum will have to address changes in the family institution.
Curriculum has to consider ethnic and cultural diversity of the population.
Special interest groups play an important role in influencing curriculum.
It is a challenge for curriculum developers to decide on knowledge that is
most worth.
Curriculum is related closely to the ideological beliefs of a nation at a
particular point in time.
Social mobility Town schools

Economy and curriculum Latin grammar schools
Factory model The academy
Information society Shogunal schools
Cultural diversity Daimyo schools
Melting pot approach Terakoya Schools
Salad bowl approach Common schools
Changing family institution Public schools
Pressure groups
1. How has the school curriculum in your country responded to

different societal demands?
2. When you were in school, were the concerns of society
regarding the curriculum similar or different from the concerns
of today?
3. Interview individuals who were in primary or secondary
school during the 1960s. What was schooling like during that
period? Has it changed or in many aspects still the same today?

Chapter 3: Conflict in the curriculum? [Available at eBrary].
Cornbleth, C. (2000). Curriculum politics, policy, practice. New York: State
University of New York Press.
Chapter 7: Curriculum as a site of memory: The struggle of a history in
South Africa [Available at eBrary].
Kerry, S. (1999). Harm in the school system. School Reform.net

http://www.school-reform.net/
Chapter 5: Social foundations of curriculum.

NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 5: Studies of society and culture.
Valiant, B. (2005). 21st century basic skills. Valiant Etc: News and Resources for
Thoughtful Educators.
http://valetc.com/article.php?sid=51&mode=&order=0
Topic Curriculum
5 Development
Process
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe Tyler's model of curriculum development;
2. Explain the features of Taba's curriculum development model;
3. Describe the Saylor and Alexander model;
4. Compare the Tyler, Taba, and the Saylor and Alexander models;
5. Differentiate between the levels of educational goals;
6. Compare the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains; and
7. Formulate objectives using the different taxonomies.
INTRODUCTION
Source: http://www.iconandclipart.com
In Topics 2, 3 and 4, we discussed how philosophy, psychology, society and

historical events influence curriculum. In Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8, we will examine
the different phases of the curriculum development process. The first phase is
102 TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
curriculum planning followed by curriculum design, curriculum implementation

and curriculum evaluation. In this topic we will examine in general the
curriculum development process by referring to three well-known curriculum
development models; namely, the Tyler model, the Taba model, and the Saylor
and Alexander model. In the second part of the topic, we focus on the first phase
of the process namely, curriculum planning which involves establishing the goals
and objectives of a curriculum based on the agreed educational philosophy.
Adapted from: http://www.freeclipart.com
ACTIVITY 5.1
1. What is the cartoons message?
2. How far is this reflected in your countrys education system?
5.1 THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

PROCESS
Curriculum is the foundation of the teaching-learning process whether it is a
school, college, university or training organisation. The textbooks used, how
teachers are trained, development of instructional plans, evaluation of students,
preparation of guides for both students and teachers, and setting of standards,
TOPIC 5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS 103
are all based on the curriculum. Thus, without a curriculum no educational

institution can function efficiently. Given such importance to curriculum, a
number of questions are raised. How is it developed? How is it organised? Who
develops it? What are the principles in developing a curriculum? How do we
know whether the curriculum is successful?
Curriculum is a plan for ordering and directing the teaching-learning experiences

that students encounter in an educational institution. The process of providing
the plan and keeping it running smoothly is known as curriculum development.
Curriculum development is the more comprehensive term, which includes
planning (determination of aims and goals), design, implementation and
evaluation. Since curriculum development implies change and betterment,
curriculum improvement is often used synonymously with curriculum
development, though in some cases improvement is viewed as the result of
development (Oliva, 1982). Curriculum development is a process that
continuously strives to find newer, better and more efficient means to accomplish
the task of educating the next generation.
5.2 MODELS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

What is a model? A model consists of interacting parts that serves as a guide or
procedure for action. Some models are simple while others are very complex. In
many instances, models are more similar than different and are often refinements
or revisions of earlier models. There are many models of curriculum
development, but in this topic, we will discuss three well-known models: the
Tyler Model, the Taba Model, and the Saylor and Alexander Model. Each of these
models is named after their originator.
5.2.1 The Tyler Model

One of the best known curriculum models is the Tyler Model introduced in 1949
by Ralph Tyler in his classic book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction
in which he asked four questions:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these
purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organised?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
In essence, Tyler's questions represent the four-step sequence of:

Identifying purposes or objectives;
Selecting the means for the attainment or achievement of these objectives i.e.
what educational or teaching-learning experiences have to be provided for
students;
Organising these educational or teaching-learning experiences; and
Evaluating the outcomes or what students have attained or achieved.
By "purposes", Tyler was referring to "objectives" and when developing

curriculum objectives data should be gathered from three sources; namely, the
subject area (e.g. Science, Mathematics, Geography, History), the learners (e.g.
economically disadvantaged, gifted, varying academic abilities) and society (e.g.
ethics, patriotism, national unity, environmental awareness, employment, market
needs). Figure 5.1 presents Tyler's model of curriculum development.
After identifying the objectives (which are the desired learning outcomes), the
curriculum developer has to pass them through two screens: the philosophy
screen and the psychology screen. Resulting from this are specific instructional
objectives which state the kind of outcomes that are observable are measurable.
The next step is the selection of educational experiences which enable the
attainment of the stipulated objectives. The learning experiences have to take into
account the previous experiences learners bring to a situation. The learning
experiences will have to be selected based on what is known about human
learning and human development.
Next, Tyler talked about the organisation and sequencing of these learning
experiences. He emphasised that the experiences should be properly organised
so as to enhance learning and suggested that ideas, concepts, values and skills be
used as organising elements woven into the curriculum. These elements would
serve as organisers linking content within a particular subject (e.g. History,
Economics, Science) and also determine the method of instruction or delivery of
content. [We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6].
Finally, Tyler proposed that evaluation should be an important part of the

curriculum development process. It was necessary for educators to know
whether the selected learning experiences produced the intended results. For
example, if the objective was to develop critical thinking among students, did the
learning experiences selected achieve this objective? Through evaluation it will
be possible to determine whether the curriculum was effective or ineffective.
[We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8].
There is no denying that Tyler's thinking has greatly influenced the field of
curriculum, especially curriculum development. The four questions that he
raised had and still have great appeal because it is very reasonable and workable.
Despite much criticism of the model as being too linear, that is, cause and effect,
there is no denying that his thinking continues to be popular (Ornstein &
Hunkins, 1998).
SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. What is the role of objectives in Tyler's model?

2. Why do objectives have to be screened by philosophy and
psychology?
3. Give THREE specific examples of "learning experiences"
according to the Tyler Model.
4. What are elements? Give specific examples.
5. What is the purpose of evaluation?
Figure 5.1: Tyler's Curriculum Development Model

Source: Adapted from Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations,
principles and issues. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, p.198.
5.2.2 The Taba Model

Another approach to curriculum development was proposed by Hilda Taba in
her book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice published in 1962. She
argued that there was a definite order in creating a curriculum. She believed that
teachers, who teach the curriculum, should participate in developing it which led
to the model being called the grass-roots approach. She noted seven major steps
to her grass-roots model in which teachers would have major input (see Figure
5.2). She was of the opinion that the Tyler model was more of an administrative
model. The Tyler model involved too much top-down decision making. The
greater portions of curriculum decisions were made by administrators in the
Central Office or the Ministry of Education.
Taba felt that a curriculum should be designed by the users of the programme.
Teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units for
their students. She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to
curriculum development. This meant starting with the specifics and building
toward a general design. This was just the opposite of the more traditional
deductive approach which starts with the general design and then working
toward the specifics.
Figure 5.2: Taba's Curriculum Development Model
Taba proposed the following seven major steps for her grass-roots model in
which teachers would have major input throughout the curriculum development
process:
1. Diagnosis of need: The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts
the process by identifying the needs of students for whom the curriculum is
planned. For example, the majority of students are unable to think critically.
2. Formulation of objectives: After the teacher has identified the needs that
require attention, he or she specifies objectives to be accomplished.
3. Selection of content: The objectives selected or created suggest the subject
matter or content of the curriculum. Not only should objectives and content
match, but also the validity and significance of the content chosen need to
be determined; i.e. the relevancy and significance of the content.
4. Organisation of content: A teacher cannot just select content, but must
organise it in some type of sequence, taking into consideration the maturity
of learners, their academic achievement, and their interests. [We will
discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6].
5. Selection of learning experiences: Content must be presented to students
and students must be engaged with the content. At this point, the teacher
selects instructional methods that will involve the students with the
content.
6. Organisation of learning activities: Just as content must be sequenced and
organised, so must the learning activities. Often, the sequence of the
learning activities is determined by the content. But the teacher needs to
keep in mind the particular students whom he or she will be teaching.
7. Evaluation and means of evaluation: The curriculum planner must
determine just what objectives have been accomplished. Evaluation
procedures need to be designed to evaluate learning outcomes. [We will
discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8].
Tabas model has much merit. However, some argue that teacher involvement
throughout the process assumes that they have the expertise and, perhaps more
importantly, the time to engage in such an extensive and intensive curricular
activity. Teachers being involved in the early stages of curriculum development
may not necessarily be an advantage as it will not necessarily guarantee an
effective curriculum since it is a highly specialised process.
However, it cannot be denied that curriculum development requires the

involvement of many parties at various stages of the process. It involves
individuals from the Central Office or the Ministry of Education, district
education officers, principals, teachers, community leaders, subject matter
experts, academics and even students. Usually, curriculum developers at the
Central Office are given the task of directing those actions that bring together
various participants in curriculum development. Teachers may only be involved
in implementing the curriculum while the main part of the curriculum is
determined by the Ministry of Education, academics, content specialists and
employers.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
1. Explain why Taba's model is called the grass-roots model.

2. Do you think teachers should be the main decision makers in the
development of a curriculum? Why?
3. To what extent are teachers involved in developing curriculum in
your country?
5.2.3 The Saylor and Alexander Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander (1974) viewed curriculum development as
consisting of four steps (Figure 5.3). According to them, curriculum is "a plan for
providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and
related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school
centre" (p.24).
Figure 5.3: Saylor and Alexanders Curriculum Development Model
(a) Goals, Objectives and Domains: The model indicates that curriculum
planners begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific
objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a
curriculum domain and they advocate four major goals or domains:
personal development, human relations, continued learning skills and
specialisation. The goals, objectives and domains are selected after careful
consideration of several external variables such as findings from
educational research, accreditation standards, views of community groups
and others.
(b) Curriculum Designing: Once the goals, objectives and domains have been
established, planners move into the process of designing the curriculum.
Here, decisions are made on the appropriate learning opportunities for each
domain and how and when these opportunities will be provided. Will the
curriculum be designed along the lines of academic disciplines or according
to student needs and interests or along themes? These are some of the
questions that need to be answered at this stage of the development process
[We will discuss curriculum design in more detail in Topic 6].
(c) Curriculum Implementation: After the designs have been created, the next
step is implementation of the designs by teachers. Based on the design of
the curriculum plan, teachers would specify instructional objectives and
then select relevant teaching methods and strategies to achieve the desired
learning outcomes among students in the classroom [We will discuss
curriculum implementation in more detail in Topic 7].
(d) Evaluation: Finally, the curriculum planner and teachers engage in an
evaluation. The model proposes that evaluation should be comprehensive
using a variety of evaluation techniques. Evaluation should involve the
total educational programme of the school and the curriculum plan, the
effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of students. Through the
evaluation process, the curriculum planner and developers can determine
whether or not the goals of the school and the objectives of instruction have
been met. [We will discuss curriculum evaluation in more detail in Topic 8].
SELF-CHECK 5.3
1. What is meant by "domains" in the Saylor and Alexander model?

2. What must teachers do to implement a curriculum?
3. What is the role of evaluation in the Saylor and Alexander model?
The three models we just discussed reveal both similarities and differences. All
models outline a sequence of steps to be taken in curriculum development.
Interestingly, the Taba model emphasises the role of teachers in curriculum
development while the Tyler model focuses on the two screens which objectives
have to pass through. However, you should keep in mind that models often are
incomplete; they do not and cannot show every detail and aspect of the
complicated curriculum process. To depict every aspect in detail of the
curriculum development process would require an exceedingly complex and
intricate model.
In looking at the three models we cannot say that any one model is superior to
another model. Some curriculum planners have followed the Tyler model with
considerable success. But this does not mean that the Tyler model represents the
ultimate in models for curriculum development or that all educators are satisfied
with it.
5.3 GOALS OF EDUCATION

The cartoon at the beginning of this topic shows the kinds of decisions that
curriculum workers have to make in some education system somewhere in the
world. Some decisions are relatively simple such as adding a course, deleting a
course or making some minor changes to content. Other decisions are sweeping
and far-reaching such as changing the levels of schooling from 6-3-2-2 (six years
of primary or elementary school, three years of lower secondary, two years of
upper secondary and two years pre-university or matriculation) to 6-4-2 (six
years of primary or elementary school, four years of secondary and two years of
pre-university or matriculation). How does one decide? All the three models of
curriculum development emphasised the need from the onset to plan statements
of purpose of the education system. What do you want students to be able to do
after completing primary school or after completing secondary school?
In Topic 2, we discussed the views of various Western and Eastern philosophers

on what they thought the school should be and aim to achieve. In Topic 3, we
discussed various psychological explanations of human learning which provide
guidelines as to what students will be able to achieve and how they should be
taught. In Topic 4, we examined what society demands of its education system
providing some insight into what schools should aspire. Based on these sources,
the curriculum planner will have to decide on an education philosophy from
which the goals of education may be derived.
5.4 LEVELS OF GOALS

Goals can be written at several levels of generality involving many curriculum
workers such as teachers, subject specialists, academics, principals, teacher
trainers, administrators and others who may be engaged in curriculum efforts on
several levels at the same time (see Figure 5.4). The model flows from a broad
and wide educational philosophy to the more specific instructional objectives
implemented at the classroom level.
Figure 5.4: Levels of Curriculum Planning
5.4.1 Educational Philosophy

The initial task of curriculum planners is identification of an educational vision
or philosophy which will form the basis of planning. It reflects the desires of the
nation and the major theme paving the way for the future. The vision statement
or philosophy provides guidelines for curriculum developers in organising and
incorporating programmes and activities into the curriculum. The philosophic
vision is usually derived through discussions with various persons in the country
and also from reading the literature. Then it is reformulated in the light of
realities to enable the vision to be achieved through a process of learning in
schools rather than remaining an ideal that is unachievable.
The educational philosophy of an educational system is a reflection of national

policies. For example, use of one language of instruction to unite the different
communities; free primary education to reduce drop-outs and a common
national curriculum to reduce varying interpretations. The educational

philosophy will also reflect national priorities such as the development aspects of
the nation, socio-cultural needs of the people and levels of achievement of the
children at different cycles. Development needs have to be identified in relation
to the priorities. For example, does the country want more graduates or should
the emphasis be on basic education.
In relation to socio-cultural needs, the culture of peace, conflict resolutions etc.

could emerge as important aspects that should be highlighted in the school
curriculum. The needs of disabled persons and adults who have lost
opportunities for learning have to be incorporated too. Opportunities for
vocational and career education have to be provided in the curriculum.
Therefore, vocational interests of students have to be assessed.
In addition, curriculum planners should not only study current best practices,
customs, and beliefs about education in the local schools but should compare
these to the educational research literature on best practices in teaching, learning,
and curriculum design. Levels of achievements relate to understanding of
concepts at different grades by children to enable them to complete the skills
needed to move on to higher grades. These have to be identified in order to bring
quality to learning and avoid wastage in the learning programmes.
The curriculum framework is a set of principles and guidelines which provides both a
philosophical base and an organisational structure for curriculum development
initiatives at national, provincial, community or school-based levels. The vision for
South Africa encompasses a prosperous, truly united, democratic and internationally
competitive country with literate, creative and critical citizens leading productive,
self-fulfilled lives in a country free of violence, discrimination and prejudice. The
realisation of this vision requires appropriate, lifelong education, training and
development to empower people to participate effectively in all the processes of a
democratic society and to excel in fields like human and natural resource
development, human and natural sciences, the arts and technology.
The primary task of educational policy makers is the establishment of a just and
equitable education and training system which is relevant, of high quality and is
accessible to all learners, irrespective of race, colour, gender, age, religion, ability or
language. A priority for both national and provincial education departments is,
therefore, the creation of a transformative, democratic, open learning system, fostering
in all its users, a strong commitment to lifelong learning and development.
The curriculum framework serves as a strategic intervention designed to facilitate and

guide the development of a transformed education and training system in a
practicable and sustainable way. It takes as point of departure, that successful modern
economies and societies require citizens with a strong foundation of general
education, the desire and ability to continue to learn to adapt to, and develop new
knowledge, skills and technologies, to move flexibly between occupations, to take
responsibility for personal performance, to set and achieve high standards, and to
work cooperatively.
Source: CURRICULUM (2005). Lifelong learning for the 21st century: A user's guide.
Available at
http://www.polity.org.za/html/govdocs/misc/curr2005.html?rebookmark=1#Principles
ACTIVITY 5.2
Read the Case Study and answer the following questions:

1. Why do you think that South Africas vision emphasises that it
should be free of violence, discrimination and prejudice?
2. What are the goals of the curriculum framework of South Africa?
3. How are these educational goals similar or different from those of
your countrys?
5.4.2 Education Goals

Educational goals are outcomes to be achieved by students at the end of a
particular period of time in school. While certain goals are universal and run
throughout the period, some are specific to particular levels and times. This
means that a child will be facing different goals at different levels. The goals are
the basic elements in curriculum planning and should be clear and well
articulated without ambiguities. All these relate to human behaviour. In a
country recovering from a civil war, its key educational goals might be peace,
developing self-confidence, cooperation and responsible citizenship that are
needed to overcome the existing conflicts. Actually, there could be a plethora of
goals such as developing creativity, mental health, coping with change, informed
participation, basic skills and so forth, ending on the vision and cultural needs of
the society. Connecting development needs to education is an important strategy
to achieve greater impact of education on society.
ACTIVITY 5.3
In 1990, the President of the United States and state governors issued a list
of six goals for the nation's schools which stated that by the year 2000:
All children in America will start school ready to learn.
The high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90%.
American students will leave grades 4, 8 and 12 having demonstrated
competency in challenging subject matter (English, Mathematics,
Science, History and Geography).
U.S students will be first in the world in Science and Mathematics
achievement.
Every adult American will be literate and will possess the knowledge
and skills necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the
right and responsibilities of citizenship.
Every school in America will be free of drugs and violence and will
offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning.
[Source: National Goals for Education (1990). Washington D.C]
1. What seems to be the emphasis in these goals? What is lacking?

2. Compare these goals with the goals of your education system.
5.4.3 Curriculum Goals

A curriculum goal is a purpose or desired end stated in general terms. No time
period is specified when the goals must be reached. Neither is there mention of
the criteria for achievement or mastery. Curriculum planners expect students to
accomplish the desired goals as a result of exposure to certain segments or the
whole programme in a particular educational institution. Goals provide direction
for the curriculum.
For example:
"Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning as
good citizens in their own school and community."
"Schools should seek to promote the physical and emotional health of
students."
5.4.4 Curriculum Objectives

Curriculum objectives are derived from the curriculum goal. A curriculum
objective is a purpose or end stated in specific, measurable terms. It is a
refinement of the curriculum goals. They specify the performance standards for
the students for whom the curriculum is designed. From the curriculum goal;
"Students shall acquire knowledge and skills necessary for functioning on a daily
basis, as good citizens in their own school and community setting"; the following
curriculum objectives can be derived:
The majority of students will obey the rules and regulations of the school.
More than 80% of students will be involved in at least one voluntary
activity.
Note how the curriculum objective refines the curriculum goal. Many curriculum
objectives can emanate from a single curriculum goal.
ACTIVITY 5.4
Malaysian Primary School Science Curriculum
Curriculum Goal or Aim

Primary Science education aims to develop knowledgeable, skilful,
thinking, caring, dynamic and progressive individuals able to contribute
towards the creation of a society that embraces science and technology, is
responsible towards the environment and appreciative of nature and
Gods creations.
Sample Curriculum Objectives

The Primary School Science Curriculum will enable students to:
Acquire an understanding of scientific concepts and principles in an
integrated manner and able to relate them with natural phenomena
and everyday experiences.
Apply scientific knowledge and skills creatively and intelligently in
problem solving and decision making.
Develop further the intrinsic values of science such as inquisitiveness,
open-mindedness, intellectual honesty and perseverance.
Develop scientific and manipulative skills through the discovery-
inquiry approach.
Develop skills in conducting scientific investigations and research.
Sample Instructional Goals for Year 4

(A) Understand that breathing is a general characteristic of living things.
(B) Know that light can be dispersed.
Sample Instructional Objectives

(A1) Explain how breathing takes place in humans.
(A2) State the three methods of breathing in animals.
(B1) State that sunlight consists of seven colours.
(B2) Explain the formation of a rainbow.
1. How is the goal of the Malaysian primary school curriculum different

from the stated curriculum objectives?
2. Which curriculum objectives focus on the knowledge, skills and
attitudes/values to be acquired by students?
3. How is Instructional Goal A 'implemented in the classroom?
Source: Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia (July,
1997). Curriculum specifications for smart schools. Kuala Lumpur: Author.
5.4.5 Instructional Goals

At the instructional phase, curriculum objectives are translated initially into
instructional goals. An instructional goal is a statement of performance expected
of each student in a class stated in general terms. It is the general intentions of a
course of instruction without criteria of achievement. For example, Students will
show an understanding about the tropical rainforest. It indicates the
performance expected; i.e. "understand", but the performance level or criteria is
not stated. So it is not easily measured. Instructional goals points the way to
instructional objectives.
5.4.6 Instructional Objectives

An instructional objective is a statement of performance to be demonstrated by
each student in a class. It is stated in a form that is measurable and observable.
Other names given for instructional objectives are specific instructional
objectives, specific learning outcomes, behavioural objectives, performance
objectives, and competencies.
An example of an instructional objective is: At the end of the lesson students

should be able to describe five characteristics of the tropical rainforest. It is
important that you state clearly the instructional objectives you intend to achieve
at the end of a period of instruction. It determines the selection of content
(textbook, the Internet, reference books), the teaching learning methods (lectures,
practical sessions, group discussions, self study, field visits) to be adopted,
learning resources (audio-visual aids, equipment, kits) you will utilise and how
you intend to evaluate whether the desired learning outcomes have been
achieved. Let us examine in detail the meaning of instructional objectives.
5.5 INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES OR

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Instructional objectives are the learning outcomes desired and are of primary
importance in developing a curriculum. Objectives point to the appropriate
content to be selected, how teaching and learning is to be conducted and ways of
assessing performance in the subject. In the past the traditional description of a
course simply referred to content; i.e. what it was that the teacher would cover.
There has, however, been a shift in thinking about teaching and learning, with
learning and the learner now seen to be of primary importance. Teaching then
becomes the means of facilitating learning in the learner.
In the teacher-centred approach, teaching is generally seen to be about the

transmission of knowledge. Focus is on what the teacher did, and goals of the
subject area were expressed in terms of the content which the teacher would
transmit. In the learner-centred approach, however, the focus is on what the
learner does, and the intentions of a subject area are usually expressed in terms of
how the learner will be changed as a result of learning that content. The
statements describing the change in student behaviour which should result from
taking the course are known as "intended learning objectives" or "intended
learning outcomes"; "objectives" or "outcomes" for short. Teaching then becomes
a series of strategies which are devised in order to help students achieve these
objectives/outcomes. [You will notice that at the beginning of each topic in this
course there is a list of learning outcomes or objectives].
In stating an instructional objective or learning outcome, active verbs are used to

indicate what it is that students must do in order to demonstrate learning. It is
not enough to say "yes, I understand that". But how do I know that you
understand unless you can demonstrate that you do. Here are some examples of
learning outcomes:
On completion of this 45 minute lesson on the tropical rainforest you

should be able to:
Define the terms: evergreen, humidity, buttress roots, and canopy.
Locate the distribution of the rainforest on a world map.
Explain why there is little undergrowth in a rainforest.
ACTIVITY 5.5
Proponents of Behavioural Objectives argue that they:
Force the teachers to be precise about what is to be accomplished;
Enable the teacher to tell students what they must achieve;
Make evaluation easier because it is measurable;
Make it easier for the selection of instructional objectives; and
Make accountability easier.
Opponents of Behavioural Objectives argue that they:

Restrict creativity;
Lead to trivial or unimportant competencies;
Are dehumanising; and
Downplay affective outcomes.
1. How do behavioural objectives restrict creativity among students?

2. Do you agree with the opponents of behavioural objectives?
3. State ONE other reason each supporting the proponents and
opponents of behavioural objectives.
5.6 CLASSIFYING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

OR LEARNING OUTCOMES
The classification of learning objectives or outcomes was developed by a team led
by Benjamin Bloom in the 1950s. Three domains of learning were addressed and
for each domain, taxonomies of abilities, emotions and skills were developed. A
taxonomy is a system for classifying something, and in this case; the classifying
of learning objectives or learning outcomes. Taxonomies of learning objectives or
learning outcomes are used to categorise goals for student learning. Taxonomies
are based on the assumption that different types of learning objectives are
achieved through different mental processes. The three taxonomies are:
The Cognitive Domain which is concerned with mental or intellectual skills
and abilities.
The Affective Domain which is concerned with feelings, values and attitudes.
The Psychomotor Domain which is concerned with physical skills.
The three taxonomies remain a useful conceptual tool for thinking about what a
body of content requires students to do, and for thinking about how students
should be able to demonstrate their learning through their behaviour. It is
valuable because it draws attention to the need to be clear about the complexity
of intellectual tasks which a subject might be required to perform.
5.6.1 Cognitive Domain

Blooms taxonomy of the cognitive domain is perhaps the best known and most
widely used. It was published in 1956. It lists a persons observable and
unobservable intellectual abilities such as comprehending information,
organising ideas, and evaluating information and actions. It categorises the types
of cognitive learning outcomes that are featured at all levels of the curriculum.
Bloom and his associates classified cognitive learning in six major categories:
knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation (see
Table 5.1).
Table 5.1: The Cognitive Taxonomy
Cognitive Examples of Verbs for Stating

Description
Levels Objectives or Outcomes
Knowledge Remembering previously learned Define, describe, identify,
material, from specific facts to label, list, match, name,
complete theories; all that is select, state, outline, recite.
required is for the subject to recall
the specified information.
Comprehension The ability to grasp the meaning of Change, decode, defend,
the material. This skill may be distinguish, estimate, explain,
shown by translating material from generalise, infer, give
one form to another, by interpreting example, illustrate,
material (explaining or paraphrase, predict, rewrite,
summarising), and by estimating restate, summarise, solve.
future trends (predicting
consequences or effects).
Application The ability to use learned material Apply, compute, demonstrate,
in new and concrete situations. This develop, employ, manipulate,
may include the application of such modify, organise, produce,
things as rules, methods, concepts, relate, transfer, discover.
principles, laws and theories.
Synthesis The ability to put parts together to Categorise, combine,

form a new whole. This may compile, compose, construct,
involve the production of a unique create, design, devise,
communication (theme or speech), formulate, invent, generate,
a plan of operations (research propose, rearrange,
proposal), or a set of abstract reconstruct, revise, rewrite,
relations (scheme for classifying set up.
information).
Evaluation The ability to judge the value of Appraise, choose, compare,
material (statement, novel, poem, conclude, contrast, criticise,
research report) for a given decide, defend, discriminate,
purpose. The judgements are to be justify, resolve, support,
based on definite criteria. These validate, write a review.
may be internal criteria
(organisation) or external criteria
(relevance to the purpose) and the
student may determine the criteria
or be given them.
Source: Bloom, B. (1956). Handbook of taxonomy of educational objectives
5.6.2 Affective Domain

After the appearance of the cognitive taxonomy, David R. Krathwohl and others,
including Benjamin Bloom, developed a taxonomy of objectives in the affective
domain in 1964 (see Table 5.2). The affective domain relates to the manner in
which we deal with things involving our emotions; such as our feelings, our
values, how we appreciate something, our enthusiasm for something, what
motivates us to do something and our attitudes towards something.
Table 5.2: The Affective Taxonomy
Examples of Verbs for

Cognitive Levels Description Stating Objectives or
Outcomes
Receiving Willingness to receive or to attend Attend, be aware, listen,
to particular information or reply, show, be alert to, use,
activity (textbook, classroom watch, select, tolerate, follow,
activity). Receiving involves the ask.
willingness to receive or to accept;
and to focus ones attention.
Responding Refers to active participation by Agree, answer, communicate,
the student. The student is actively comply, consent, contribute,
responding in class and is cooperate, help, inquire,
involved in the teaching-learning obey, participate, question,
setting. He or she gains request, report, respond,
satisfaction from engaging in seek, volunteer.
activities.
Valuing The student sees worth or value in Accept, adopt, approve,

what is being learned or the complete, commit, desire,
activity being done. The student display, exhibit, express,
does not merely obey or complies initiate, invite, prefer, share,
but does so because he or she is study, work.
intrinsically motivated.
Organisation The student brings together many Adapt, alter, arrange, classify,
different values and attempts to compare, defend, establish,
resolve the conflicts between the generalise, integrate, modify,
values. Through this process he or order, rank, synthesise.
she builds a value system. He or
she sees how new values are
related to existing values and tries
to establish a balance.
Characterisation The student internalises the Act, behave, conform, devote,
values. In other words, he or she display, endure, exemplify,
adopts the values as his or her function, maintain, practice,
own. The values internalised perform, uphold, use,
determines the behaviour of the influence.
student. The behaviour is
consistent and predictable.
Source: Bloom, B., & Krathwohl, D. (1964). Handbook of taxonomy of educational

objectives.
5.6.3 Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain is less known compared to the other two taxonomies.
There are several interpretations of the domain and one of them was developed
by R. Dave in 1970 (see Table 5.3). The psychomotor domain involves physical
movement, coordination and use of the motor-skill areas. Developments of these
skills require practice and are measured in terms of speed, precision, distance,
procedures or techniques in execution.
Table 5.3: The Psychomotor Taxonomy
Cognitive Examples of Verbs for Stating

Description
Levels Objectives or Outcomes
Imitation The student indicates a readiness to Assemble, carry out, copy,
learn a certain complex skill. construct, repeat, duplicate,
Imitation includes repeating an act practice, reproduce, start, try,
that has been demonstrated or volunteer, sketch, follow.
explained. It includes trial and error
until an appropriate response is
achieved.
Manipulation The student continues to practise [All the verbs for Imitation
the skill until it becomes habitual plus the following]: acquire,
and can be performed with some conduct, do, execute, operate,
confidence. The response is more perform, produce, progress,
complex but he or she is still not use, operate.
sure of himself or herself.
Precision The student attains the skill and [All the verbs for Imitation
proficiency is indicated by a quick, and Manipulation plus the
smooth and accurate performance. following]: achieve,
The response is complex and automatise, exceed, excel,
performed without hesitation. master, reach, refine, surpass,
accomplish.
Articulation The student is involved at an even Adapt, change, alter,
higher level of precision. The skill is reorganise, rearrange, revise.
well developed. The student can
adapt the skill according to
different requirements.
Naturalisation The skill is automatic and the Arrange, compose, refine,
student is able to experiment and create, design, originate,
create new ways of using the skill. transcend.
Source: Dave, R. (1974). Psychomotor domain

The three taxonomies provide guidelines for developing instructional objectives

and learning outcomes in a curriculum plan. The taxonomies serve as a guide to
encourage teachers to move their learners from the lower outcomes to higher
levels of learning in each domain.
Curriculum development is a comprehensive term which includes the

determination of aims and goals, design, implementation and evaluation.
The Tyler model focuses on four aspects of education: its purpose, the
learning experiences, the organisation of these experiences and evaluation to
determine goal attainment.
The Taba model emphasises the need for teachers who teach the curriculum
to participate in developing it.
The Alexander and Saylor model consists of four phases: goals and domains,
curriculum design, curriculum implementation and evaluation.
The various levels of goals are: educational philosophy, educational goals,
curriculum goals, curriculum objectives, instructional goals and instructional
objectives.
An instructional objective or learning outcome specifies the behaviour
desired, the conditions in which the behaviour is to be exhibited and the
criteria for evaluating achievement.
The learning domains are: the cognitive domain (intellectual abilities), the
affective domain (emotions and feelings) and the psychomotor domain
(skills).
Cognitive domain model Instructional goals

Affective domain Instructional objectives
Curriculum development models:
Curriculum development Psychomotor domain
Curriculum goals Taba model
Curriculum objectives Tyler model
Educational philosophy
Alexander & Saylor
1. If you are heading a project to develop a curriculum for a

particular course or subject, which of these three models of
curriculum development would you adopt to guide you? Why?
2. Have a look at any course or programme.

(a) Is there a clear statement of curriculum objectives and
instructional objectives to be achieved?
(b) Would you say that students would be clear about what
they are expected to do in the course, or do the objectives
simply delineate the content areas that the course will
cover?
(c) Is there an explicit relationship between the objectives and
the teaching-learning methods employed in the subject?
(d) Is summative assessment carried out by anything other than
class tests and examinations?
(e) Is there any mention in them of the affective side to learning
in the subject?
(f) If not, what do you think would be appropriate affective
objectives for the subject?
Dalton, J., & Smith, D. (1986). Applying Bloom's taxonomy.

http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/researchskills/dalton.htm
Henchey, N. (1999). The new curriculum reform: what does it really mean?
McGill Journal of Education, 34(3), p. 227. [Available at ProQuest].
Chapter 9: Aims, goals and objectives.
Magers tips on instructional objective.
http://www2.gsu.edu/~mstmbs/CrsTools/Magerobj.html
Reimer, B. (1989). A comprehensive arts curriculum model. Design for Arts in

Education, 90(6), pp. 39-43. [Available at ProQuest].
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 4: Studies of subject matter.
Topic Curriculum
6 Design
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define what is curriculum design;
2. Recognise the criteria for the selection of content;
3. Explain the principles of content organisation;
4. List the criteria for the selection of learning experiences; and
5. Compare subject matter-centred, learner-centred and problem-
centred curriculum design models.
INTRODUCTION
The curriculum development process aims at
producing a plan that stipulates the kinds of
teaching-learning experiences students will engage
in. The first step in the process involves planning
what we want students to achieve. This could be
derived from the nations educational philosophy.
It also includes the objectives that are to be
achieved by teachers or instructors at the classroom
level. In Topic 5, we examined three well-known
models; namely, the Tyler model, the Taba model,
and the Saylor and Alexander model. In this topic,
we will deal with the next phase of the curriculum
development process which is curriculum design.
TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN 129
Prevention is Better than Cure

As society becomes increasingly complex, Adopting the curriculum infusion
the incidence of various at-risk approach, educators have designed lesson
behaviours among students has plans to include prevention issues in the
increased. These include substance abuse regular curriculum. They have used real-
(tobacco and drugs), teen pregnancies, life issues as the context for addressing
road safety, sexual promiscuity, violence, the critical health and social issues while
HIV infection, gangsterism, bullying and teaching academic subjects. In fact,
others. Parents and society have not prevention strategies are ideally suited to
adequately taught students to avoid such infusion into academic subjects.
high-risk behaviours and have passed on
Some educators are beginning to resent
the task to schools. As such we see add-
having to be the sole custodian of
on programmes which often are a series
society with parents and the community
of brief, fragmented units on critical life
not doing enough to prevent such
issues, squeezed into the regular
negative behaviours among students and
curriculum.
youths. Through the years, more and
Unfortunately there are never enough more societal issues have been brought
hours in a school day and they have to into the curriculum and schools are
compete for valuable class time. So, expected to teach them in an already
instead of doing more, curriculum crowded curriculum.
planners have decided to introduce
prevention programmes by using existing
school subjects.
Source: Adapted from Critical issues: Infusing prevention into the curriculum,
NCREL. Available at
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/envrnmnt/drugfree/sa300.htnm
ACTIVITY 6.1
Read the report on Prevention is Better than Cure.

1. To what extent is this happening in your school?
2. Give other examples of critical issues your schools have to deal
with.
3. Do you agree that prevention issues should be included in the
school curriculum?
130 TOPIC 6 CURRICULUM DESIGN
6.1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM DESIGN?

Curriculum design is deciding about the shape or configuration of a
curriculum plan. It involves the selection of content in line with the goals and
objectives of the curriculum. The selected content will have to be arranged in a
form that will help the teacher in choosing and organising appropriate learning
experiences for the classroom. Sometimes, curriculum design is also referred to
as curriculum organisation. In short, designing the curriculum involves the
task of organising or arranging the four components; namely, objectives, subject
matter, teaching-learning experiences and evaluation procedures into a cohesive
and comprehensive plan that can be implemented with minimal difficulties.
According to Giles (1942) these four components are intertwined and interactive.
Unfortunately, not all curriculum plans give equal emphasis to each component.
There are cases of plans that emphasise the subject matter or the content while
others stress mainly the objectives and evaluation procedures. Still, others give
primary emphasis to learning experiences or activities (Ornstein & Hunkins,
1998).
In this topic, we will focus on two main aspects of curriculum design, namely;
Selection and organisation of content (or subject matter) for learners; and
Selection and organisation of learning experiences (or activities).
Among the questions to be addressed are: What content or subject matter is to be

included? What learning activities should be planned? What teaching-learning or
instructional strategies should be used? What educational resources should be
exploited?
Obviously, the selection of content and learning experiences will be based on a

sound theoretical framework. This is where one's philosophical beliefs and
conceptions of human learning come into play [Discussed in Topic 2 and Topic
3]. Your philosophical stance and your understanding of human learning will
affect your interpretation and selection of objectives which in turn will influence
the content selected and how it will be organised and how it will be taught or
delivered. This is what Ralph Tyler meant by the philosophical screen and the
psychological screen in his curriculum development model [refer to Topic 5:
Curriculum Development Process].
6.2 CONTENT SELECTION
6.2.1 What is Content?

All curricula have content and how individuals view content is affected by their
view of knowledge and philosophical position. There are varying conceptions of
content. Some curriculum designers conclude that content is really another term for
knowledge consisting of a collection of facts, concepts, generalisations, principles
and theories. For example, an important concept in geography would be spatial
relationships while in physics it would be acceleration. However, a distinction has to
be made between disciplines and content.
The disciplines such as biology, chemistry, sociology and psychology are concerned
with advancement of understanding and the exploration of the unknown. In
contrast, content as found in school subjects (or even undergraduate courses) do not
provide students with opportunities for advancing understanding or creation of new
knowledge in the strictest sense. The content selected is aimed towards helping
students understand knowledge that may be new to them but is already known by
scholars and practitioners in the field. From this body of knowledge or discipline,
content is selected for educational purposes and organised according to the cognitive
level of learners.
6.2.2 How Should Students Learn Content?

Some people feel that content should be prescribed and transmitted to learners
(behaviourism) while others feel that content should be constructed by learners
(constructivism) based on their experiences. In the former setting, learners are
passive recipients of the facts, concepts and generalisations of a subject while in
the latter, learners seriously engage in the construction of meaning. Content is
not just something told to students but rather something that students personally
construct. Similarly, some educators argue that it is more important to learn the
processes of content than the products of content itself. Such a view divides
content as consisting of product and process, when in reality both should be
given equal emphasis [We discussed this in Topic 1]. Cognitive psychologists
refer to:
Content as declarative knowledge or what students should know (the facts,
concepts and principles of a body of knowledge); while
Process as procedural knowledge or what students should be able to do (the
procedures, thinking skills and methods of inquiry embedded in any body of
knowledge).
6.2.3 How Should Content be Selected?

There is so much pressure from parents, academics, the government, the business
community, religious institutions, non-governmental organisations and so forth
as to what content should be selected and taught in schools. In addition, there is
abundant information and it is doubling at a very rapid rate. Schools do not have
the luxury of time to include all the concerns of society in its curriculum. Choices
have to be made on what to include in the curriculum. Ornstein and Hunkins
(1998) list the following five criteria to guide the selection of content:
Significance:
It is obvious that content selected should be significant. But, the definition of
significance varies with an individual's beliefs. For example, curriculum
developers who favour subject matter designs think of significance in terms
of the concepts and principles of each subject area. Those who favour learner-
centred designs think of significance in terms of the needs and interests of the
learner. While those who favour a problem-centred design would regard the
problems and issues in society as significant. Taba (1962) further argues that
we should not just select content based on the cognitive aspects of learners,
but also on their affective dimensions.
Utility:
Utility refers to the usefulness of content. This again depends on your
philosophical beliefs. If you subscribe to the subject-centred design, then you
believe that the content learned from the various subject areas will be useful
in the workplace. If you subscribe to the learner-centred design, then you will
take into consideration the needs and interests of learners which will enable
them to realise their potential to function effectively in the workplace.
Alternatively, if you subscribe to the problem-centred design, then you
believe that learning about societal issues will enable students to apply
directly what they have learned to their daily lives and the world of work.
Validity:
Validity refers to whether the information passed on to students is authentic
and obtained from credible sources. This is especially significant today with
the deluge of information that is easily accessible which may not necessarily
be credible or reliable. How much of the billions of pages on the internet are
credible? Content needs to be checked to determine its accuracy and
constantly updated.
Learnability:
It may seem strange that anyone would select content that is not learnable.
Unfortunately, it does happen. Can you give examples of this happening?
One example is that the content selected for a particular age group might be
too difficult and teachers need more time to teach it, but insufficient time is
allotted. Eventually, teachers will end up rushing through the material and
some students are left behind not understanding the content.
Feasibility:
Educators who select content have to take into consideration the constraints
of time, expertise of staff, funding and other educational resources that
schools might face when implementing the curriculum. For example, the
number of days allotted for teaching may be insufficient to cover all the
content because schools have to allocate time for extra-curricular activities
and other school events. Content selection has to be considered within the
context of the existing reality of economics and the role of the government.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. What is the difference between content and a discipline?

2. What is the difference between significance and utility in the
selection of content?
3. What is the difference between validity and feasibility in the
selection of content?
6.3 PRINCIPLES OF CONTENT ORGANISATION

After having decided on the content, the next step is to organise the content in a
form that will facilitate learning. The following principles have been proposed
when deciding on content organisation (Sowell, 2000; Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998):
6.3.1 Scope
Scope refers to both the breadth and depth of content and includes all topics,
learning experiences and organising threads found in the curriculum plan. Scope
not only refers to cognitive learning but also affective learning, and some would
argue spiritual learning (Goodland & Zhixin Su, 1992). Sometimes the scope of a
curriculum is narrow, consisting of just a simple listing of key topics and
activities.
When we talk of scope, we are concerned with questions such as: How much
science should students in primary school know? or What is the level of
mathematics required of students before they graduate from secondary school?
When curriculum developers are engaged in deciding how much content should
be included, they are determining the scope of the curriculum, in which
following guidelines may be useful:
You might want to ask about the utility or usefulness of the content selected.
You might want to ask whether the content caters to diverse student abilities.
You might want to ask if the amount of content selected can be covered in the
specified period of time.
You might want to ask if there is a balance in the content selected between
cognitive, psychomotor and affective or spiritual outcomes.
ACTIVITY 6.2
1. Do you think the scope (breadth and depth) of the subject you are
teaching (or are familiar with) is appropriate?
2. Give examples of subjects which you think the scope is
inappropriate. Explain.
6.3.2 Sequence
Sequence refers to the organisation of content and the extent to which it fosters
cumulative and continuous learning (referred to as vertical relationship among
sections of the curriculum). Do students have the opportunity to make
connections and enrich their understanding of the content? It is important that
the sequencing of content leads to the cumulative development of intellectual
and affective processes.
The sequence of content and experiences should be based on the logic of the
subject matter and the way in which individuals learn. It should be based on
psychological principles and understanding of human development and learning
[refer to Topic 3: Psychological Foundations of Curriculum]. The following are
some principles identified as guidelines in sequencing the curriculum: (Ornstein
& Hunkins, 1998; Taba, 1962; Bruner, 1960).
(a) Simple to complex Content is organised from simple subordinate
components to complex components depicting interrelationships among
components. Optimal learning occurs when students are presented with
easy, often concrete content and to more difficult and abstract content.
(b) Spiral - In a spiral curriculum, concepts may be introduced on a simple
level in the early grades, and then revisited with more and more complexity
and application later on (Bruner, 1960).
(c) Prerequisites It works on the assumption that bits of information or
learning must be grasped before other bits of information can be
understood.
(d) Whole to part Content is better understood if an overview (whole) is first
presented to show the connections between the parts.
(e) Chronology This is a useful organiser for sequencing content especially in
subjects such as history, political science and world events.
(f) Vertical organisation - This simply means that content and skills are
arranged so that they build on one another; that they align with the general
sequence of cognitive development. They indicate what students have
learned and what they will learn later.
(g) Horizontal organisation - It involves how skills and content that are taught
during one level or one period of time relate to another. For example, in a
social science course, you might consider particular issues from a historical,
sociological, political and economic point of view.
6.3.3 Integration
Integration is the bringing together of the concepts, skills and values of different
subject areas to reinforce each other. Bits of information from different subject
areas are brought together in such a way as to present the learner with a unified
picture of knowledge. Some have argued that however much curriculum
planners try to integrate information; it is the learners who integrate what they
are learning in their minds. It is something that happens within the individual
learner.
The idea of integration was popularised in the 60s by Hilda Taba because of
concern that school curriculum was too disjointed, fragmented and detached.
Lately, there has been a surge of interest in curriculum integration due to the
rapid accumulation of information that is doubling in a shorter period of time.
Increasingly, there is a realisation that knowledge has to be viewed in a much
broader sense, particularly in dealing with ideas that cut across disciplines. When
faced with real-world situations, seldom is one area of content sufficient to
explain complex phenomena. The need to examine phenomena drawing from
various disciplines has intensified interest in the integrated curriculum.
Examples of the integrated curriculum include science-technology-society and
reading across the curriculum. In the science-technology-society (STS)
curriculum, science is combined with social sciences when attempting to solve
practical, everyday problems. The integrated approach takes the student outside
the laboratory and away from the textbook into the local community.
6.3.4 Continuity
Continuity ensures that ideas, themes and skills are repeated as the learner
progresses through the grades. Why? This is because students may not grasp
certain concepts and skills in one experience and these have to be presented
again before they become clear. For example, students in the primary grades are
taught the principles of essay writing. The same principles are repeated in the
succeeding years. Continuity ensures the reappearance of certain major ideas at
different grade levels at increased depth and complexity over the length of the
curriculum. For example, doing experiments is a learning experience that is
repeated throughout the teaching of science at increasing levels of complexity
and abstraction.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
1. Name the different ways of sequencing content.
2. What do you understand by integration as one of the principles of
content organisation?
3. Why is there a need to ensure continuity in content organisation
for certain concepts and skills?
4. Give examples of continuity other than those given in the text.
6.3.5 Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum
The integrated curriculum is receiving much attention even

though it is not necessarily a new way of looking at teaching
and learning. The expanding body of knowledge, concerns
about curriculum relevancy, lack of connection among subjects
and the need for future workers to have the ability to draw
from many fields in solving problems has been cited as reasons
for a moving towards an integrated curriculum. The integrated curriculum is
organised in such a way that it cuts across subject matter, bringing together
various aspects of content to focus upon broad areas of study. It views teaching
and learning in a holistic way that reflects the real world.
Among the common areas of integration are:

1. Art, mathematics and reading;
2. Writing across the curriculum;
3. History, science and mathematics;
4. History and literature;
5. Integrated humanities;
6. Health and reading;
7. Social studies, health and the arts;
8. Physical education, the arts, health and literature; and
9. Science, social studies, health and the arts.
For example, water as a theme can be studied from the following areas: science
(composition of water), geography (distribution of water resources), literature
(poems on water), language (vocabulary related to water), history (disputes
related to water), economics (supply of and demand for water) and so forth.
Education journals and teachers' own anecdotal records report many examples of
educators linking subject areas to provide meaningful learning experiences. It has
been suggested that the integrated curriculum helps students apply skills, leads
to faster retrieval of information, encourages depth and breadth in learning and
promotes positive attitudes (improved team spirit and work habits).
Successful implementation of an integrated curriculum requires a great deal of

planning. It requires teachers to go out into the community to see what
mathematics, science, social sciences, language arts, artistic and occupational
skills are required in the contemporary workplace. Representatives from
business, industry, government and labour need to provide suggestions for
curriculum redesign.
Source: Lake, K. Integrated curriculum. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory.

Available at http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/8/c016.html
ACTIVITY 6.3
Refer to the Case Study: The Integrated Curriculum and answer the
following questions:
1. Why is there a revival of interest in the integrated curriculum?
2. What are some positive effects of curriculum integration?
3. Suggest ways in which the subjects or courses in your
institution may be integrated.
6.4 SELECTION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES
6.4.1 What are Learning Experiences?

While content is the meat of the curriculum plan, we can consider learning
experiences planned for the students as the heart of the plan (Ornstein &
Hunkins, 1998). The learning experiences are the means towards achieving the
goals and objectives of the curriculum. Tyler (1960) used the term learning
experiences in his curriculum development model (discussed earlier in Topic 5).
Learning experiences are the instructional component of the curriculum
providing for the interaction between teacher, student and the content. Learning
experiences, designed for the purpose of achieving the goals and objectives of the
curriculum plan, can be divided into:
Teaching methods adopted; and
Learning activities.
There are many types of teaching methods and some examples of these include; the
inquiry method, the discovery approach, the lecture method, small group
discussion, role-playing, fieldwork and so forth. The term learning activities was
used by Taba (1962) in her curriculum development model (discussed in Topic 5).
Learning activities are opportunities for students to question, clarify, create and
apply knowledge. Examples of learning activities are answering questions, solving
problems, journal writing, viewing videos, doing experiments, playing games and
so forth. Both teaching methods and learning activities are equally important parts of
the learning experience and should be carefully planned. In many instances, there is
an overlap of teaching methods and learning activities, and some people may find
the distinction problematic.
6.4.2 Criteria for Selection of Learning Experiences
ACTIVITY 6.4
Malaysian Primary 6 Science

Topic: Conservation
Objectives:
List waste materials that can be reused and recycled.
Explain the paper recycling process.
Carry out recycling projects.
Content:
Concept of recycling and reusing.
Components of the paper recycling process.
Learning Experiences:
View photos and video-clips on recycling of waste materials.
Class project on collecting newspapers for recycling.
Visit to a paper recycling plant.
Source: Curriculum Development Centre, Ministry of Education Malaysia
(July, 1997). Curriculum specifications for SMART SCHOOLS. Kuala
Lumpur: Author.
1. How are the objectives, content and learning experiences related?

2. Suggest other learning experiences for the same content.
3. Does the subject or course you are teaching make any distinctions
between content and learning experiences?
Learning experiences (teaching methods and learning activities) are selected to

translate the goals and objectives of the curriculum plan. It includes all the
actions of teachers necessary to influence student behaviour and ultimately, their
learning. The particular actions of the teacher may vary according to the teaching
method adopted and learning activities used, but they all are aimed towards
bringing about learning.
The most important criterion for the selection of learning experiences is to ensure
that there is alignment between the objectives, content and learning experiences.
Will the learning experiences selected achieve the objectives of the curriculum?
This criterion is termed as validity. Learning experiences should also be selected
in terms of feasibility. In other words, whether the experiences suggested can be
carried out given the time, available facilities and expertise of teachers. It would
be futile to propose learning experiences which may be good on paper but
difficult to implement in the classroom because teachers are not trained and
facilities are inadequate. For example, learning experiences which require using
the internet when the school does not have internet connection.
Learning experiences should also be selected based on whether they will enhance
students' learning of the content as well as motivate them to continue learning.
The learning experiences should also attempt to develop thinking skills of
students and to stimulate greater understanding of their own existence as
individuals and as members of groups. In other words, the learning experiences
selected should encourage group interaction and collaborative learning which
are skills required in the working world. Learning experiences should foster the
cognitive, affective, psychomotor and spiritual development of the learner.
In the selection of learning experiences, educators should not separate content

and experiences. In reality, both content and learning experiences do not exist in
isolation. For example, a student cannot just engage in learning or studying
without experiencing some activity and some content. Likewise, teachers cannot
deal with content without being engaged in some experience or some activity.
[You will notice that each topic in this course has a number of learning activities
such as self-test & activity to encourage you to play with the content]
6.5 CURRICULUM DESIGNS

Most curriculum designs can be grouped into the following three basic designs;
namely, subject-centred designs, learner-centred designs and problem-centred
designs (see Table 6.1). Subject-Centred Designs include 5 types of designs:
academic subject designs, discipline designs, broad field designs, correlation
designs and process designs. Learner-Centred Designs include 3 types of designs
identified as child-centred, romantic/radical designs and humanistic designs.
Problem-Centred Designs include 3 types of designs identified as life-situations
design, core design and social problems design (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).
Table 6.1: Summary of major curriculum designs
(a) Academic Subjects Separate subjects or courses.

Design
(b) Discipline Based Use structure of the discipline.
Design Approach physics as a physicist.
Use inquiry methods of the discipline.
Subject- (c) Broad Fields Interdisciplinary or cross-disciplinary.
Centred Design E.g. Integrated science, whole language.
Designs
(d) Correlation Relate one subject to another with each
Design keeping its identity.
Thematic approach or team teaching.
(e) Process Design Teaching thinking processes such as critical
and creative thinking, problem solving.
Metacognitive training.
(a) Child-Centred Childs interests, needs and experiences are
Design emphasised.
E.g. Project method.
(b) Radical Design Learning is reflective and not externally
Learner- imposed.
Centred Society is flawed and curriculum should
Designs emancipate the learner.
(c) Humanistic Stress development of self-concept of
Design students.
Uniqueness of individuals and importance of
self-actualisation.
(a) Life-Situations Life situations design.

Design Subject matter focuses on pressing social
issues and solutions.
Problem- (b) Core Design Social functions core.
Centred
Students work on problems crucial in
Designs todays society.
(c) Social Problems Social problems and reconstructionist
Design designs.
Analyse severe problems confronting
humankind.
Source: Adapted from Ornstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations,
principles and issues. Boston: Allyn & Bacon, p.264.
6.5.1 Subject-Centred Designs

Subject-Centred Designs are by far the most popular and widely used curriculum
design. This is because knowledge and content are well accepted as integral parts
of the curriculum. Since acquiring a body of content is integral in any school
system, much thought has focused on how best to present the knowledge, skills
and values of the subjects to learners and the following five approaches have
been proposed:
(a) Academic Subject Design
The academic subject design is both the oldest and best known design to
most people because it was the way many of them were educated. Is this
true of you? This design is based on the belief that humans are unique
because of their intellect and the quest for and acquisition of knowledge is
to feed this intellect. In the 1930s, Robert Hutchins indicated that the
academic subject design model for American schools should comprise
language and its uses (reading, writing, grammar, literature), Mathematics,
Science, History and foreign languages. Has it changed today?
Why is this model of curriculum design widely adopted? One reason given
is that it is much easily interpreted in textbooks and commercially available
support materials. Since teaching is essentially a verbal activity (whether it
be lecture, recitation, group discussion) teachers find it easier to
communicate the ideas and knowledge of a subject presented in verbal
form in textbooks. Also, people are familiar with this format, having gone
through it themselves when in school.
However, critics argue that this design deemphasises the learner by taking
away their rights to choose the content that is most meaningful to them.
The focus on the subject matter fails to foster social, psychological and
physical development and to some extent, fosters an elite ruling class based
on knowledge (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). Do you agree?
(b) Discipline Design
A discipline is a specific body of knowledge that has its own methods of
inquiry, has its specialised words and terminology, has a tradition and a
collection of literature, and the persons involved in the field are
theoreticians and practitioners. Proponents of the discipline design model
emphasise the teaching of the disciplines in its pure form. In other words, a
student who studies biology would approach the subject as a biologist
while those who study history will study it as historians. What is the
rationale for teaching the disciplines? According to its proponents, the
school is a mini version of the world of intellect and that the disciplines
reflect that world.
SELF-CHECK 6.3
1. Why is curriculum based on the academic subject design model

popular even today?
2. What is the main difference between the academic subject design
model and the discipline based design model? Give examples
(c) Broad Fields Design

The broad fields design is also known as the interdisciplinary design. The main
reason for this design arose from the concern that subjects taught were too
compartmentalised and fragmented; for example, geography, geometry,
literature, algebra and so forth. The suggestion was to bring together content
from different subjects to form one logical subject. For example, Economics,
Sociology, Political Science, Geography and History were combined to form
Social Studies. Another example is Language Arts (composed of literature,
grammar, linguistics and spelling) and General Science (composed of Biology,
Chemistry and Physics). At one time there was a subject called Man and the
Environment (Alam dan Manusia) implemented in Malaysian primary
schools.
What are some of the issues in this model? One would be breadth versus
depth. For example, in studying social studies over one year, students are
exposed to a variety of social science concepts compared to only studying
economics concepts for one year. Certainly, treatment of the various social
science concepts would be superficial. For sure, a year of economics will
expose students to more economics concepts and principles than would a year
of social studies. However, some may argue whether students need such in-
depth knowledge of a particular subject. If the educational philosophy is to
give students an overview of the social sciences, then Social Studies might be
the logical choice.
(d) Correlation Design
The correlation design model lies in between the academic design model and
the broad fields design. If you do not want your curriculum to consist of five
separate subjects nor five different subject areas to be fused into one, then the
correlation design model might be an alternative. For example, you may want
to just fuse or correlate history with literature at the secondary school level. For
example, in a history lesson the class learns about the Japanese occupation of
Malaysia. During the literature class, students read novels about life during
that time period. However, each subject retains its own distinct identity.
(e) Process Design
In the discipline based design discussed earlier, students learn the methods of
inquiry used by experts in the respective disciplines. For example, in studying
anthropology, students will learn various ethnographic procedures. Advocates
of the process design model stress the learning of general procedures and
processes that are not applicable to any particular discipline. The most popular
example of the process design model is the teaching of thinking skills. Various
educators have suggested that students should be taught to think. Curriculum
has focused on the teaching of decision making, problem solving, critical
thinking and creative thinking. Ennis (1963) identified a list of critical thinking
skills that should be taught, such as identification of fallacies, checking the
credibility of sources and so forth.
In the process design curriculum students are also taught to be aware of their
thinking and to take action when necessary. A good thinker is able to monitor
his or her thinking and take steps to remedy faulty thinking. The general
assumption is that there are general thinking skills, and processes are common
regardless of the subject area. The aim of the curriculum is to enhance these
process skills applicable to all disciplines. Thinking critically is not unique to
geography or physics. Neither is thinking creatively the sole domain of art or
literature.
SELF-CHECK 6.4
1. What is the main difference between the broad field design

model and the correlation design model? Give examples.
2. How is the teaching of thinking skills in the discipline based
design model and process design model different?
6.5.2 Learner-Centred Designs

While subject-centred designs are popular, there is also an emphasis on learner-
centred designs. The early supporters of the child-centred curriculum were
largely the progressives [we have covered this in topic 2]. Emphasis was on the
development of the whole child and this was most evident in primary schools.
(a) Child-Centred Design
Proponents of the child-centred design believe that learners should actively
participate in the teaching-learning process. Learning should be related
closely to the daily lives of students, unlike the subject-centred design
which tends to separate content from the daily lives of learners. In the
child-centred design focus is on the needs and interests of learners. An
early advocate of the child-centred curriculum was French philosopher,
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), who in his book Emile made the child
the focus of the educational process. He emphasised that Living is the
business that I wish to teach him. When he leaves my care he, I grant, be
neither magistrate, nor soldier, nor priest: he will be, primarily, a man
(cited in Soetard, M., 1994, p.423). This did not mean children were allowed
to run free. Children need to be guided by the teacher according to their
level of development.
Perhaps, the most well-known advocate of the child-centred design is John

Dewey [we have discussed some of his ideas in Topic 2- Progressivism]. He
argued that children are not blank slates and they bring with them four basic
impulses the impulse to communicate, to compare and contrast, to inquire and
to express themselves through language. In the child-centred design, teaching
and learning draw on the experiences of learners and the vast amount of
information they bring to the classroom. Using this design, teachers and
students negotiate what is of interest to learners and what content is to be
included in the curriculum. Teachers and students participate in planning lesson
units, its purposes, the focus of the content and the learning activities to be
introduced in the teaching-learning situations. Hence, in meeting the needs of
the students, the child-centred curriculum will be constantly changing.
In the child-centred model, the interests and experiences of the learner become
the subject-matter of the curriculum. Children are given the freedom to
discover and do things for themselves rather than told how to do something.
The project method became a popular pedagogical strategy in the child-
centred design in which children solved problematic situations calling on their
knowledge and skills of science, history, art and so forth. In other words, the
traditional subjects are not rejected but rather used to solve problems that are
of interest to learners.
(b) Radical Design
In this design, the focus is the learner which is quite similar to the child-
centred design; the difference being that greater emphasis is placed on the
need for the curriculum to reform society [we dealt with this in Topic 2
Reconstructionism]. Proponents of the radical design operate on the
assumption that society is corrupt and repressive. Children should be
educated towards the goal of social reform. A well-known proponent of the
radical design was Paulo Freire who opposed treating students as empty
vessels to be filled with knowledge by the teacher. He objected to the
teacher-student dichotomy and proposed the relationship between teacher
and student be reciprocal, which is, the teacher who learns and the learner
who teaches.
According to proponents of this curriculum design, learning is reflective

and not externally imposed by those in power. The curriculum should be so
designed to free the learner from indoctrination. Knowledge is not the
finished product to be acquired by learners because this is indoctrination.
Learning is something that results from the interaction between and among
people. Learners should challenge content and be allowed to give their
opinions about the information given to them. Learners will value what
they learn if they are allowed to construct their own knowledge. [These
ideas have been discussed in Topic 3 Constructivism]. When learners
create meaning, they have ownership over what they have learned
resulting in genuine thought.
(c) Humanistic Design
The humanistic design became popular in the 60s and 70s in response to
excessive overemphasis on the disciplines during the 50s and early 60s in
the United States. Proponents of the humanistic design based their
arguments on the principles of humanistic psychology [we have discussed
this in Topic 3 Humanistic Psychology]. A basic question asked is whether
the curriculum has allowed a person to truly achieve his or her full
potential. The curriculum should be designed to empower learners to be
involved in the process of realising their potential. Greater emphasis was
placed on the affective domain to permit students to feel and to value.
One of the proponents of the humanistic curriculum design was Carl

Rogers (1902-1987) who argued that the aim of education is the facilitation
of learning. To facilitate learning, the teacher accepts learners as persons,
placing importance on their feelings and their opinions; while caring for
them. In other words, the teacher is able to view the world through the
students eyes. With such a curriculum, learners become fully functional
persons capable of intelligent choice; are critical learners able to approach
problem situations with flexibility; and are able to work cooperatively with
others (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998). The humanistic curriculum design
focuses on the interconnectedness of the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains. The design stresses the development of positive
self-concept and interpersonal skills of learners. The humanistic curriculum
requires teachers with great skills and competence in dealing with
individuals. This may be difficult to obtain in all teachers. There is also a
tendency to overemphasise the individual and ignore the needs of society.
SELF-CHECK 6.5
1. What is the main focus of curriculum based on the

Learner-Centred Designs?
2. What is the main difference between the child-centred design
model and the radical design model?
3. What is the main feature of the humanistic design model?
6.5.3 Problem-Centred Designs

The Problem-Centred Designs models focus on the problems faced by society.
Problem-centred designs are pre-determined before the arrival of students. In other
words, genuine life problems are selected and teaching-learning activities are
organised around these issues. The learner is placed in the social setting to address
the problems. Unlike the learner-centred designs, the problems or issues discussed
originate from issues that are of concern to society. It aims to prepare students with
relevant knowledge and skills to fit into society when they leave school.
(a) Life-centred situations:
In any society there are persistent life situations that are crucial to a society's
successful functioning. Examples of such life situations are healthy living, use
of leisure time, ethics, racial tolerance, citizenship skills and so forth. It was
argued by its advocates that it makes educational sense to organise a
curriculum around such life situations. Students will see direct relevance in
studying such social issues when they are related to their world. Also, having
students study social or life situations will encourage them to seek ways to
improve society. The life situations that need to be emphasised in schools will
depend on what students need before they enter the working world and
assume adult responsibilities. However, some needs and interests have already
been met by the family, religious institutions and other community
organisations. So, the school should address those needs not met by these
institutions.
The life-centred situations curriculum has been criticised because students

do not learn much subject matter. However, proponents of the model state
that this is not true because the design draws heavily from the traditional
subject areas. The content is organised in a manner that allows students to
see problems faced by society. In addressing society's pressing problems,
content is drawn from different subject areas to explain and find solutions
to current issues.
(b) Core-design:
A variation of the life-centred situations design is the core-design model. Focus
is still on the pressing problems of society; the difference being that certain
problems are selected to form the core. It is carefully planned before students
enter school and adjusted when necessary. The core problems are taught to all
students in a block-time format whereby two or more periods of class time is
used. A problem solving approach is adopted in analysing social problems.
Students select a problem through consensus and work either individually or
in groups. Data is collected, analysed, interpreted and presented in class.
Findings are evaluated and discussed.
SELF-CHECK 6.6
1. What is the main focus of curriculum based on the Problem-

Centred Designs?
2. What is the main difference between the life-centred design
model and the core-design model?
ACTIVITY 6.5
The following are some issues with the problem-centred designs:

Difficulty in determining the scope and sequence of social
problems faced by society.
Textbooks and other teaching material do not support the
problem-centred design.
Teachers are uncomfortable with the design because it departs
too much from their training.
The design requires an exceptional teacher, well versed in subject
matter, problem-solving skills and general knowledge.
You are leading a team in designing a curriculum for the primary

school using the problem-centred design. Suggest how you would
overcome the problems listed above.
Curriculum design involves making decisions about the selection and

organisation of content and learning experiences in line with the goals and
objectives of the curriculum.
Content is usually selected from a body of knowledge or discipline for
educational purposes and organised to meet the cognitive level of learners.
Content is selected based on significance, validity, feasibility, learnability and
utility.
The principles guiding content organisation are scope, sequence, integration
and continuity.
Content may be sequenced horizontally, vertically, chronologically, simple to
complex, spirally and whole to part.
Most curriculum design models may be classified as either subject-centred
models, learner-centred models or problem-centred models.
Content organisation Curriculum design

scope Curriculum designs
sequence Learner-centred designs
integration Learning experiences
continuity Problem-centred designs
Content selection Selection of learning experiences
significance Subject-centred designs
utility
learnability
validity
feasibility
1. Choose a course or subject you are teaching or have taken.

Explain how the content in the course is organised.
2. The content selected and organised in a particular curriculum is

closely related to the textbook. How does this affect the scope of
the curriculum? Its sequence? Its continuity? Its integration?
3. Would a learner-based design be easier or more difficult to

implement compared to a subject-based design for your subject
or course?
4. Which curriculum design model is more prevalent in your

institution? Explain why.
5. What is your preferred curriculum design? Why?
6. How much freedom are you given to change the curriculum

design for the course or subject you are teaching?
Cherry, C. (2000). Interdisciplinary curriculum project for grade 10.

http://www.health-careers.org/resources/Physical%20
Differences%20Project.pdf
Gatewood, T. (1998). Integrated curriculum in today's middle schools. The
Education Digest, 63 (9). p. 24-29. [Available at ProQuest].
Manitoba Curriculum Development and Implementation. Elements integrated
into curriculum.
http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/ks4/cur/elements.html
McGinty, E. (2004). The spiral theory of curriculum.
http://www.uprite.net./spiral.html
Chapter 8: Curriculum design. pp. 232-267.
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 3: Curriculum organisation. pp. 41-64.
Wragg, T. (1997). Cubic curriculum. London: Routledge.
Chapter 2: Subjects, the first dimension [Available at eBrary].
Topic Curriculum
7 Implementation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain what is curriculum implementation;
2. Describe Lewin's change model;
3. Differentiate between the types of curriculum change;
4. Explain why people resist change;
5. Suggest ways of overcoming resistance to change; and
6. List the roles and responsibilities of individuals involved in the

implementation of a curriculum.
TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION 153
'Homework Must Be More Fun and Meaningful'
The Education Ministry is to regulate Homework that is interesting to pupils

homework assignments of school would not only make their learning
pupils to make it more interesting. more meaningful and productive, but
Homework is clearly one key area in also facilitate teaching. When school
which things can and should improve children are better motivated in their
in the interest of all concerned. studies, teachers also find their task
Homework should have more quality easier. Students learn better and faster
than quantity. It needs a finer focus when their innate inquisitiveness is
with less bulk, and in the process fired with more participatory
become more interesting to give observation and enquiry of the world
students an added incentive to about them. Good teachers can make
studying harder. Young people have this vital difference.
energy, imagination and a natural Pupils must constantly be
curiosity that can help them to learn if encouraged to do more than answer set
properly chanelled. Otherwise questions, as it is essential to think
homework can become a hindrance to their way to unrehearsed answers.
the learning process. True learning is more than 'spotting
Teachers should be guided to exam questions'. It is more important
learning rather than be fountains of for pupils to experience a sense of
infinite knowledge. They should achievement in all aspects of study,
present material in intellectually which would give them a feel of their
stimulating ways, without spoon- own development and growth. A more
feeding. Pupils need to know that enlightened approach to learning such
learning is part of their own life as this may also apply to regular class
experience, not something separate and work besides homework.
removed from it. Teachers should
therefore avoid dishing out homework
mechanically as routine chores, which
would make studies boring and brain-
deadening.
Source: Adapted from The Sunday Star, 13 February, 2005
154 TOPIC 7 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
INTRODUCTION
In Topic 5 we discussed what was involved in
curriculum planning and in Topic 6 we looked at
different techniques of designing the curriculum
focusing on some curriculum design models. The
next stage in the curriculum development process
according to Tyler, Taba and Alexander & Saylor is
the implementation of the curriculum plan. The final
destination of any curriculum (whether it be a school,
college, university or training organisation) is the
classroom involving students, teachers, administrators and the community.
Implementing the curriculum is the most crucial and sometimes the most
difficult phase of the curriculum development process. Those responsible for
implementing a curriculum often hear comments and concerns such as:
Teachers are already overloaded how are they going to implement the new
ideas.
Parents and education officers are only interested in a high pass rate in
examinations how are schools to incorporate suggested changes.
These are real concerns and made worse when persons implementing the
curriculum are not clear what is expected of them. How often have we heard
people say, The plan was good but implementation was poor? On the other
hand, if a curriculum plan is not implemented and remains on the shelf then all
efforts in planning will be a sheer waste. A curriculum must be delivered and
that means it must be implemented in the classroom if it is to make an impact on
student learning. Good plans reaching the classroom are not properly
implemented because of a lack of planning and preparation. In some curriculum
development projects, implementation is not given due consideration; not
realising that innovations need careful planning and monitoring. We hear of
teachers not being properly trained and are required to implement changes in the
classroom within a short period of time.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Read the newspaper report at the beginning of the chapter and

answer the following questions.
1. What are some suggestions proposed for making homework
fun and meaningful?
2. Do you agree with the statement that teachers should not
spoon-feed but rather be guides to learning? Why?
3. Give other suggestions for making homework meaningful
and fun.
7.1 WHAT IS CURRICULUM

IMPLEMENTATION?
Implementation is the interaction between those who have created the
programme and those who are charged to deliver it. According to Ornstein and
Hunkins, 1998;
Implementation requires educators to shift from the current programme
which they are familiar with to the new or modified programme.
Implementation involves changes in the knowledge, actions and attitudes of
people.
Implementation can be seen as a process of professional development and
growth involving ongoing interactions, feedback and assistance.
Implementation is a process of clarification whereby individuals and groups
come to understand and demonstrate a change in attitudes and behaviours;
often involving the use of new resources.
Implementation involves change which requires effort that will invariably
lead to a certain amount of anxiety. It is thus useful to organise
implementation into manageable events and to set achievable goals.
Implementation requires a supportive atmosphere in which there is trust and
open communication between administrators, teachers and educators, and
where risk-taking is encouraged.
Even though large sums of money are spent on implementing new curriculum,
several of these efforts have failed. According to Sarason (1990), the main reason
for failure is the lack of understanding of the culture of the school by both experts
outside the school system and educators in the system. Successful
implementation of curriculum requires understanding the power relationships,
the traditions, and the roles and responsibilities of individuals in the school
system. Implementers (whether they are teachers, principals or district education
officers) should be well-versed with the contents of the curriculum. They must be
clear of the purpose, the nature and the real and potential benefits of the
innovation.
As stated by Fullan and Pomfret (1977); effective implementation of innovations

requires time, personal interaction and contacts, in-service training and other
forms of people-based support (p.391). Curriculum implementation requires
winning people over and it takes time. Teachers need to feel appreciated and
their efforts recognised. Some may argue that they should be given financial
rewards but there is evidence to suggest that external motivation contributes
minimally to the venture. Individuals contribute their best talents when they are
internally motivated and derive a good feeling from being involved.
7.2 CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION AS A

CHANGE PROCESS
Implementation is the carrying out or practical application of a method,
procedure or desired purpose. Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define curriculum
implementation as the trying out of a new practice and what it looks like when
actually used in a school system. For example, a curriculum plan in enhancing
technology integration across the curriculum is introduced and you would want
to know whether what was intended in the plan is actually being done in the
classroom. Your aim for developing a curriculum is to make a difference to
learners. Simply put, curriculum implementation is bringing about change and
hopefully, improvement.
How do you bring about change? In other words, how do you ensure that the
curriculum brings about the desired changes? Before you can bring about
change, you need to know what change is. You may say whats the big deal? We
all know what change is! You know how your job has changed. You know how
government policy changes. But what is change in relation to curriculum?
Basically, change is doing something differently. Change results from new
knowledge. However, the presence of new knowledge is not sufficient for
change. People generally are reluctant to change because they are comfortable
with what they are currently doing. So, to change, they must recognise the need
for change. People are more likely to recognise the need for change if they
understand change and how it works. Dont you agree?
Kurt Lewin (1951), considered to be the father of social psychology suggested a

model explaining change (see Figure 7.1). According to him, all persons are faced
with two competing forces:
(a) Driving Forces:
These are forces that are driving or pushing you to do something and
change in a particular direction. They tend to initiate a change and keep it
going. In the workplace, pressure from your boss, financial incentives and
competition for promotion may be examples of driving forces.
(b) Restraining Forces:
These are forces restraining or preventing you from doing something and
changing. In the workplace, apathy, hostility and obsolete equipment may
be examples of restraining forces.
(c) Equilibrium:
When these two forces (driving and restraining) are equal, the status quo is
maintained. In other words, there is no effort towards change and so you
do the same thing as you did before.
For example, in a school setting, the principal who is autocratic and

constantly pressures his or her staff may bring about change in the short
run. In other words, the driving forces have overpowered the restraining
forces and when this happens, change is initiated. As long as the driving
forces are more powerful than the restraining forces, change will continue.
The methods used by the principal may lead to increased hostility and
antagonism and manifest themselves in teachers refusing to cooperate and
reluctant to do more than is required. In other words, the restraining forces
have got stronger and change slows down.
Lewin emphasised that to bring about change, it is better to reduce the

power of the restraining forces rather than increase the driving forces. This
has been termed as unfreezing whereby the powers of the restraining forces
are decreased to stimulate the driving forces. For example, the principal
could instead encourage more discussion and group problem solving in an
attempt to eliminate hostility and apathy. If there is fear among teachers
that they would not have the know-how to implement change it is best that
they be trained before implementing the new ideas.
Figure 7.1: Force Field Model (Kurt Lewin, 1951)
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. What does curriculum implementation involve?

2. How does Kurt Lewins model explain curriculum change?
7.3 TYPES OF CURRICULUM CHANGE

If you are responsible for implementing curriculum, it is important that you
understand the nature of change. Understanding the change process can be a
challenging and exciting process. If you do not comprehend the complexities of
change, you are likely to introduce ideas and actions that may result in confusion
and tension within the school or district. Curriculum change is a complex and
difficult process and requires careful planning, adequate time, funding, support
and opportunities for teacher involvement. McNeil (1990) categorised curriculum
change as follows:
(a) Substitution:
One element may be substituted for another already present; for example,
the substituting of a new textbook for an old one.
(b) Alteration:
This occurs when a change is introduced into existing material in the hope
that it will appear minor and thus be readily adopted. For example,
introducing new content such as road safety in the primary school
curriculum, or using new materials such as the graphing calculator in
teaching mathematics.
(c) Perturbations:
These are changes that are disruptive but teachers adjust to them within a
fairly short time. For example, the assistant principal changes the timetable
or schedule to allow for longer teaching time.
(d) Restructuring:
These are changes that lead to a modification of the whole school system.
For example, the introduction of an integrated curriculum requiring team
teaching or involving the local community in deciding what is to be taught.
(e) Value Orientation:
These are shifts in the fundamental value orientations of school personnel.
For example, if the new teachers who join the school place more emphasis
on personal growth of students than academic performance, then the value
orientations or fundamental philosophies of the school changes.
It should be realised that a particular curriculum change may not exactly fit
according to the five categories given. But, the categories are general
enough to help you plan change and arrange resources to bring about the
change. However, you should be aware that change is not synonymous
with improvement and you might decide that change should not be
undertaken.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
1. What are the FIVE types of curriculum change listed by McNeil?

Give examples of each category other than those given in the text.
2. Identify other types of curriculum change which you have come
across but do not fit into those given.
7.4 RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

As mentioned earlier, bringing about change is not an easy task. There are many
barriers to the successful implementation of a curriculum. If you are given the job
of implementing a curriculum, whether it is in the school system, college,
university or training centre, you will encounter people resisting change or
preferring to keep things as they are! We often hear people say, If it is not
broken, why fix it. People are happy with the current situation in their
institution and feel that the change suggested will not meet the objectives of the
school, college or training centre. The status quo tends to be maintained when the
persons introducing change are themselves not clear as to the intent and what is
required of the new programme. To make matters worse, the implementation of

the programme is poorly planned.
Teachers who are to implement the curriculum frequently view change as

meaning more work. In addition to their already overloaded schedule, there is no
extra financial reward for the extra work they have to put in. Also, they view that
any new curriculum programmes will require them to learn new teaching skills
and competencies which will mean attending courses and seminars. It has also
been found that teachers or practitioners tend to reject pedagogical strategies or
teaching methods that are different from what they are currently using. They are
reluctant to change or modify their current instructional strategies and
understandings of classroom practice.
Let us examine in more detail why people resist change. By knowing why people
resist change, it may be possible to plan more effective strategies to overcome
resistance and improve receptivity to change. Persons charged with the task of
curriculum implementation must understand how people react to change and
how to encourage them to be receptive to change. The following are the main
reasons why people resist change (Harvey, 1990; Woldring, 1999; Lippitt, 1966):
(a) People resist because they do not understand They simply do not follow
what is being introduced. They do not understand where they are going.
They are not clear as to what is required of them.
Overcome:
The key is communication. You have to explain to them Why. You
have to answer the Why, What, When, How and Where questions.
Remember, the effectiveness of communication is not the message sent
but of the message received.
(b) People resist because of lack of ownership Individuals will not accept
change if they consider it coming from outside or imposed on them.
Unfortunately, most curriculum reform efforts are initiated from the
outside which may be at the national, state or district level.
Overcome:
You have to convince teachers that even though it comes from the outside,
their view and opinions have been considered at the planning and design
stages of curriculum development. Involve teachers in exploring the
relevance of the new curriculum and give them the freedom to explore the
new skills needed for utilising or implementing the curriculum. This will
get them to feel that they are an important part of the curriculum
implementation process.
(c) People resist if they do not have the competencies to cope with the changes
It is natural for persons to resist if they do not have the knowledge and
skills to cope with the changes. Nobody wants to be told that they are
incompetent. There is the likelihood that the implementation of the new
curriculum has been rushed or due to budgetary constraints, the training
period has been greatly reduced and teachers are not adequately equipped.
Overcome:
Adequate time and resources have to be set aside for the training of
teachers involved in implementing the new curriculum.
(d) People resist if there is a lack of incentives or benefits If teachers are
unconvinced that the new programme will make things better for students
(in terms of learning) or themselves (such as greater recognition, respect or
reward), they are likely to resist the suggested change.
Overcome:
Make sure that teachers who are actively involved in curriculum change are
rewarded. The reward need not necessarily be financial, but their efforts
need to be given due recognition.
(e) People resist if they do not have the time to engage with the change
Teachers find it difficult having to juggle between bringing about change
while handling their current responsibilities. Focusing their energy on
change activities may run the risk of neglecting their current
responsibilities.
Overcome:
Lighten their workload so they can participate in the change. Re-prioritise
their work. Do not expect people to have the energy to change when this
means failing on the tasks for which they are held responsible.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
1. Why do people resist change?

2. Suggest other reasons why people resist change.
7.5 CASE STUDY: CURRICULUM REFORM AND

IMPLEMENTATION IN INDONESIA
In 1994, the Indonesian government introduced curriculum reform which
consisted of a national curriculum (80%) and flexibility given to the provinces in
adjusting the curriculum to local needs. The Local Content Curriculum (LCC)
was aimed at the local situation and context while the national curriculum
focused on national development. The Curriculum Development Centre (CDC)
transferred 20% of its authority to each provincial level (LCC).
Teachers, principals and supervisors were given autonomy to redesign the

curriculum to more closely match students' needs and interests. However, in
reality not all teachers took advantage of the opportunity. Teachers have not
responded in modifying the curriculum or experimenting with new instructional
techniques. Moreover, parents and interested groups in the locality have not been
invited to participate in the planning or management of the LCC program.
According to LCC policy, schools are supposed to reorganise the curriculum into
a new set of subjects. In some cases teachers have made connections between the
subject matter they disseminate to the world outside, but the basic curricular
foundations in junior secondary school has remained essentially the same as the
previous curriculum.
National Curriculum (80%) Local Content Curriculum (20%)

Pancasila and civic education Agriculture
Religion (Islam, Christianity, Environmental education
Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism) Computer and information
Indonesian language Local culture (dance, local language,
traditional games, etc)
Reading and writing
English
Mathematics
Geography
Science & technology
National and World history
The following are some limitations and obstacles found in the LCC
implementation: lack of communication between the provincial and local levels,
the lack of training, teachers' attitudes toward the LCC, lack of resources, and
lack of funding allocation.
First, in the process of curriculum decentralisation some decisions made at
the provincial level tended to not meet each district's needs and conditions.
Second, was the lack of teachers to teach the LCC. In the LCC implemented in
the provinces of Jambi, Lampung, Maluku Island, South Sulawesi and East
Java, most of the local content subjects were taught by teachers who did not
have any specific skills and experience, such as teaching specific traditional
culture and local languages.
Third, teachers' attitudes toward the LCC implementation. Teachers did not
respond to the innovation because they did not have enough background
knowledge or skills for its implementation. In fact, they did not have the
necessary support from the government and provincial levels to develop
their knowledge and skills.
While it is easy for the government to establish policies, conditions at the school
level are completely different. Most teachers tended to concentrate on the
national curriculum. Finally, there was a lack of funds to develop the LCC which
required regular meetings at the school/district level for LCC subject
development. This caused a lack of participation in LCC implementation.
Source: MinHo, Y., Clementina, A., & Erry, U. The reform of secondary education in
Indonesia during the 1990s: Improving relevance and quality through curriculum
decentralisation implementing the curriculum in Indonesia. Available at:
http://www.ginie.org/cstudies/indonesia/cs-asia-pacific.htm
ACTIVITY 7.2
Refer to Case Study 7.5 and answer the following questions:

1. What are some of the reasons given for poor implementation of the
local curriculum content (LCC) in Indonesia?
2. To what extent is such flexibility given to teachers in your country?
7.6 INDIVIDUALS INVOLVED IN CURRICULUM

IMPLEMENTATION
Implementing a curriculum requires the involvement of many different people.
Each is a 'key player' in the change process. Without the coordinated
involvement of these individuals the implementation of the curriculum
programme will encounter many problems. Among the key players identified
are: teachers, students, principals/headmasters, assistant principals, district
education officers, state education officers, curriculum developers, academics,
parents, interested political officials and lay citizens. In a centralised system, the
national curriculum is developed at the national level and passed on to the
individual districts and schools to be implemented.
7.6.1 Teachers
Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation
process is the teacher. With their knowledge, experience and competencies,
teachers are central to any curriculum improvement effort. Regardless of which
philosophical belief the education system is based on, there is no denying that
teachers influence students' learning. Better teachers foster better learning.
Teachers are most knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are
responsible for introducing the curriculum in the classroom.
The key to getting teachers committed to an innovation is to enhance their

knowledge of the programme. This means teachers need to be trained and
workshops have to be organised for professional development. Unfortunately, in
any curriculum implementation process not all teachers will have the benefit of
such exposure. There are just too many teachers and insufficient funds to go
around. The most common approach is to have one-day workshops given by
experts with the lecture method being the dominant pedagogical strategy.
Among the many extrinsic factors identified that may impede curriculum change
are adequacy of resources, time, school ethos and professional support. The
intrinsic factors are: professional knowledge, professional adequacy and
professional interest and motivation (see Table 7.1).
Hence, professional development of teachers is an important factor contributing

to the success of curriculum implementation. To what extent have teacher
education programmes required prospective teachers to study curriculum
development? Some view teachers as technicians and as such do not include
curriculum development in their teacher education programmes. [Did you study
curriculum development in your training as a teacher?] Certainly an adequate
teacher education programme should include curriculum development (both the
theory and the work of curriculum development) if teaching is to be a profession

and if educational opportunities for learners are really to be improved.
Below are some topics to be addressed in designing professional development

opportunities for teachers who are implementing a new programme:
Programme philosophy: It is important for teachers to understand both the

philosophy behind the programme as well as how the new programme may
impact students, parents, administrators and other stakeholders.
Content: Teachers may find the curriculum introduces content with which
they are unfamiliar, which they have not taught for a while, or which is
familiar but presented in an unfamiliar way. For example, using a problem-
solving approach rather than a topical approach.
Table 7.1: Factors influencing the implementation of a curriculum in schools
Factors Description
Adequacy of resources Adequacy of equipment, facilities and general resources
required for implementing a new curriculum.
Time Time available for preparing and delivering the
requirements of the new curriculum; e.g. teachers need
enough time to develop their own understanding of the
subject they are required to teach.
School ethos Overall school beliefs towards the new curriculum. Status
of the curriculum as viewed by staff, administrators and
community; e.g. school administration recognises the
importance of the subject in the overall school curriculum.
Professional support Support for teachers from both within the school and
outside; e.g. opportunities to receive ongoing curriculum
professional support.
Professional adequacy Teachers own ability and competence to teach the
curriculum; i.e. confidence in teaching.
Professional Knowledge and understanding which teachers possess of
knowledge the new curriculum; e.g. different ways of teaching to
foster student learning.
Professional attitude Attitudes and interest of teachers toward the new

and interest curriculum; e.g. keen to teach the subject.
Source: Adapted from the Science Curriculum Implementation Questionnaire (SCIQ).

Available at http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~lewthwai/introSCIQ.html
Pedagogy: Teachers need opportunities to become familiar with the new

programme's pedagogical approach. They may need to work on particular
teaching skills emphasised in the new programme, such as teaching of values,
or perhaps to become familiar with a tool such as the internet.
Components of the programme: Teachers will need opportunities to learn

about the components of the new programme early in the implementation
phase. For example, the new programme might place greater emphasis on
school-based assessment while teachers are more accustomed to national or
centralised assessment.
ACTIVITY 7.3
According to Friendenberg, people who go into teaching tend to be

conformists in nature and reluctant to innovate. These people have
succeeded in the school system as it has existed. They have learned to play it
safe and to keep a low profile in a bureaucratic system run by administrators
who do not like to create waves. They have found success and fulfilment as
students and now as teachers in this system, and for this reason many see no
reason to change it.
Source: Friendenberg, E. ( 1965). Coming of age in America. New York:
Random House.
1. To what extent do you agree with Friedenbergs views about

teachers and curriculum change?
2. Is this characteristic of other professions?
7.6.2 Students
There is a tendency among curriculum implementers to ignore the role of
students as agents of change. Increasingly, there is the realisation that even
primary school children can contribute to meaningful change. Students must be
willing to participate in the programme. If students do not see the relevance of
the programme there is the likelihood that they will not be motivated to
participate or learn. However, it is still not clear how students should be
involved in the curriculum implementation phase even though they are the main
recipients of the programme. Students may be so entrenched in their thinking
and behaviour that changes proposed in the curriculum may not be
enthusiastically received. For example, students may be used to being given
notes by their teachers and the new programme requires them to make their own
notes. Some students may not know how to make notes and have to be taught
how to go about it. Even getting students to participate in discussions may not be
well received if they have been accustomed to being passive recipients of
information.
7.6.3 Principals or Headmasters

Principals or headmasters are important players in the curriculum
implementation process in a school.
They should understand the need for change as well as the steps that have to
be taken along the way.
They should have in-depth knowledge about the planned change and of the
implementation process. They should be familiar with the goals and
components of the curriculum and be able to see a shift in the teachers' role in
the classroom and the way in which teachers interact with students.
They should be accessible and willing to communicate with others involved
in the process. Establishing a two-way information flow will give principals
or headmasters a chance to stay on top of issues that need to be addressed. It
will also allow attending to critical problems or concerns before they lead to
frustration or even anger among teachers. Lines of communication are best
set early to disseminate information to people as well as to provide a
platform in which they can voice their concerns. Information gathered from
listening and talking to people will also help principals or headmasters to
focus on the areas that need attention.
They should be able to convince parents on the merits of the new curriculum
and how the new pedagogical strategies can become more meaningful for
their children. For example, they may need to speak to parents and the
community on the new curriculum. It is important that they give the message
that they have thought carefully about the need for change, that they have
anticipated the issues that will arise and have a plan for addressing the
issues.
They should keep in mind, that even the best-laid plans can meet unexpected
challenges. For example, insufficient teachers in a particular subject area due to
resignation, unexpected introduction of programmes by the government, or
sudden change of government policy. For this reason, a flexible implementation
plan may be necessary to be adapted and revisited along the way.
They must be committed to the change and be able to employ a variety of
leadership strategies to meet the needs of teachers, such as building on the
strengths of their staff, being willing to take risks, being positive about the
planned change and to use this optimism to motivate others.
7.6.4 Parents
Besides teachers, students and school administrators; parents also play an
important role in the implementation process. For example, when parents see a
subject being taught in a way that is unfamiliar to them, they naturally have
questions about what is going on. When children bring homework from school
that parents feel unable to help with, they feel confused and lost. To be
successful, any new programme needs to be embraced by parents. One way of
reaching out to parents is to organise workshops for them focusing on the new
curriculum. The workshops should be designed to help parents better
understand theist content and philosophy. Parents need an opportunity to share
their concerns and voice their support in an open forum. These workshops
should be conducted by teachers so that they may explain what is really going on
in the classroom.
Another approach in reaching out to parents is to make available information on

curriculum change on the internet. For example, the government of the province
of Alberta in Canada has on its website a curriculum handbook for parents
containing information on the subjects, programmes and courses available in all
schools. The information is updated each year as changes are made to the
curriculum (refer to http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/parents/handbooks).
Similarly, print-based newsletters can be made available to parents informing
them of the changes that are taking place with the introduction of the new
curriculum.
SELF-CHECK 7.4
1. What should principals or headmasters do to ensure the

successful implementation of any curriculum?
2. How should parents be involved in the curriculum
implementation process?
7.7 CASE STUDY: ENGLAND'S NATIONAL

CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
The law requires that all schools in England offer a balanced and broad- based
curriculum which provides for all pupils to learn and achieve; promotes
students' spiritual, moral, cultural, mental and physical development; and
prepares students for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of adult
life. The following subjects must be taught:
English;
Mathematics;
Science;
Design and Technology;
Information and Communication Technology; and
History.
Other statutory requirements are: Religious Education, Sex and Relationship

Education, and Careers Education (from Year 9). The core subjects; English,
Mathematics and Science, will be given priority to ensure that they are secure.
Beyond this, each school can decide which subject to give more time to and
within a subject, which aspects or skills to emphasise. The priority or emphasis
might apply across subjects, to particular year groups, to groups of pupils or to
individuals.
For example:
A school with particular strengths in its ICT and language departments offers
Spanish as a second foreign language using ICT facilities for weekly video-
conference sessions with students in a partner school in Spain.
A school with substantial low-achieving students emphasises literacy across
the curriculum. Teachers plan into their schemes of work where and how
they will teach literacy objectives in their subject.
In an area of high-technology industries such as computing and
pharmaceuticals, the school gives priority to Mathematics and Science to help
its students to make the most of local job opportunities. Scientists from local
companies visit the school as part of the science and engineering
ambassadors scheme, and year 9 students undertake project work to achieve
creativity in science and technology (CREST) awards.
Source: Department for Education and Skills. Key stage 3 National Strategy: Designing
the Key Stage 3 curriculum. England: Author.
ACTIVITY 7.4
1. What flexibility is given to teachers in Englands secondary

school curriculum?
2. Do you agree with the flexibility given to schools in meeting
local needs? Give reasons.
3. Do you think such flexibility should be given to schools in your
country? Why?
7.8 IMPLEMENTING CURRICULUM IN THE

CLASSROOM
The final destination of any curriculum is the classroom. As we enter the
classroom, decision-making becomes the responsibility of the teacher. Up to this
point curriculum implementation was discussed at the programme level and
decision making was of a programmatic nature (though we did discuss briefly
the role of the teacher). Now classroom teachers will take over and make
decisions of a methodological nature. They will be answering questions like:
What objectives do I hope to accomplish as a result of instruction?
What topics or content will I have to cover?
What teaching methods or strategies should I use to direct learning and
achieve the objectives?
How do I evaluate instruction to determine whether I have successfully
achieved the objective?
Figure 7.2: An example of an instructional model
Implementing instruction in the classroom includes specifying instructional or

learning goals (discussed in Topic 5), selecting content, selecting learning
experiences and choosing techniques or tasks to evaluate instruction (see Figure
7.2). Where and how does the teacher begin to plan for instruction? Lets look at
three examples of planning for instruction.
Teacher X takes the textbook and divides the number of topics by the number
of weeks in the school year. For example, one topic may be taught over two
or three lessons. The sequence and subheadings of the respective topic guides
the presentation of the content. He or she may prepare some notes for
students, ask some questions during class (which may come from the
textbook) and give group assignments to clarify points in the topic or topics.
Teacher Y selects a topic for study for the week or over a number of lessons
using all kinds of resources related to the topic. The resources may include
the textbook, reference books, websites, magazines, etc. A problem-solving
approach is adopted where students look through various sources of
information to solve a problem.
Teacher Z comes to class without knowing what he or she will cover. A
theme or issue is written on the blackboard and students are expected to
contribute their understanding and interpretation about the theme or issue.
While some may argue that this is spontaneity, others, less kind, might term
it non-planning.
These three approaches may be extreme, but there are many teachers who fall
into one of these categories. These teachers may follow the curriculum or follow
the plan in general terms. All three approaches may not specify the instructional
objectives or learning outcomes students are expected to accomplish. In most
cases, teachers adopt an eclectic approach, i.e. they combine one or more
methods.
Instructional objectives or learning outcomes are statements indicating what you

want students to know, to do and to value after having completed a lesson. Why
instructional objectives? [The issue of instructional objectives has been discussed
in Topic 1 and Topic 5]. Instructional objectives do the following:
Make it clear to teachers what changes they want students to achieve;
Help in choosing the appropriate learning experiences to achieve the changes
or learning desired;
Inform students of what is expected of them; and
Indicate what will be important in assessing the lesson.
Lesson plans are used in planning for instruction. A lesson plan is simply an
outline prepared in advance of teaching, so that time and materials will be used
efficiently (Peter, 1975. p.194). Ideally, different lessons require different lesson
plans and different students require different lesson plans. Figure 7.3 depicts a
generic outline for a lesson plan which consists of:
(a) Objectives;
(b) Pre-requisite knowledge;
(c) Learning experiences (teaching methods and learning activities);
(d) Instructional aids and resources;
(e) Assignments; and
(f) Evaluation tasks or techniques.
The teacher with less experience will have more details included in the lesson
plan. However, it is desirable for both experienced and inexperienced teachers to
prepare complete lesson plans to fully communicate their ideas. It is common
practice for experienced teachers to simplify or shorten lesson plans. As teachers
gain experience, less detail in planning is possible. Once the lesson plan has been
made, the teacher can begin to demonstrate his or her style and skills of teaching.
Date: When is the lesson to be conducted?

Time: Time when the lesson is to be conducted.
Duration: How long will the lesson take?
Grade Level: State what level.
Topic: From one topic, two or more lessons plans may be developed.
Objectives:
(a) Cognitive
Mastery and understanding of the content (e.g. able to give three
characteristics, able to give reasons).
(b) Affective
The affective outcomes desired (e.g. express an opinion, take a position,
empathise with the issue discussed).
Pre-Requisite Knowledge:
List all skills and content knowledge needed prior to teaching this lesson.
Instructional Aids and Resources:

The instructional aids that will be used (e.g. maps, pictures, video-clip).
Show how they will be used.
Learning Experiences:
Set induction: how the lesson will begin (e.g. review previous lesson).
The teaching strategy used (e.g. inductive approach).
Questions posed (to increase understanding and thinking).
What students will be required to do (e.g. listen, manipulate data).
How students interact with the instructional aids.
Closure: ask students questions and summarise lesson.
Assignment:
Learning activity students are required to do after the lesson (e.g. refer to
newspaper article).
Evaluation Techniques:
How will student learning be assessed? (e.g. oral questioning).
What criteria or rubric will be used to evaluate the lesson?
Figure 7.3: Generic components of a lesson plan

Curriculum implementation is the interaction between those who have

created the programme and those who are charged to deliver it.
Implementation is the carrying out or the practical application of a method,

procedure or desired purpose.
According to Lewin, change is determined by driving forces and restraining

forces. To bring about change, it is better to reduce the power of the
restraining forces rather than increase the driving forces.
People resist change because they lack understanding, competencies,

ownership, incentives and time.
Curriculum change can take the following forms: substitution, alteration,

perturbations, restructuring and value orientation.
The factors influencing curriculum implementation in schools are: adequacy

of resources, time, school ethos, professional support, professional
knowledge, professional attitude and interest.
An instructional model consists of the following four components: learning

objectives, content, learning experiences and assessment tasks.
Principals and headmasters play an important role in the successful

implementation of curriculum.
Curriculum implementation Driving forces

National curriculum Lesson plan
Forms of curriculum change Restraining forces
Local curriculum Role of teachers
Force field model Resistance to change
Curriculum in the classroom Role of students
1. Identify some problems in the implementation of the Primary School

Integrated Curriculum (KBSR) and the Secondary School Integrated
Curriculum (KBSM).
2. Describe how the teaching of Science and Mathematics in English

was implemented in your school.
3. New curriculums often fail to become established in schools

because the importance and complexity of the implementation phase
is not understood. Discuss.
Ben-Peretz, M. (1990). The teacher-curriculum encounter. Buffalo: State

University of New York Press.
Chapter 1: Patterns of teacher involvement in the curriculum endeavour.
Chapter 3: Teachers concerns about curriculum issues.
Chapter 7: Implications for teacher education and staff development.
[Available at eBrary].
Bennie, K. & Newstead, K. (2004). Obstacles to implementing a new curriculum.
http://academic.sun.ac.za/mathed/MALATI/Files/Statistics99.pdf
Keys, P. (2000). Developing a good science syllabus for an optimistic future:
A classroom teachers perspective.
http://www.aare.edu.au/00pap/key00212.htm
Chapter 10: Curriculum implementation.
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Chapter 1: Overview of curriculum processes and products.
piic Curriculum
Top
8 Evaluation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. State what curriculum evaluation is;

2. List the reasons for curriculum evaluation;
3. Explain the characteristics of the CIPP model;
4. Describe the features of Stake's model of curriculum evaluation;
5. Explain the characteristics of Eisner's Connoisseurship model; and
6. Compare the different instruments of data collection.
178 TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION
'Don't Make Physical Education (PE) an Examination Subject'

The ministry of education has asked The sporting calendar for Term 1
ministry officials to look into (January to April) had football,
introducing physical education (PE) as athletics, cross country. In Term 2 (May
an examination subject. I think PE to August), it was athletics and cricket.
should not be an exam subject. In Term 3 (September to December ) it
was hockey and rugby. As for the court
In the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, PE games, they were played all around the
was never an exam subject and yet the year.
country produced world-class
sportmen and sportwomen in There were inter-house games and if
badminton, weightlifting, hockey, your school has six houses you would
athletics and other events. People like play at least five matches for your
Jegathesan, Mokhtar Dahari, Tan Aik house. There were inter-school games
Huang, Rajamani, Ng Boon Bee, Nurul which are now extinct and even if they
Huda, Marina Chin, Karu Selvaratnam, do have them, it is on a knock-out basis.
Nastar Singh, Zaiton Sulaiman, Ghani
Minhat, Tan Aik Mong, Dhanapal Sporting activities have become a
Naidu, and many others. burden for schools. There is little
organisation and the faster they are
We had no sports schools in those over, the better. The school saves
days. All schools were sport schools. money and teachers have more time for
How did we produce excellent completing the syllabus and revision in
sportmen and sportwomen? We had preparation for national examinations.
supportive parents, interested
headmasters, dedicated and comitted - Retired Physical Education Teacher
PE teachers, coachers and disciplined
sportmen and sportwomen.
Source: Letters to the Editor, New Straits Times, February 1, 2005
INTRODUCTION
In Topic 7, we discussed the implementation of the
curriculum plan. We looked at why people resist
change, the role of teachers, students, administrators
and parents in ensuring the successful implementation
of change. In this topic, we will focus on determining
whether the curriculum plan implemented has
achieved its goals and objectives as planned. In other
words, the curriculum has to be evaluated to
TOPIC 8 CURRICULUM EVALUATION 179
determine whether all the effort in terms of finance and human resources has
been worthwhile. Various stakeholders want to know the extent to which the
curriculum has been successfully implemented. The information collected from
evaluating a curriculum forms the basis for making judgements about how
successfully the programme has achieved its intended outcomes and the worth
or value of the programme.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Read the newspaper report Dont Make Physical Education (PE) an
Examination Subject at the beginning of the chapter and answer the
following questions.
1. Do you think Physical Education should be made an examination
subject?
2. Do you agree with the writer's opinions on the state of sports in
schools?
8.1 CURRICULUM EVALUATION

What is evaluation? Evaluation is the process of collecting data on a programme
to determine its value or worth with the aim of deciding whether to adopt, reject,
or revise the programme. Programmes are evaluated to answer questions and
concerns of various parties. The public want to know whether the curriculum
implemented has achieved its aims and objectives; teachers want to know
whether what they are doing in the classroom is effective; and the developer or
planner wants to know how to improve the curriculum product. The following
are several definitions of curriculum evaluation:
McNeil (1977) states that curriculum evaluation is an attempt to throw light
on two questions: Do planned learning opportunities, programmes, courses
and activities as developed and organised actually produce desired results?
How can the curriculum offerings best be improved? (p.134).
Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) define curriculum evaluation as "a process or
cluster of processes that people perform in order to gather data that will
enable them to decide whether to accept, change or eliminate something- the
curriculum in general or an educational textbook in particular" (p.320).
Worthen and Sanders (1987) define curriculum evaluation as "the formal
determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of a programme, product,
project, process, objective or curriculum" (p.22-23).
Gay (1985) argues that the aim of curriculum evaluation is to identify its
weaknesses and strengths as well as problems encountered in
implementation; to improve the curriculum development process; to
determine the effectiveness of the curriculum and the returns on finance
allocated.
Oliva (1988) defined curriculum evaluation as the process of delineating,
obtaining, and providing useful information for judging decision alternatives.
The primary decision alternatives to consider based upon the evaluation
results are to maintain the curriculum as is; to modify the curriculum; or to
eliminate the curriculum.
Evaluation is a disciplined inquiry to determine the worth of things. Things

may include programmes, procedures or objects. Generally, research and
evaluation are different even though similar data collection tools may be used.
The three dimensions on which they may differ are:
First, evaluation need not have as its objective the generation of knowledge.
Evaluation is applied while research tends to be basic.
Second, evaluation presumably, produces information that is used to make
decisions or forms the basis of policy. Evaluation yields information that has
immediate use while research need not.
Third, evaluation is a judgement of worth. Evaluation results in value
judgements while research need not and some would say should not.
8.2 FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE

EVALUATION
As mentioned earlier, evaluation is the process of determining the significance or
worth of programmes or procedures. Scriven (1967) differentiated evaluation as
formative evaluation and summative evaluation. However, they have come to
mean different things to different people, but in this topic, Scriven's original
definition will be used.
8.2.1 Formative Evaluation

The term formative indicates that data is gathered during the formation or
development of the curriculum so that revisions to it can be made. Formative
evaluation may include determining who needs the programme (e.g. secondary
school students), how great is the need (e.g. students need to be taught ICT skills
to keep pace with expansion of technology) and how to meet the need (e.g.
introduce a subject on ICT compulsory for all secondary schools students). In

education, the aim of formative evaluation is usually to obtain information to
improve a programme.
In formative evaluation, experts would evaluate the match between the

instructional strategies and materials used, and the learning outcomes or what it
aims to achieve. For example, it is possible that the learning outcomes and the
learning activities in a curriculum plan do not match. You want students to
develop critical thinking skills but there are no learning activities which provide
opportunities for students to practice critical thinking. Formative evaluation by
experts is useful before full-scale implementation of the programme. Review by
experts of the curriculum plan may provide useful information for modifying or
revising selected strategies.
In formative evaluation, learners may be

When the cook tastes the
included to review the materials to soup, thats formative
determine if they can use the new evaluation;
materials. For example, do they have the when the guests taste the
relevantprerequisites and are they soup, thats summative
motivated to learn? From these evaluation.
formative reviews, problems may be - Robert Stakes
discovered. For example, the curriculum
document may contain spelling errors, confusing sequence of content,
inappropriate examples or illustrations. The feedback obtained could be used to
revise and improve instruction or whether or not to adopt the programme before
full implementation.
8.2.2 Summative Evaluation

The term summative indicates that data is collected at the end of the
implementation of the curriculum programme. Summative evaluation can occur
just after new course materials have been implemented in full (i.e. evaluate the
effectiveness of the programme), or several months to years after the materials
have been implemented in full. It is important to specify what questions you
want answered by the evaluation and what decisions will be made as a result of
the evaluation. You may want to know if learners achieved the objectives or
whether the programme produced the desired outcomes. For example, whether
using a specific simulation software in the teaching of geography enhanced the
decision making skills of learners. These outcomes can be determined through
formal assessment tasks such as marks obtained in tests and examinations. Also
of concern is whether the innovation was cost-effective. Was the innovation
efficient in terms of time to completion? Were there any unexpected outcomes?
Other than quantitative data to determine how well students met specified
objectives, data could also include qualitative interviews, direct observations,

and document analyses.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. Identify the key words in the five definitions of curriculum

evaluation.
2. Why do you need to evaluate curriculum?
3. What is the difference between formative and summative
evaluation?
8.3 CURRICULUM EVALUATION MODELS

How should you go about evaluating curriculum? Several experts have proposed
different models describing how and what should be involved in evaluating a
curriculum. Models are useful because they help you define the parameters of an
evaluation, what concepts to study and the procedures to be used to extract
important data. Numerous evaluation models have been proposed but three
models are discussed here.
8.3.1 Context, Input, Process, Product Model (CIPP

Model)
Daniel L. Stufflebeam (1971), who chaired the Phi Delta Kappa National Study
Committee on Evaluation, introduced a widely cited model of evaluation known as
the CIPP (context, input, process and product) model (Figure 8.1). The approach
when applied to education aims to determine if a particular educational effort has
resulted in a positive change in school, college, university or training organisation.
A major aspect of Stufflebeam's model is centred on decision making or an act of
making up one's mind about the programme. For evaluations to be done correctly
and aid in the decision making process, curriculum evaluators have to:
First delineate what is to be evaluated and determine what information has
to be collected (e.g. how effective the new science programme has been in
enhancing the scientific thinking skills of children in the primary grades);
Second is to obtain or collect the information using selected techniques and
methods (e.g. interview teachers, collect test scores of students); and
Third is to provide or make available the information (in the form of tables or
graphs) to interested parties. To decide whether to maintain, modify or
eliminate the new curriculum or programme, information is obtained by

conducting the following four types of evaluation: context, input, process and
product (Figure 8.1).
Figure 8.1: CIPP model of evaluation
Stufflebeams model of evaluation relies on both formative and summative

evaluation to determine the overall effectiveness of a curriculum programme (see
Figure 8.2). Evaluation is required at all levels of the programme implemented.
Figure 8.2: Formative and summative evaluation in the CIPP Model

(a) Context Evaluation (What needs to be done and in what context)?

This is the most basic kind of evaluation with the purpose of providing a
rationale for the objectives. The evaluator defines the environment in which
the curriculum is implemented which could be a classroom, school or
training department. The evaluator determines needs that were not met and
reasons why the needs are not being met. Also identified are the
shortcomings and problems in the organisation under review (e.g. a sizable
proportion of students in secondary schools are unable to read at the
desired level, the ratio of students to computers is large, a sizable
proportion of science teachers are not proficient to teach in English). Goals
and objectives are specified on the basis of context evaluation. In other
words, the evaluator determines the background in which the innovations
are being implemented.
The techniques of data collection would include observation of conditions

in the school, background statistics of teachers and interviews with players
involved in the implementation of the curriculum.
(b) Input Evaluation (How should it be done?) is to provide information in

determining how to utilise resources to achieve objectives of the curriculum.
The resources of the school and various designs for carrying out the
curriculum are considered. At this stage the evaluator decides on procedures
to be used. Unfortunately, methods for input evaluation are lacking in
education. The prevalent practices include committee deliberations, appeal to
professional literature, the employment of consultants and pilot experimental
projects.
(c) Process Evaluation (Is it being done?) is the provision of periodic feedback
while the curriculum is being implemented.
(d) Product Evaluation (Did it succeed?) or outcomes of the initiative. Data is

collected to determine whether the curriculum managed to accomplish
what it set out to achieve (e.g. to what extent students have developed a
more positive attitude towards science). Product evaluation involves
measuring the achievement of objectives, interpreting the data and
providing information that will enable them to decide whether to continue,
terminate or modify the new curriculum. For example, product evaluation
might reveal that students have become more interested in science and are
more positive towards the subject after introduction of the new science
curriculum. Based on these findings the decision may be made to
implement the programme throughout the country.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
1. What is the difference between context evaluation and input

evaluation according to the CIPP model? Give specific examples.
2. What is the difference between process evaluation and product
evaluation according to the CIPP mode? Give specific examples.
8.3.2 Case Study: Evaluation of a Programme on

Technology Integration in Teaching and
Learning in Secondary Schools
The integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in teaching
and learning is growing rapidly in many countries. The use of the internet and
other computer software in teaching science, mathematics and social sciences is
more widespread today. To evaluate the effectiveness of such a programme
using the CIPP model would involve examining the following:
Context: Examine the environment in which technology is used in teaching and

learning.
How did the real environment compare to the ideal? (E.g. The programme
required five computers in each classroom, but there were only two computer
labs of 40 units each for 1000 students).
What problems are hampering the success of technology integration? (E.g.
technology breakdowns, not all schools have internet access).
About 50% of teachers do not have basic computer skills.
Input: Examine what resources are put into technology integration (Identify the
educational strategies most likely to achieve the desired result).
Has the right content for using technology been selected?
Have we used the right combination of media? (Internet, video-clips, etc).
Process: Assess how well the implementation works (Uncovers implementation

issues).
Did technology integration run smoothly?
Were there technology problems?
Were teachers able to integrate technology in their lessons as planned?
What are the areas of curriculum in which most students experienced

difficulty?
Product: Addresses outcomes of the learning (Gathers information on the results

of the educational intervention to interpret its worth and merit).
Did the learners learn using technology? How do you know?
Does technology integration enhance higher order thinking?
ACTIVITY 8.2
With reference to Case Study 8.4.2:

1. Suggest other questions you would ask regarding process
evaluation (i.e. implementation issues).
2. What data collection techniques would you recommend for
carrying out product evaluation to determine the teaching and
learning outcomes of technology integration?
8.3.3 Stake's Countenance Model

The model proposed by Robert Stake (1967) suggests three phases of curriculum
evaluation: the antecedent phase, the transaction phase and the outcome phase.
The antecedent phase includes conditions existing prior to instruction that may
relate to outcomes. The transaction phase constitutes the process of instruction
while the outcome phase relates to the effects of the programme. Stake
emphasises two operations; descriptions and judgements. Descriptions are
divided according to whether they refer to what was intended or what actually
was observed. Judgements are separated according to whether they refer to
standards used in arriving at the judgements or to the actual judgements.
Figure 8.3: Stakes Countenance Model
8.3.4 Eisner's Connoisseurship Model

Elliot Eisner, a well known art educator argued that learning was too complex to
be broken down to a list of objectives and measured quantitatively to determine
whether it has taken place. He argued that the teaching of small manageable
pieces of information prohibits students from putting the pieces back together
and applying them to new situations. As long as we evaluate students based on
the small bits of information, students will only learn small bits of information.
Eisner contends that evaluation has and will always drive the curriculum. If we
want students to be able to solve problems and think critically then we must
evaluate problem solving and critical thinking; skills which cannot be learned by
rote practice. So, to evaluate a programme we must make an attempt to capture
the richness and complexity of classroom events.
He proposed the Connoisseurship Model in which he claimed that a

knowledgeable evaluator can determine whether a curriculum programme has
been successful, using a combination of skills and experience. The word
connoisseurship comes from the Latin word cognoscere, meaning to know. For
example, to be a connoisseur of food, paintings or films, you must have
knowledge about and experience with different types of food, paintings or films
before you are able to criticise. To be a food critic, you must be a connoisseur of
different kinds of foods. To be a critic, you must be aware and appreciate the
subtle differences in the phenomenon you are examining. In other words, the
curriculum evaluator must seek to be an educational critic. When employing the
procedure of educational criticism the following questions may be asked:
What has happened in the classrooms as a result of implementation of the

new curriculum?
What are some of the events that took place? (E.g. more students are
participating in field work, more students are asking questions in class, even
academically weak students are talking in group activities.)
How did students and teachers organise themselves in these events?
What were the reactions of participants in these events? (E.g. students
enjoyed working collaboratively in projects.)
How can the experiences of learners be made more effective as suggested by
students, teachers and administrators? (E.g. more resources are needed for
fieldwork; more computers are needed to integrate the internet in teaching
and learning.)
You will notice that these questions place more emphasis on the process of
learning and the quality of experiences by those involved in the implementation
of the curriculum; namely, students, teachers and administrators. According to
the Connoisseurship Model, evaluators provide a description and interpretation
of the curriculum plan implemented:
(a) Description:
The evaluator records the actions, the features of the environment and
experiences of students, teachers and administrators. People who read the
evaluation report will be able to visualise what the place looks like and the
processes taking place. The aim here is to help the reader "see" the school or
classroom and get a feel of what the curriculum evaluator or critic is
attempting to understand and help others understand.
(b) Interpretation:
The evaluator explains the meaning of events reported by putting it in its
context. For example, why academically weak students were motivated to
ask questions; why reading comprehension skills improved; why
enthusiasm for doing science experiments increased and so forth.
To be able to describe and interpret the implementation of a curriculum, the

evaluator has to collect data and the following are examples of activities an
evaluator may engage in:
The evaluator observes what is going on in the classroom and records teachers
and students in action using videotapes, audiotapes and photographs.
The evaluator keeps notes of what is done, what is said and more importantly
what is not said. The evaluator should strive to describe the tone of the
curriculum in action (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).
The evaluator interviews students, teachers and administrators about the

quality of the curriculum.
The evaluator would analyse the students work.
One of the great benefits of Elliot W. Eisner's activities has been the way in which
he has both made the case for a concern with connoisseurship and criticism, and
mediated these concerns for educators and researchers. The importance of his
advocacy of these ideas cannot be underestimated - especially at a time when
rather narrow concerns with instrumental outcomes and an orientation to the
technical dominate. Together they offer educators a more helpful and
appropriate means to approach evaluation, for example:
Advocating moving beyond technocratic and behaviouristic modes of
thinking and having a concern for expressive outcomes.
Calling to attend to fundamentals. Eisner has consistently warned against
educational fads and fashion. He has criticised dominant paradigms and
invited educators and others to ask questions such as What is basic in
education?.
Arguing that schools should help children create meaning from experience,
and that this requires an education devoted to the senses, to meaning-making
and the imagination. Eisner argues for a curriculum that fosters multiple
literacies in students (especially by looking to non-verbal modes of learning
and expression) and a deepening of the artistry of teachers.
Over the time that Eisner has been writing, there have been significant shifts in
the context in which schools have to operate. While there have been other voices
calling for changes in the culture of schooling (notably Howard Gardner in this
arena), the impact of globalisation, growing centralisation in many schooling
systems, reaction against more process-oriented forms of pedagogy and a
growing instrumentalism education have served to make Eisner's message both
more pertinent to schools and more difficult to respond to.
8.4 PHASES OF CURRICULUM EVALUATION

Figure 8.4 shows the phases of curriculum evaluation.
Figure 8.4: Phases of curriculum evaluation
8.5 INSTRUMENTATION FOR CURRICULUM

EVALUATION
No matter what evaluation model is used in evaluating a curriculum, the
methods of data collection and the instruments used are more or less similar. The
common instruments used in curriculum evaluation are interviews, observations,
tests, survey, content analysis and portfolios (record of work or products).
8.5.1 Questionnaires and Checklists

When you need to quickly and/or easily get lots of information from people in a
non threatening way, questionnaires and checklists are useful data collection
techniques. Questionnaires and checklists can be completed anonymously and
are relatively inexpensive to administer. Since the data collected is quantitative, it
is easy to compare and analyse and can be administered to many people. A
massive amount of data can be obtained. It is also easy to design as there are
many sample questionnaires already in existence. However, the information
obtained may not be accurate as it relies on how truthfully subjects respond to
the questions. There is also the fear that the wordings used can bias a client's
responses. Questionnaires are impersonal and we may not get the full story since
only a sample of subjects is given the instrument.
8.5.2 Interviews
Interviews are usually one-on-one situations in which an individual asks
questions to which a second individual (which may be a teacher, principal,
student, parent) responds. The person asking the questions is called the
interviewer while the person giving answers to the questions is called the
interviewee. Interviews are used when you want to fully understand someone's
impressions or experiences, or learn more about their answers to questionnaires.
There are two general types of interviews depending on the extent to which the
responses required are unstructured or structured.
In an unstructured interview, the interviewer does not follow a rigid script and
there is a great deal of flexibility in the responses. For example; "Why do you
think the recommended textbook for the course is difficult for low ability
learners? The teacher responding to such a question will give a variety of
reasons. Some of the reasons given may be of a general nature while others may
be specific to certain sections of the textbook. This makes the task of keeping
track of responses more difficult. The open-endedness of the question will
require that the interviewer record all responses and make sense of it later. The
advantage of the unstructured interview is that it allows the evaluator to gather a
variety of information, especially in relation to the interviewee's knowledge,
beliefs or feelings toward a particular situation.
In a structured interview, the questions asked usually require very specific

responses. For example, "Is the recommended textbook difficult for low ability
learners because:
(a) There is too much content;
(b) The language used is beyond the comprehension of low ability learners; or
(c) There is too few examples and illustrations.
Regardless of which type of interview is used, evaluators should ensure that each
question is relevant for its intended purpose. In the end, the data must be
translated into a form that can be analysed and this has to be done carefully to
preserve accuracy and to maintain the sense of the data. The advantage of
interviews is that it can get a full range and depth of information; it develops a
relationship with teachers and students; and it is more flexible. However,
interviews may take up too much time and cost, and can be hard to analyse and
compare. Furthermore, an interviewer could be biased against a client's
responses.
8.5.3 Observations
Observations are about gathering accurate information about how a programme
is actually operating; in particular, its processes.
8.5.4 Documents
We look at documentation when we want an impression of how a programme is
operating without interrupting the programme itself.
The following table shows the advantages of each method as well as the
challenges involved:
Method Overall Purpose Advantages Challenges

Questionnaires, To quickly and/or can complete might not get
Surveys, easily get lots of anonymously careful feedback
Checklists information from inexpensive to wording can bias
people in a non administer client's responses
threatening way
easy to compare and are impersonal
analyse in surveys, may
administer to many need sampling
people expert
can get lots of data doesn't get full
many sample story
questionnaires already
exist
Interviews To fully understand can get a full range and time consuming
someone's depth of information can be hard to
impressions or can develop analyse and
experiences, or to relationship with client compare
learn more about
their answers to can be flexible with can be costly
questionnaires client interviewer can be
biased against
client's responses
Documentation To get an get comprehensive and time consuming
review impression of how historical information info may be
the programme doesn't interrupt incomplete
operates without programme or client's
interrupting the need to be quite
routine in programme clear about what
programme; review
of applications, information already to look for
finances, memos, exists inflexible; data
minutes, etc. few biases about restricted to what
information already exists
Observation To gather accurate views operations of a seen behaviours
information about programme while they and observations
how a programme are actually taking can be difficult to
actually operates, place interpret and
particularly about can adapt to events as categorise
its processes they occur programme
participants
behaviours can be
influenced
can be expensive
Focus groups To explore a topic quickly and reliably responses can
in depth through get common be hard to
group discussion, impressions analyse
e.g., about reactions can be efficient way need good
to an experience or to get much range facilitator for
suggestion, and depth of safety and
understanding information in a closure
common short time
complaints, etc.; difficult to
useful in evaluation can convey key schedule 6-8
and marketing information about people together
programmes
Case studies To fully understand fully depicts usually quite
or depict client's client's experience time
experiences in a in programme consuming to
programme, and input, process and collect,
conduct a results organise and
comprehensive a powerful means to describe
examination portray programme represents depth
through cross to outsiders of information,
comparison of cases rather than
breadth
8.6 CASE STUDY: EVALUATION OF A

MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM IN SOUTH
AFRICA
Background: Mathematics Learning and Teaching Initiative (MALATI) was
commissioned by the Education Initiative of the Open Society Foundation for
South Africa in 1996 to develop, pilot and disseminate alternative approaches
and tools for teaching and learning mathematics.
Method: Based on project workers' observations and written field notes made
during the implementation of the MALATI curriculum, the following findings
were obtained:
Findings:
(a) A number of teachers had not yet received the most basic communications
issued to schools regarding Curriculum 2005.
(b) Teachers had difficulty interpreting certain aspects of the official
curriculum document. Lack of clarity led to confusion.
(c) The curriculum document had content errors.
(d) Content knowledge of teachers was not adequate to handle some of the
topics in the curriculum such as statistics.
(e) Learners did not have the prior experience assumed in the curriculum; e.g.
in grade 9, the teaching of probability assumes that learner had done some
statistics in the earlier grades.
(f) Teachers are continuing to teach the topics they are used to and are
reluctant to use the MALATI materials.
(g) The curriculum suggested that group work be used in teaching probability
and data handling. Learners were not accustomed to group discussion and
listening to one another.
(h) The teaching of the topic took a longer time as teachers struggled to deal
with learners' everyday experiences in the teaching of probability.
Recommendations:
(a) Teachers need workshops on selected aspects of the content.
(b) Selected parts of the curriculum documents need to be rewritten to reduce
confusion.
(c) To convince teachers not to treat the teaching of probability and statistics as
"new content" but teach it for its mathematical value.
Source: Brodie, K., & Pournara, C. (2003). Towards a framework for developing and
researching groupwork in mathematics classrooms.
Available at http//www.hsrcpress.ac.za
ACTIVITY 8.3
1. What are some of the problems identified with the

implementation of the MALATI programme?
2. Based on the findings list the recommendations made.
Curriculum implementation Local curriculum

Curriculum in the classroom National curriculum
Driving forces Resistance to change
Force field model Restraining forces
Forms of Curriculum change Role of students
Lesson plan Role of teachers
1. Identify some problems in the implementation of the Primary

School Integrated Curriculum (KBSR) and the Secondary School
Integrated Curriculum (KBSM).
2. Describe how the teaching of Science and Mathematics in English
was implemented in your school.
3. "New curriculum often fails to become established in schools
because the importance and complexity of the implementation
phase is not understood." Discuss.
Ben-Peretz, M. (1990). The teacher-curriculum encounter. Buffalo: State University of

New York Press.
Chapter 1: Patterns of teacher involvement in the curriculum endeavour.
Chapter 3: Teacher's concerns about curriculum issues.
Chapter 7: Implications for teacher education and staff development.
[Available at eBrary].
Bennie, K., & Newstead, K. (2004). Obstacles to implementing a new curriculum.
http://academic.sun.ac.za/mathed/MALATI/Files/Statistics99.pdf
Keys, P. (2000). Developing a good science syllabus for an optimistic future: A
classroom teacher's perspective.
http://www.aare.edu.au/00pap/key00212.htm

Chapter 10: Curriculum implementation.

NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Topic Curriculum
9 Issues and
Trends
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how the information age, changing workplace, media and
greater democracy impact curriculum development;
2. Evaluate efforts by schools in catering to individual differences;
3. Justify the importance of character education in the curriculum;
4. Demonstrate performance assessment as an alternative form of
evaluating students;
5. Identify some methods of studying the future; and
6. Critically evaluate suggestions for retooling schools.
TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS 199
'Developing More Technopreneurs'
The task of developing a strong pool "As they have little life experiences,
of technopreneurs in the country is they have to learn by experience and
important to ensure the sustainability doing, and also through mentoring by
of the information and more experienced entrepreneurs who
communication technology (ICT) serve as their business coaches and
sector and to create wealth for the models", said Tay.
local sector in the future.
Other skills and knowledge that can
According to Dr. Wilson Tay, Vice- be picked up include how to develop
President in-charge of Technopreneur a business plan and understanding of
Development, Industry Development, the commercial viability of the
Division of Multimedia Development business venture and how to grow
Corporation (MDC), "there is always the venture.
the question posed as to whether
technopreneurs are created by nature These, according to Tay, can be
or nurtured". taught through action learning and
experimental programmes, and also
The drive of entrepreneurship, through business coaching and
which is needed to create mentoring.
technopreneurs for the country, can
be taught at schools and universities Apart from developing a culture for
through engaging students with a learning entrepreneurship, a
passion for business, said Tay. conducive environment is also
important to create and nurture
Here various methods can be technopreneurs for the local ICT
introduced such as entrepreneurial or sector.
business projects for students to gain
experience and learn to create, start-
up, commercialise and manage their
enterprises.
Source: Sharifah Kasim (2005, March 3). Venturing into technopreneurship.

CompuTimes, New Straits Times.
200 TOPIC 9 CURRICULUM ISSUES AND TRENDS
INTRODUCTION
In Topics 2, 3 and 4, we discussed the
factors influencing curriculum. In
Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8, we examined the
curriculum development process. In this
topic we will focus on certain issues that
concern curriculum and future trends in
curriculum. There are different opinions
on the direction education should take,
and library shelves are filled with
documents and books describing
current and anticipated changes in
society and how education, and more
specifically curriculum should respond
accordingly. Despite differing opinions,
there is consensus on the broad trends
that are likely to have a major impact on curriculum.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Read the newspaper report Developing More Technopreneurs at the

beginning of this chapter and answer the following questions:
"..there is always the question posed as to whether technopreneurs
are created by nature or nurtured".
1. What is your opinion of the above statement?
2. List the strategies suggested to develop technopreneurs.
3. Suggest other ways of developing technopreneurs.
9.1 SOME CHALLENGES

The world is changing rapidly and each day the pace quickens. Many nations are
striving to achieve the status of a modern and prosperous state. The rate at which
such status is achieved varies, with some countries getting there earlier than
others. To achieve this goal, nations are pushing towards greater
industrialisation, automation, computerisation and modernisation of agriculture.
More countries are realising that to achieve the status of a developed nation,
decentralisation and empowerment go hand-in-hand. As pointed by Naisbitt and

Aburdence (1989), the shift will be towards self-help rather than welfare,
networking rather than hierarchy, a global economy rather than a national
economy. Decisions will have to be made based on consideration of multiple
options rather than an either/or situation. These developments have prompted
society to ask whether the next generation is adequately prepared to meet these
challenges which invariably refers to the education system. Four main challenges
face the education system (see Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1: Some challenges impacting curriculum
9.1.1 Information Age

It has been reported that more information has been produced in the last 30 years
than the previous 5000 years. In the United States alone, as much as 50,000 books
are published annually and the amount of information doubles every five years,
and this doubling is predicted to be shortened to every 20 months. Not only is
the stockpile of information increasing, its accessibility has been enhanced with
the internet and advancements in telecommunications. With the millions of pages
added on to the internet each month, all sorts of information are made available
to anybody, anywhere and anytime. In a matter of seconds, one has at his or her
fingertips a vast body of information covering various fields of information. A
new disease called "information anxiety" has emerged which has been defined as
the ever-widening gap between what one understands and what one thinks one
should understand (Wurman, 1988). It is the feeling of helplessness of being
unable to cope with an abundance of information and the feeling of frustration at
never finding the time to mull over the mass of information. Has the present
curriculum in educational institutions taken into consideration these
developments? Do we know how to respond to these developments?
9.1.2 Changing Workplace

Automation and computerisation is another development that is rapidly
changing the workplace and types of jobs performed. It has been suggested that
more individuals will change careers 5 to 8 times in their lifetime. The new
generation will have to continuously learn, unlearn and relearn (Toffler, 1972).
Occupations and careers in the information age and the knowledge-based
economy will revolve around processing and management of information. The
shift towards knowledge-based jobs will require people who are able to acquire
new skills and knowledge efficiently and effectively. Brain power will be the
dominant force and muscle-power will be performed by machines and
automation. The workforce of the future will need to acquire skills in shorter
periods of time and at a faster rate to keep pace with knowledge that is fast
becoming obsolete; emphasising the need for lifelong learning to stay
competitive and relevant.
9.1.3 Influence of the Media

Increasingly, more people are having access to many television channels and
together with the internet, entertainment is brought within easy reach of many
households. The onslaught of the media 24 hours a day and 7 days a week has
brought with it both positive and negative content. The average household is
being bombarded with hours of Western and American movies, music and
advertisements; some of which may challenge and erode traditional values held
by many societies. Increasingly, violence, sex, horror, racism, extremism,
stereotypes and misinformation are portrayed in the different types of media.
Attempts to scramble and censor transmission through the airwaves has been a
losing battle. A plethora of forces are competing for the attention of children,
adolescents and adults. Are schools adequately preparing children with the skills
and knowledge to make wise decisions?
9.1.4 Participation in the Democratic Process

More and more countries are moving towards a democratic system of government.
Together with it comes the practice of free enterprise which may be alien to some
people coming from a centrally planned economy. Democracy and the free
enterprise system require greater involvement of ordinary citizens in the decision
making process. Relying on a few selected leaders to decide what is best for the
people is slowly giving way to a more "bottom-up involvement". However,
involvement in the governing process will only be effective if the young are
prepared for such roles. The ability to think is imperative for participation in the
democratic process because "it helps the citizen to form intelligent judgements on
public issues; thus contribute democratically to the solution of social problems"

(Glaser, 1985, p. 27). In a democracy, citizens have an obligation to think deeply
about important issues affecting themselves directly, and society at large. They
should be able to think critically, transcending ethnic, cultural and religious barriers.
ACTIVITY 9.2
1. How do you think the changing workplace will impact school
curriculum development and design?
2. List the kinds of knowledge and skills that will be required of
students to effectively participate in the democratic process and
counter the forces of the mass media?
9.2 CURRICULUM ISSUES

We often hear of educational systems making the claim that it caters for learner
differences. Broadly, this would include gifted students, at-risk students and
students with disabilities. Some schools have divided classes according to academic
performance while others have grouped students of varying abilities in one class.
Debate is continuing on the merits of each approach with its proponents arguing the
benefits of each method. Though students have been divided according to ability,
the one-size-fits-all curriculum continues to be implemented. Then, there is the issue
of students with disabilities such as the physically challenged. Should they be kept in
a class with others of similar abilities or should they be included with others who do
not have such disabilities?
9.2.1 Differentiated Curriculum for the Gifted

The purpose of a differentiated curriculum is to provide appropriate learning
opportunities for gifted and talented students. The rationale for such an
approach is because of the capacity of gifted students to learn faster, solve
problems more readily, and grapple with abstract ideas. Gifted students need the
opportunity to work through the curriculum at a quicker pace since they take less
time to acquire the basics. When tasks are consistently too easy, boredom sets in
and inhibits a students motivation to learn and eventually may harm
achievement. Students differ in readiness, needs, interest and abilities and a
differentiated curriculum is designed to tap into these differences and academic
diversity.
What is the differentiated curriculum? It is not giving advanced students extra

mathematics problems, extra readings, more independent study or to do their
own thing since they have mastered the basics. Curriculum differentiation is a
broad term referring to the need to tailor teaching environments and practices to
create appropriately different learning experiences for different students. It is a
philosophy of teaching in which teachers modify lessons to meet the needs,
interest and abilities of gifted and talented students. Gifted and talented students
are those whose potential is distinctly above average in one or more of the
following domains of human ability: intellectual, creative, social and physical
that places them at least among the top 10% of age peers (Tomlinson, 2000).
There are numerous models of curriculum differentiation that cater for the range
of individual differences in the classroom. Basically, these models show how an
existing curriculum such as science, economics or history can be modified,
extended or adjusted to cater to the needs of gifted students. In this topic, the
model proposed by C.J. Maker, which has been adopted in many American
schools systems is discussed.
Figure 9.2: Makers Differentiated Curriculum Model (1982)

Maker (1982) devised a very practical model of curriculum differentiation which

shows how content can be adjusted to accommodate the ability of gifted students
to manipulate abstract ideas and deal with complexity (see Figure 9.2). The
process component of the model involves the methods and learning activities
used by teachers to present information, the questions asked of students and the
mental and physical activities expected of them. The emphasis is on higher-level
thinking, creative problem-solving, decision making, planning and forecasting.
With regards to the product component, students would be allowed to create
products that solve real-world problems. It is also important to provide students
with the opportunity to present work to a variety of audiences for constructive
appraisal. Gifted students benefit from negotiating evaluation criteria and being
involved in the process of evaluation itself. However, Maker argues that not
everything in the curriculum needs to be modified or adjusted; only those that
will lead to meaningful outcomes for gifted students should be incorporated.
9.2.2 Compensatory Education

As primary education is made accessible to more children, more children from
disadvantaged backgrounds are entering schools. These are students from poor
socio-economic backgrounds who have low language and quantitative literacy
skills, limited English proficiency and learning styles which are not conducive for
success in traditional learning environments. In the context of formal schooling,
being different has too often meant being deficient, and being deficient has meant
"being at risk of academic failure". What can be done to effectively engage and
educate students who are at risk of low achievement, failure and, eventually, of
dropping out of school?
Compensatory education was initiated in the 1960s and 1970s to provide extra
help to chronic underachievers and equalise educational resources and
opportunities across schools. Compensatory education was introduced based on
the assumption that many students, because of poverty and low academic
achievement, are disadvantaged and should be provided with extra help and
programmes to "compensate" for the disadvantages. Two common strategies
adopted were:
(a) Grouping: Students are placed in homogeneous learning groups within a

grade or within a classroom according to their academic performance.
Among the labels used for this practice is "ability grouping" and "tracking".
The grouping of students is designed to enable teachers to more efficiently
match content with students' ability levels and learning paces. Ability
grouping has been criticised because poor students and disadvantaged
students are disproportionately represented in low ability classes. The
stigma of being in such classes has produced a poor climate for learning
and lower expectations for student achievement. Students in these classes

are reported to have low self-esteem and to be the source of discipline
problems. In addition, teachers have not been adequately trained to teach
such groups and instead implement teaching-learning strategies that are
similar to high ability groups.
(b) Retention: This is the practice of holding back students who fail to
demonstrate the required level of achievement. Research seems to indicate
that retention, as it is currently practiced in most schools has few positive
effects and mostly negative effects on student learning (Shepard and Smith,
1989).
Of late, there has been a shift in thinking about compensatory education and its
strategies. Among the emerging strategies suggested and adopted to solve the
problem of academic under-achievement in schools are:
(a) Compensatory education programmes that have focused only on
improving basic skills should emphasise higher order thinking and
problem-solving skills.
(b) Less emphasis should be on compensating what poor children lack, and
greater emphasis on teaching-learning techniques that make use of
students strengths and experiences as stepping stones for further learning.
(c) Mainstreaming should be encouraged. Mainstreaming or inclusion is an
educational method that includes many different kinds of learners
(including students with learning disabilities) in the same classroom,
instead of separating them according to their learning abilities. In the
mainstreamed classroom, all students, regardless of ability levels learn
together in the same classroom. The purpose of mainstreaming is to give
every student a typical classroom experience. Teachers need to be trained to
use teaching methods that provide different things for different students,
making sure there is something for everyone. Students may be divided into
groups and provided with different learning situations. Mainstreamed
classrooms have specialised equipment and learning materials at hand. For
example, there might be a variety of books for different reading levels.
(d) Early Prevention targeted at young children is advocated to reduce the
inequalities of academic performance through the grades. Preschool and
kindergartens have to be been made more accessible to children from poor
socioeconomic backgrounds. Preschool and kindergartens should aim to
develop language skills and social competencies of disadvantaged children
to help them enter school at the same level as their more advantaged peers.
For example, in the United States the Head Start Project started in 1965
made available preschool and kindergarten opportunities to millions of
young children to prepare them to enter the main school system.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
1. What is the differentiated curriculum? What is the rationale for

such a curriculum?
2. Explain the TWO common strategies adopted to help low
achievers in schools.
3. What are some emerging trends in helping low achievers?
9.3 CHARACTER EDUCATION

Character education (also referred to as moral education or values education) has
always been the concern of educators. The focus is on how curriculum can be
designed to teach children about basic human values such as honesty, kindness,
generosity, courage, freedom, equality, respect and so forth. The goal of character
education is to raise children to become morally responsible and self-disciplined
citizens. It is a deliberate and proactive effort to develop good character in
students; or more simply, to teach students right from wrong. It is assumed that
right and wrong do exist, that there are objective moral standards that transcend
individual choice; standards like respect, responsibility, honesty and fairness;
and that we should teach these directly. Traditionally, good character is shaped
by the family and religious institutions. With rising crime rates, violence among
youths, drug addiction, sexual promiscuity, breakdown of the family unit,
disrespect for authority, increasing dishonesty and drug abuse; the move is for
schools to seriously engage in character education.
There is a kind of values vacuum which is further reinforced by the influence of

television, advertising and the movies to the extent that traditional values have
been challenged. Together with religious instruction (formal and informal) and
parents, schools have also taken responsibility for character education in
attempting to teach students right from wrong and teach them a set of core
values that will guide their lives towards building a decent society. The
development of good character is really part of every childs birthright. Parents,
schools and the community have an obligation to meet that need. There may be
children who have not been brought up in environments where certain values
are stressed. For example, there are children who do not believe that honesty is
important in life.
However, Kohn (1997) notes that character education in schools have tended to
be an exercise in indoctrinating students in the ways of right behaviour. The
curriculum tends to emphasise drilling students on desired behaviours rather
than engaging them in deep, critical reflection on what it means to be a moral
individual or to act morally.
A person unaware of why he or she believes or behaves even when such

beliefs or behaviours are good is not really a moral person. A person of good
character knows the difference between right and wrong; knows the basis for
his or behaviour; and chooses right over wrong, or action that is of benefit to
the person and society over that which is not. There is a difference between
having a person engage in behaving correctly and behaving morally. The
latter implies an awareness of the basis for action or nonaction.
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998. p.372)
Problem solving, decision making and conflict resolution are important parts of
developing moral character. Through role playing and discussions, students can
see that their decisions affect other people and other things. It is only through
such teaching-learning activities that students will understand and internalise
the desired values and habits that they will require for living and maintaining
their well-being.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
1. Why should schools engage in character education?

2. What is the main weakness of teaching character education in
schools?
9.4 PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT

An issue that has often been hotly debated relates to how students are assessed.
We have not changed very much in the way students are assessed in schools.
Paper and pencil tests continue to dominate from primary school until secondary
school and even in higher education. Though there is consensus on the need to
assess the overall development of the individual, assessment continues to be
confined to a segment of the abilities of learners. What about the affective or
emotional outcomes of education? What about the problem solving and critical
thinking skills of learners? They have been acknowledged as important learning

outcomes but are not adequately assessed. What options do we have?
One of these options is performance assessment. Performance assessment is

assessment based on authentic tasks. These tasks are activities, problems or
exercises in which students demonstrate what they can do (Brandt & McBrien,
1997). Some performance tasks are designed to have students demonstrate their
ability in applying knowledge to a particular situation. For example, students in
an economic lesson examine the price trends and production figures of
petroleum in the last five years to determine how supply and demand
determines price per barrel. Performance tasks often have more than one
acceptable solution.
Performance assessment is about performing with knowledge in a context that

relates to the real world. Learners are provided with opportunities to show their
understanding and ability to use knowledge in different ways. The goal of
performance assessment is not only to find out whether students understand but
also whether they are able to do what they have learned after having left school.
In other words, have the knowledge, skills and values acquired had long lasting
or enduring effects?
The implementation of performance assessment requires that one works
backwards. In other words, think first about the purpose of assessment and
about the performances you want students to be able to do, and then work
backwards. What concepts and skills do I want students to know? At what
level should my students be performing? For example, you want primary
school students to be able to write creatively.
Having agreed upon what you want students to perform and intend to
measure, then you decide what knowledge is to be emphasised and what
skills need to be cultivated. In other words, what activities should be
introduced that will provide opportunities for students to show what they
can do. For example, if you want primary school students to show their
creative writing skills, you should provide a topic, time and resources that
allow them to show their creative writing skills.
After having determined the activity, you need to set the criteria that will
indicate whether students have acquired the knowledge and skills.
Why is performance assessment given importance? The reason is simple. It is

what people want from students in the real world; the ability to use wisely and
effectively what they know. We often hear of society complaining that students
are not able to apply their knowledge and skills in authentic situations. This is
because students are not provided with settings in which they can apply such
knowledge and be assessed accordingly. For example, in a language test students
may indicate that they know that a story has an introduction, body and
conclusion. However, we cannot be sure that students can write a story with
these criteria. Performance assessment is vital to give the link between school and
the real-world and to give students the confidence to bridge the gap. From the
students point of view, there is no guessing in performance assessment. Teacher
and students work together and state what needs to be improved. The role of the
teacher is more of a coach.
While there are many benefits of performance assessment, some teachers are
hesitant to implement it in the classrooms. One reason being, that teachers are
not confident enough to adopt this assessment approach. The second reason is
that earlier failures with the approach have prompted some teachers to reject the
approach.
SELF-CHECK 9.3
1. What is performance assessment?
2. What is the rationale for encouraging the widespread use of
performance assessment in the classroom?
3. Briefly describe how performance assessment can be
implemented in the classroom.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Critical Issues in the Science Curriculum
The science curriculum has remained largely unchanged for decades. Often, the
natural curiosity of children, eager to understand their surroundings is often
diminished by instruction that discourages inquiry and discovery. Science
instruction has become increasingly textbook-centred. Even though laboratory
experiences are included, students are rarely encouraged to use scientific
methods to solve problems relevant to their perception of the world.
A new vision of science learning is needed; one that calls for instructional
strategies far different from most traditional approaches. The new paradigm for
science learning should emphasise engagement and meaning in ways that are
not consistent with past practices. The constructivist teaching and learning
models calls for learning that is:
Hands-on: students are actually allowed to perform science experiments as
they construct meaning and acquire understanding.
Minds-on: activities focus on core concepts, allowing students to develop
thinking processes and encouraging them to question and seek answers
that enhance their knowledge.
Authentic: students are presented with problem-solving activities that
incorporate authentic, real-life issues in a format that encourages
collaborative effort, dialogue with informed expert sources, and
generalizations to broader ideas and application.
This approach to teaching and learning will enable students to participate fully
in a learning community where the teacher is not the only source of knowledge
and Information Technology (Internet) becomes a tool, supporting the learning
process as students seek new knowledge and understanding. Accordingly,
teachers will use a variety of alternative assessment (eg. performance
assessment, portfolio assessment) tools to allow students to demonstrate their
understanding of science by solving authentic, real-life problems.
Source: Adaptation from Christensen, M. (1995). North Central Regional

Educational Laboratory (NCREL). Available at:
http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/science/sc500.htm
1. What are the critical issues with regards to the science curriculum?
2. Are these issues similar to the science curriculum in your school
system?
9.5 RETOOLING SCHOOLS FOR THE FUTURE

Mental models are ways in which one views the world and how one makes
decisions; which often goes unrecognised as one of the main obstacles in bringing
about change in an organisation (Senge, 1999). In education, they refer to the
invisible assumptions or beliefs educators have about their students ability to
learn. According to Senge (2000), current school systems evolved on a set of
beliefs or "theories in use" that;
Children are deficient and schools fix them;
Everyone learns or should learn in the same way;
Learning takes place in the classroom, not in the world;
There are smart kids and dumb kids,
Knowledge is inherently fragmented,
Schools communicate the truth;
Learning is primarily individualistic; and
Competition accelerates learning.
These are mental models that influence almost everything that is done in schools
today. For instance, knowledge is divided into discreet topics ranging from the
Melaka Sultanate to Newton's laws of motion. Each topic is taught at appropriate
time slots to learners sitting in rows listening passively, monitored and
motivated by grades. While this approach is not necessarily wrong, research in
cognitive science reveals that this approach is not compatible with how humans
learn best. Retooling schools to meet the challenges of the knowledge economy
does not mean replacing existing mental models with new ones but rather to
recognise the power of mental models in limiting an educator from thinking
differently about his or her educational practice. More important is for educators
to suspend their mental models long enough to seek new knowledge and to
reconsider some of their beliefs about learning, thinking and the role of
technology.
Human learning is a multifaceted process that invokes the prior knowledge of

learners, is innately motivated by the search for meaning, is influenced by
emotions, is reinforced by social negotiation, is regulated by knowledge of
cognition, is led by the construction of reality and enhanced in authentic
situations.
Source: Bransford, J. D. Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (1999). How people learn:
Brain, mind, experience and school. Washington. DC: National Academy Press
In other words, learning is dynamic and the role of educators is to facilitate the
making of dynamic knowledge. Learners need to be introduced to a world that is
beset with uncertainty, multiple answers and infinite possibilities involving
elements of trial and error because that is reality. Emanating from these revised
beliefs about learning, thinking and the role of technology, it is argued that
retooling schools be based on four guiding principles, namely; schools for all,
personalised schools with thinking and understanding being the main goal, and
students immersed in a technology-based learning environment (see Figure 9.3).
9.5.1 Schools for All

Malaysia can be proud of having made schooling accessible to most children, but
there is increasing awareness that it is not working for all children and ironically
acknowledged as normal. The bell curve has made it legitimate to say that "we
can't educate all children because not all children are educable." The tests used
pinned to a bell curve allows us to say that some will fail, some will succeed and
the majority fall in the middle. Few people realise that the tool was designed for
inanimate objects and low level organisms and may not necessarily apply to
human beings engaged in learning. It is common practice in our schools to label
children early on and respond to them according to the labels that been have
created because of the belief that in any classroom there is a certain percentage of
gifted, average and low achievers. Four times a year newspapers, radio and
television stations proudly announce schools that have obtained near perfect
scores in the UPSR, PMR, SPM and STPM examinations.
Figure 9.3: Retooling Malaysian schools based on revised mental models about learning,
thinking and technology
High scorers are given extensive media coverage but there is no mention as to the
number of adolescents deficient in language, quantitative and scientific literacy
skills. There is less concern with "why Ahmad can't read" and a decade later
"why Ahmad still can't read". One can only imagine how Ahmad feels being in a
class of low achievers throughout his schooling life and told repeatedly he is not
good enough. Theoretically Ahmad should be taught by the best teachers in the
system but unfortunately the Matthew effect prevails which loosely interpreted,
states that "those who need it don't get it and those who don't need it get it". It is
common knowledge that learners do not do as well in environments where
adults are continually critical, constantly accentuating the negative, and not
accepting them for who they are. On the contrary, students learn and thrive in a
nurturing environment and schools are obliged to foster a warm and caring
environment in which children will bloom. It is from this realisation that the
impetus comes to create schools that work for all children.
Malaysian society is rapidly changing and so too, must the educational beliefs
that underlie the goals of schooling. For example, it is time that tribute is given to
schools that record the lowest number of students who are unable to read and
write. Schools can ill-afford to educate just some of its students and ignore the
rest because of examination priorities. No child left behind (Education Act,
2001) should be the slogan for all schools in Malaysia to ensure that schools really
work for all students, not just for some. "When it comes to the education of our
children, failure is not an option" (Bush, 2001). Schools should set high
expectations for all students as students have a natural inclination to rise to the
level of expectation held of them (Edmonds, 1986). Expectations communicated
overtly or subtly by educators are immediately felt by students. Unfortunately,

many educators and schools do not effectively communicate high expectations to
all students either because they do not really have them or because they do not
believe that all children can learn. Some believe that not all students need to
realise their full potential as there are always jobs on the farms, in the factories
and low level jobs in the service sector.
These beliefs have to be revised and educators need to believe in the incredible
potential to learn that is present in all children and that it can be realised in all
children in any school and in any classroom, if the conditions are right. From the
onset students from disadvantaged backgrounds who are at-risk should be
identified and given all the cognitive coaching to succeed and not left behind.
Cognitive strategy instruction (CSI) should be given to all students, especially
academically weak students, where 'learning how to learn' is embedded in all
instructional practices (Phillips, 1993). In addition, schools for all must also be
grounded in a value system of cooperation and relationships, in contrast to the
ethic of competition and individualism. Reaching goals is important, but how
they are reached and with who is just as important. The value system of
cooperation and relationship does not discard competition, but puts it in the
context of cooperation and how people get along.
In our increasingly diverse world, creating schools for all children is the right
thing to do while acknowledging it is not easy. It means a major rethinking of the
very core values upon which schools are built. It means focusing on both equity
and excellence in the same classroom in the same school for all children.
ACTIVITY 9.4
1. Do you agree with the Schools for all concept? Why?
2. To what extent is the Matthew effect common in your school?
3. When it comes to the education of our children, failure is not an
option. Explain.
9.5.2 Thinking Goes to School

While some people would agree that developing the thinking
skills of students is the main aim of education, there is less
agreement on what is thinking. Over the decades a range of
terms and definitions have been proposed which has led to
further confusion. Among the common terms used to describe
thinking are; reflective thinking, critical thinking, creative
thinking, lateral thinking, whole-brain thinking, analytical
thinking, mechanical reasoning, spatial thinking, logical Figure 9.4: Rodins
thinking, deductive thinking, inductive thinking, analogical sculpture of The
thinking to name a few. Thinker
Fraenkel (1980) defined thinking as the formation of ideas, reorganisation of

ones experience and the organisation of information in a particular form. Chafee
(1988) characterises thinking as an unusual process used in making decisions and
solving problems. According to Bourne, Ekstrand and Dominowski, "Thinking is
a complex, multifaceted process. It is essentially internal, involving the symbolic
representation of events and objects not immediately present, but is initiated by
some external event. Its function is to generate and control overt behaviour"
(1971, p.5). Nickerson, Perkins and Smith (1985) looked upon thinking as a
collection of skills or mental operations used by individuals. Since thinking is a
collection of mental skills, it can be performed well or poorly. In other words;
all people classify, but not equally perceptively,

all people make estimates, but not equally accurately,
all people use analogies, but not equally appropriate,
all people draw conclusions, but not with equal care,
all people construct arguments, but not with equal cogency
[Nickerson, 1987, p.28]
A synthesis of the various definitions reveals certain common threads running

through these descriptions. Thinking is a process that requires knowledge
because it is quite impossible to think in a vacuum; thinking involves the
manipulation of mental skills; thinking is targeted at the solution of a problem;
thinking is manifested in an overt behaviour or ability and thinking is also
reflected in certain attitudes or dispositions that are indicative of good and poor
thinking. For example, a good thinker welcomes problematic situations, is open
to multiple possibilities, uses evidence skilfully, makes judgement after
considering all angles, listens to other people's views, is reflective and perseveres
in searching for information (Glatthorn & Barron, 1985; Nickerson, 1987).
(a) Why has thinking not been widely emphasised in schools?

First, there is the belief among some educators that the development of
thinking skills should be confined to academically superior students
because they can think. Teaching thinking to weak learners would be
futile and even frustrating because it is a serious mental activity
involving philosophising, deep thought, contemplation and
deliberation that would be too arduous for low achievers.
Second, is the belief that students should have a complete
understanding of a subject area before they can deliberate and think
about the facts, concepts and principles. Educators who subscribe to
this belief are preoccupied with coverage of course content rather than
ensuring understanding. Understanding is the consequence of thinking
and if learners are taught to think about the content, then
understanding is enhanced.
Third, relates to assessment and in particular public examinations
which tend to test the acquisition of facts and how well learners are able
to remember the facts. There are few questions that demand higher-
order thinking and so schools are rather reluctant to venture into
teaching for higher-order outcomes.
(b) What is a culture of thinking?

Thinking goes to schools is the title of a book by Hans Furth and Harry
Wachs (1975) which reports about a project aimed at developing the
thinking ability of primary and secondary school students based on
Piagetian principles. Thinking will go to schools too when a culture of
thinking permeates all Malaysian schools where language, values,
expectations, habits and behaviour reflect the enterprise of good thinking.
Tishman, Perkins and Jay (1995) identified these four ways of bringing the
culture of thinking to the classroom:
First is to have models or people who demonstrate good thinking
practices and exhibit behaviours of good thinking, such as checking the
credibility of sources or suspending judgement until all information is
available or tolerating ambiguity.
Second is to develop thinking through explanation, whereby teachers
explicitly explain why a particular thinking skill needs to be used, when
it is to be used and how the skill is to be used.
Third is through interaction with other students where opportunities
are provided to work in groups when solving a problem,
brainstorming, or exchanging and accepting ideas.
Fourth is feedback, when teachers provide evaluative or corrective

information about the student's thinking processes. For instance, a
teacher may praise a student for the way he or she arrived at a
particular conclusion or for the views expressed. Such feedback
provides students with information about their own thinking
behaviours which helps them become better thinkers.
(c) What is the role of teachers?

Teachers play a crucial role in the creation of a thinking culture as they are
the ones who establish the educational climate, structure learning
experiences and have almost complete power over the processes that take
place in the classroom. Students from more affluent homes where the
parents level of education is higher, ask questions more frequently and the
language used is relatively more complex (Sternberg and Caruso, 1985).
But, students coming to school lacking the experiences of their more
affluent counterparts "succeed because of teachers who served as mediators
of their environment; by discussing, asking questions, modelling and
teaching (Swartz and Lowery, 1989, p.4). Teachers have at their disposal a
variety of ways to organise their classroom to stimulate thinking. The
underlying principle of classroom organisation is to encourage greater
participation of learners in the teaching-learning process; it would be quite
impossible to develop the thinking skills of students if the teacher did most
of the talking. Students need to be involved and this might take the form of
teacher-led Socratic-type discussion, cooperative small-group or total-
group investigations (Fisher, 1992).
Teacher response behaviours have a significant effect in stimulating

thinking. Most importantly is the manner in which teachers or even parents
react to answers given by learners and whether these behaviours extend or
terminate thinking. For example, what would happen when a teacher or
parent responds to a child's ideas with such statements as "What a dumb
idea" or "You're not good enough". The chances are that child might be
reluctant to give ideas in the future for fear of being ridiculed or
humiliated. The language of thinking plays an important role in
encouraging thinking in the classroom. Using specific thinking terminology
will show learners how to perform particular skills and when used
repeatedly, chances are they will become part of their repertoire of
vocabularies (Costa & Marzano, 1987). For example, instead of saying "Let's
look at these two pictures", it would be more precise to say "Let's compare
these two pictures".
SELF-CHECK 9.4
1. What is thinking?
2. Why has thinking not been emphasised in schools?
3. How does one create a culture of thinking?
4. What is the role of teachers in developing thinking among
students?
9.5.3 Personalised Schools

Many schools have become too large and impersonal and students are just a
statistic. This is especially evident in urban areas where schools have an
enrolment of between 1000 to 2000 students (some with as many as 2500
students), which inadvertently disconnects the majority of learners from teachers
and other adults; possibly leading to alienation, boredom and even conflict. Why
should a teenager respect a teacher who knows nothing about him or her?
Personalised schools are schools with a smaller student enrolment. Research is
inconclusive as to the appropriate size of such schools but there is some
consensus that it should not exceed 400 students for a primary school, and not
more than 800 students for secondary schools (Cotton, 1996). In smaller schools,
teachers and students build strong relationships, and teachers can help students
learn more effectively because they know their students as individuals.
'Everybody knows your name'. There is also greater bonding among students as
they get to know and learn from each other.
However, even though a school may be small, it is not necessarily

personalised. Personalised schools are learning communities where students,
teachers, and parents know each other personally, and work together to help
young people learn and succeed. In personalised schools, students are cared for,
nurtured, and supported and this is significant given the increasing number of
students experiencing a lack of relationships with caring, attentive, engaged
adults (with many parents working full-time). Partnerships between parents,
teachers and administrators tend to be stronger because the opportunity to
communicate and understand each other is enhanced. Generally, personalised
schools have lower rates of negative social behaviour such as classroom
disruptions, vandalism, fights, thefts, substance abuse or gang membership
(Cotton, 1996). Such schools report higher school attendance and lower drop out
rates compared to larger impersonal schools. Students in smaller schools have a
greater sense of belonging and relationships tend to be more cordial. With the
decline of the extended family and both parents having to work full time,
students turn to teachers for advice and as role models, which may be more
readily available in personalised schools.
9.5.4 Technology-Based Schools

The unprecedented advances in internet interactivity and multimedia
capabilities, is seeing the emergence of the Technology-Based Learning
Environment which has given a new perspective to classroom learning. The
Technology-Based Learning Environment based on a cognitive-constructivist
theoretical perspective emphasises the following seven processes (Phillips, 2001):
First, is situated cognition in which learning of certain knowledge and skills
is best done in situations or contexts that reflect the way the knowledge will
be useful in real life. In other words, students are introduced to authentic
tasks and the many tools of technology enable the creation of microworlds
(Jonassen, 1996). These are miniature environments that mimic situations in
the real world providing learners with the opportunity to apply concepts,
principles and skills learned. For example, telecommunications and the
internet provide access to emerging disciplinary and interdisciplinary
databases, real-time phenomena, and social communities not accessible
through print-based curricula.
The second process is cognitive flexibility which is the ability to represent
knowledge from different perspectives tailored to the needs and levels of the
learner. Multimedia technology such as virtual reality permits knowledge
and skills to be presented in a variety of different ways, adapting content to
individual student learning styles.
The third process is exploration wherein learners try out different
hypotheses, methods and strategies to see their effects. The resources of the
web and the related internet tools allow learners to make these discoveries on
their own. Computers and ancillary electronic devices facilitate the
manipulation of data and visualisation which assists with experimenting and
understanding actual, futuristic, and hypothetical concepts, principles,
relationships and probabilities.
The fourth process is cooperative learning in which learners work in groups
by questioning each other, discussing and sharing information towards the
solution of a problem using communication tools such as e-mail and chat
rooms.
The fifth process is collaborative learning in which learners or groups of
learners discuss and try out their ideas and challenge the ideas of others
across state and international borders. For example, a group of learners in
Malaysia could be working on a project in cyberspace on what teenagers do

besides schooling with a group of learners in Canada or Kuwait using both
asynchronous and synchronous tools. Cooperative and collaborative learning
practiced are skills required in the workplace.
The sixth process is articulation which refers to methods of getting learners to
make their tacit knowledge explicit through websites and electronic
portfolios. When learners make available to others (even across long
distances) what they have done, learners are able to compare strategies and
provide insights into alternative perspectives.
The seventh process is reflection which refers to learners looking back over
what they have done and analysing their performance. It enables them to see
the thinking processes they used in solving problems and, based on the
product, be able to determine if their strategies were appropriate.
Technology integration into teaching and learning has not been widespread
because of insufficient equipment and slow internet connection, inadequate
training of teachers and more importantly, a lack of understanding on how to use
the new technologies. As more schools are wired with the relevant hardware and
software, the technology-based learning environment provides a convenient
framework with a theoretical basis for the realisation of technology-based
schools.
SELF-CHECK 9.5
1. What do you understand by personalised schools?

2. What are the processes emphasised in the Technology-Based
Learning Environment?
Four main challenges face the education system: the information age, the
changing workplace, the mass media and participation in the democratic
process.
The differentiated curriculum aims to provide appropriate learning
opportunities for gifted and talented students. It is a philosophy of teaching
in which teachers modify lessons to meet the needs, interest and abilities of
gifted and talented students.
Compensatory education was introduced based on the assumption that many

students are disadvantaged and should be provided with extra help and
programmes to "compensate" for the disadvantages. Two common strategies
adopted were: grouping and retention.
Character education is designed to teach children about basic human values
with the aim of raising children to become morally responsible and self-
disciplined citizens.
Performance assessment is assessment based on authentic tasks. These tasks
are activities, problems or exercises in which students demonstrate what they
can do.
Schools for all emphasise that an environment should be provided for all
students to realise their potential and high expectations should be set so that
all students will be encouraged to excel.
A culture of thinking has to be created to encourage students to think.
The technology-based learning environment has to be developed in as many
schools as possible.
Changing workplace Participation in democracy

Character education Performance assessment
Compensatory education Personalised schools
Culture of thinking Retention
Differentiated curriculum Role of the mass media
Grouping Schools for all
Information age Technology-based learning environment
Mainstreaming Thinking goes to school
1. Do you agree with mainstreaming? Give reasons.

2. No child left behind. Discuss.
3. To what extent is performance assessment practised in your
school?
4. Do you agree that students are not provided with sufficient
opportunities to develop their thinking skills?
5. What do you think the curriculum of the future should be?

Chapter 1: What is the curriculum? [Available at eBrary].
Cromwell, S. (1998). The school of the future. Education World.
http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr046.shtml
Chapter 11: Curriculum issues and trends.
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Thornburg, D.D. (1998). Reading the future. Online Electronic School (June).
www.electronic-school.com/0698f1.html
Woods, R. N. (1989). Introduction to philosophy of education. London:
Routledge.
Chapter 3: Curriculum theory [Available at eBrary].
Topic Curriculum
1
100 in Malaysia
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the education system during the colonial period;
2. Explain how the Razak Report and Rahman Talib Report laid the
foundation for Malaysia's education system;
3. List the features of Malaysias philosophy of education; and
4. Describe the curriculum development process.
INTRODUCTION
Malaysia with a population of over 26 million people, has about 5 million
students in primary and secondary schools. The Ministry of Education (MOE) is
responsible for the development of primary and secondary education in the
country. Of late, the administration and development of tertiary education has
been taken over by the Ministry of Higher Education. Primary education is for a
period of six years; aimed at providing a foundation in reading, writing and
arithmetic (3R's). At the end of the six years, students sit for the Primary School
Assessment Test (UPSR). All students continue on to secondary education which
is divided into three main levels: lower secondary level, upper secondary level
and pre-university level.
Lower secondary education in Malaysia prepares students to develop skills

needed in life and to be useful citizens of the country. After completing the third
year, students are required to take the Lower Secondary Assessment (PMR).
Performance in this examination will determine their academic streaming in
upper secondary i.e. whether to be in the science, arts, technical or vocational
stream. At the end of the two-year period in upper secondary education, students
sit for the compulsory national examination called the Malaysian Certificate of
TOPIC 10 CURRICULUM IN MALAYSIA 225
Education (SPM) or Malaysian Vocational Certificate of Education (SPVM) as in

the case of the vocational stream.
Students will then proceed for two more years (or less) of Form 6, Matriculation
or Foundation Studies before gaining entry into public tertiary institutions.
Others might continue with pre-university studies or foundation courses before
entering private tertiary institutions. There are also those who prefer to pursue
diploma or certificate courses or undergo advance skills training in selected
training centres or join teacher training colleges. Some will join the work force or
may be trained on the job.
10.1 CURRICULUM DURING THE COLONIAL

PERIOD
During British rule, the policy of divide and rule was implemented through an
education system designed to create a divided population. The Malays were only
given six years of primary education. Three objectives were defined for Malay
education:
(a) To familiarise Malay boys with simple arithmetic to handle small business
transactions;
(b) To develop a better sense of hygiene; and
(c) To train the sons of the Malay aristocracy in English to serve the colonial
masters.
In 1896 in Perak, the 88 Malay schools succeeded in producing 118 clerks and
orderlies, 2070 padi farmers, 2177 small traders and labourers, and 1000
other types of workers.
Education Report for 1896 in Perak Annual Report
The Indians were also given six years of elementary education, and expected to
provide labour for the rubber plantations and railways. This was a deliberate
policy to deny them both economic and geographical mobility. The Chinese, on
the other hand, were allowed to establish their own schools and use curricula,
teachers and textbooks from China, as the British colonial government did not
consider it their obligation to provide education to a transient or temporary
population.
The colonial government, however, established English schools to supply

sufficient manpower for the British administrative machinery. These schools
were mainly located in urban areas. For example, in 1896 there were 9 English
226 TOPIC 10 CURRICULUM IN MALAYSIA
schools in the main towns of Perak. Most of the students in these schools were
Chinese and Indians with only about 15% Malays. Thus, the education system
divided the population of Malaysia for a hundred years or so.
10.1.1 The Cheeseman Plan (1946)

After the Second World War, a new education policy called the Cheeseman Plan
(1946) introduced free primary education in all languages. The plan advocated
the use of the four different languages as the medium of instruction in secondary
schools. The teaching of mother tongues was to be made available in the
English schools and at the same time the teaching of English was to be made
compulsory in all vernacular schools. The new policy of parallel bilingualism
paid no attention toward integrating the people. However, the policy was
abandoned in 1949 with the demise of the Malayan Union.
10.1.2 The Barnes Report (1951)

Realising the plight of Malay schools, a committee comprising eight Malays and
five English members was established in 1951 to study Malay education and was
headed by Dr. Barnes, a social scientist from Oxford University. They were
entrusted with the task of studying the resources, facilities and opportunities for
Malayan education. The Barnes' Committee was unable to propose any
improvements in Malay schools without involving the whole system of
education. As such, the Barnes' Report (1951) made a radical recommendation
that all existing schools should be transformed into National schools in which
children of the various ethnic groups would be taught using Malay and English.
It recommended that education would be free and modern teaching methods
would be used with emphasis on active learning, development of thinking and
active participation in school activities.
The recommendations of the Barnes Report implied that eventually vernacular

schools would disappear; including Malay schools (Omar Hashim, 1961). As
expected, the non-Malays, especially the Chinese reacted strongly against it
because they saw this as a move to eliminate their language and cultural identity.
10.1.3 The Fenn-Wu Report (1952)

A committee headed by Dr. W.P. Fenn and Dr. Y.T. Wu was given the task of
studying the status of Chinese vernacular education in Malaysia to incorporate it
into a unified education system. This resulted in the formation of another
committee called the Fenn-Wu Committee which was formed in 1952. It gave the
impression that most Chinese were prepared to accept Malay and English as
media of instruction, and at the same time could continue learning their mother
tongue to keep their cultural identity. This system would make Chinese medium
students trilingual while others would be bilingual. The Fenn-Wu Report seemed
to make the same claim for the Indians. Mother tongues of the Indian
communities (Tamil, Telugu and Punjabi) were to be retained in Indian schools.
In summary, the educational system before independence promoted

ethnocentricity as they socialised the child to a Malay, or a Chinese or an Indian
world-view which was relevant to the maintenance of the cultural identify of
each group, but they were all increasingly incongruous in the rapidly changing
political social, and economic conditions of a country preparing for national
independence (Chai, 1977, p. 26).
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1. Why did the Malays object to the Cheeseman Plan?

2. Why did the Chinese object to the recommendations of the
Barnes Report?
10.2 CURRICULUM INITIATIVES AFTER

INDEPENDENCE
10.2.1 Razak Report 1956 and the Education

Ordinance 1957
As Malaysia moved towards independence, there was growing realisation that
unifying the various ethnic groups was a priority. A committee headed by Dato
Abdul Razak Hussein was established and the recommendations of the Razak
Report of 1956 laid the foundation of the Malaysian education system. In many
ways the Razak Report incorporated the ideas of the Barnes and Fenn-Wu
Reports. The Report emphasised that although the intention of the government
was to gradually introduce Malay as the national language, it also had full
intentions of maintaining other local languages. The Report recommended the
following:
The Malay language was to be the National Language and suggested that the
Roman script be used;
The existing bilingualism in the primary schools would remain;
All schools, irrespective of language medium should use a common

curriculum content, i.e. a Malaysian centred curriculum with a single system
of evaluation for all; and
The Malay medium schools would be called National Schools, while schools
using English, Mandarin and Tamil as the medium of instruction were
categorised as National-Type schools.
The use of common curriculum contents irrespective of medium of instruction

was easily achieved. It was hoped that the common syllabus content would
inculcate common values and outlook in life, and eventually forge a new
integrated nation.
However, its implementation still faced much resentment. Early efforts to

achieve unity through education were too weak and steps taken were not
effective to bring about social integration. It merely endorsed the prevailing
status quo with some curriculum changes. The only positive change was that
secondary education for the Malays which was neglected before was made
available.
The policy to establish Malay medium secondary schools was to bring together
children of all ethnic groups under one national education system, in which
Malay was to be the medium of instruction. That would orientate all schools to
have a common Malaysian outlook (Razak Report, 1956). However, the report
also mentioned that progress towards this goal cannot be rushed (Razak
Report, 1956: para 12).
10.2.2 Rahman Talib Report and Education Act 1961

In February, 1960, the Government appointed a committee headed by the then
Minister of Education, Abdul Rahman Talib to review the Education Policy of
1956, to study its past and future implementation. The Report recommended the
following:
The establishment of teacher-training arrangements to facilitate expansion of
the school system;
The provision of a place in a primary school using the language medium of
the parent's choice for any Malaysian child of primary school age;
The school-leaving age is raised to 15 with abolishment of the Year 6 national
examination wherein those students who had failed were not permitted to
continue to secondary school; and
That primary education should be made free with effect from 1962.
The Rahman Talib Report of 1960 reiterated the need for Malay and English to be
compulsory subjects in the curriculum of all schools. The guiding feature was
national unity through making the Malay language the National Language.
Realising that conversion to a Malay medium of instruction would be extremely
difficult without appropriate textbooks, the report also recommended that the
Ministry of Education appoint qualified teachers to translate books into Malay.
We recommend that education at secondary level paid for from public funds
shall be conducted mainly in the medium of one of the two official languages
(Malay and English) with the intention of ultimately using the national
language as the main medium of instruction, except that other languages and
literatures may be taught and learnt in their own media.... It is not possible,
within the framework of a policy which is truly national, to satisfy
completely all the individual demands of each cultural and language group
in the country. We believe that the present system of providing at public
expense primary education in each of the four main languages goes as far as
is reasonably possible for a national Malayan system to go in satisfying the
needs of our various peoples.
(Rahman Talib Report, 1960, pp. 3-4)
10.2.3 The Cabinet Committee on Education, 1979

The Cabinet Report of 1979 proposed the following:
Stress on 3Rs basic education (reading writing and arithmetic);
Stress on a strong spiritual education and the desired elements of discipline;
Stress on a Malaysian curriculum;
Upper secondary education of two streams, academic and vocational;
Opportunity to continue education from 9 years to 11 years; and
Facilitation of education management procedures to improve the overall
quality of education.
SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. What are the recommendations of the Razak Report?
2. What are the recommendations of the Rahman Talib Report?
10.3 CURRICULUM REFORM

The major curriculum reform in the Malaysian education system was the
introduction of the Integrated Primary School Curriculum in 1983 and the
Integrated Secondary School Curriculum in 1989. The curriculum was reformed
because of the demand from society that the existing curriculum was overloaded
and the relatively disturbing number of students who could not read and write at
the desired level. The revamp of the curriculum was based on the National
Philosophy of Education.
National Philosophy of Education

Education in Malaysia is an on-going effort towards further developing the
potential of individuals in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce
individuals who are intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically
balanced and harmonic, based on a firm belief in and devotion to God. Such
an effort is designed to produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable
and competent, who possess high moral standards and who are responsible
and capable of achieving a high level of personal well-being as well as being
able to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, the society
and the nation at large.
The role of the curriculum is to produce a Malaysian citizen who is well-

rounded, skilful and cherishes the goal of achieving national unity. The
underlying principle of the curriculum is the integrated approach. The integrated
approach calls for the infusion of moral values, patriotism, science and
technology, proper use of language, environmental education, study skills, and
creative and critical thinking. Infusion of these ideas is to occur across subject
areas. For example, patriotism is discussed in history and local studies. Concepts
in environmental education is to be infused in subjects such as geography,
science and biology.
10.3.1 The Integrated Primary School Curriculum

(ICPS)
The Integrated Primary School Curriculum is divided into two phases that is
Phase 1 (Year1-3) and Phase II (Year 4-6). The curriculum emphasises the
mastery, reinforcement and application of the 3Rs and the acquisition of complex
skills and knowledge. Also, emphasised is the development of positive attitudes
and values. The content is divided into six components: basic skills, humanities,
art and recreation, values and attitudes, living skills and communication skills.
The compulsory subjects are Bahasa Malaysia, English, mathematics, Islamic

Education, moral education, music, art, physical education, science, local studies
and living skills.
10.3.2 The Integrated Secondary School Curriculum

(ICSS)
The Integrated Secondary School Curriculum put emphasis on providing a
general education and consolidation of skills acquired in the primary grades. The
secondary school curriculum continued to focus on the development of positive
attitudes and values among students. The lower secondary curriculum
comprised of the following subjects: Bahasa Malaysia, English, mathematics,
Islamic Education, moral education, science, geography, history, physical
education, art and living skills. In the upper secondary curriculum, besides
compulsory subjects such as history, mathematics, Bahasa Malaysia, English, and
moral education/Islamic education; students select elective subjects from the
humanities, pure sciences, Islamic studies, applied arts, information technology,
technology and languages.
10.3.3 Teaching Methods

To enhance student interest and motivation, teachers are encouraged to use
different teaching-learning strategies. Small group techniques should be widely
used to accommodate the different learning styles of students. Remedial
activities are employed to assist students who are unable to achieve the desired
learning outcomes while enrichment activities are made available for more
advanced students.
Every effort should be made to encourage students to be independent learners.

Students should be encouraged to reflect on their learning and be able to transfer
their learning across the curriculum to situations outside the curriculum. The use
of ICT in teaching and learning is to be enhanced. For example, the resources of
the internet should be exploited and the various web tools should be employed
to make learning more meaningful and interesting.
10.3.4 Education Bill 1995

The national education system is designed to offer world-class quality
education in order to achieve the nation's aspirations.
The National Education Policy becomes the basis for the national education
system.
The duration of primary education is between 5 and 7 years.
Pre-school education is part of the national education system.
Technical and polytechnic education will be upgraded.
Allocations are made for the supervision of private education.
SELF-CHECK 10.3
What is meant by integration in the integrated primary and secondary

school curriculums?
10.4 THE CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

PROCESS IN MALAYSIA
Curriculum in Malaysia is developed centrally under the purview of the Ministry
of Education (MOE). The three main departments responsible for the design and
development of school curriculum are the:
Curriculum Development Centre (CDC): designs and develops curriculum
for preschool to upper secondary levels.
Department of Technical and Vocational Education: designs and develops
technical and vocational curriculum for technical and vocational schools.
Department of Religious and Moral Education: designs and develops
curriculum for religious education including the teaching of Arabic.
However, all matters regarding curriculum policies have to be approved by the

Central Curriculum Committee (CCC) headed by the Director-General of
Education. The Committee comprises the various directors of the divisions under
the MOE such as the Textbook Division, Teacher Education Division,
Examination Syndicate, Educational Technology Division and the School
Division. For example, the introduction of a new subject has to be discussed and
approved by the Committee before it can be implemented in schools.
Curriculum programmes that have been approved by the CCC have to be

discussed and approved by the Curriculum Implementation Committee (CIC)
comprising of 14 state directors of education and representatives of various
agencies of the MOE. This Committee would discuss in detail aspects relating to
the implementation of the curriculum plan.
The process of curriculum development is based on a cyclical model beginning

with needs analysis, followed by planning, development, piloting, dissemination
and implementation and evaluation (see Figure 10.1). The idea for a curriculum
initiative may begin with a directive from policy makers such as the government;
from changing world trends, or just from the realisation that existing curriculum
suffers from certain weaknesses identified. A team headed by the CDC consisting
of MOE officers, academics, professional bodies and industry representatives is
appointed to plan and design the new curriculum or revise an existing
curriculum. The first task of team members is to review available literature and
reports of practices in other countries. The aim is to provide a theoretical and
philosophical framework for the new or revised curriculum.
Figure 10.1: Curriculum development cycle

Source: Development of Education, National Report Malaysia
Teachers and teacher trainers are brought in to discuss the design of the
curriculum and the most effective delivery of the curriculum. Discussion focuses
on selection of content, the breaking up of content for each year of schooling and
suggested learning activities and teaching methods. This job is done by the CDC
together with its committee of subject matter specialists, educationists, teachers
and teacher trainers. The curriculum specifications agreed upon form the basis
for textbooks and other supporting materials. Also produced are general teacher
guides and guides for specific topics.
The curriculum is than piloted in selected schools. At this stage, the education
departments of the states involved are brought in. Based on the findings of the
piloted schools or limited implementation, the decision is made to proceed to
full implementation.
The nationwide implementation of a curriculum is undertaken by the following

agencies of the MOE:
The Curriculum Development Centre is involved in the dissemination of the
curriculum; appointed key personnel, consisting mainly of senior teachers
and teacher trainers, are charged with the responsibility of disseminating the
curriculum.
The Textbook Division undertakes the preparation of textbooks and other
supplementary materials.
The Educational Technology Division undertakes the preparation of
multimedia material to support the implementation of the curriculum.
The Examination Syndication is involved in student assessment.
At the state level the State Curriculum Committee headed by the State Director of
Education monitors, assesses and facilitates implementation of the curriculum by
principals and headmasters (see Figure 10.2). The state committee organises
meetings with, and workshops for principals, headmasters, district education
officers and teachers. It also assists in the coordination of resources while acting
as an intermediary between Division/District Curriculum Committees and the
MOE.
At the district level, the planning and implementation activities are carried out
by the District Curriculum Committee. It provides guidance and assistance in
implementing the curriculum at the school and classroom level.
At the school level, the curriculum committee is headed by the principal or

headmaster who supervises the implementation of the curriculum in the
classroom. The committee facilitates implementation by providing teachers with
relevant resources, guidance and support. The committee also provides feedback
on the implementation to their respective district committees.
SELF-CHECK 10.4
Describe the curriculum development and implementation process in
Malaysia.
Figure 10.2: Curriculum Implementation Process

Source: Development of Education, National Report Malaysia
British colonial education was aimed at keeping the people divided with a
low level of education.
The Razak Report and the Rahman Talib Report laid the foundation for the
Malaysian education system.
A major curriculum reform was the introduction of the integrated primary
and secondary school curriculum.
Curriculum development is under the purview of the Ministry of Education
and its agencies; in particular the Curriculum Development Centre.
Barnes report Fenn-Wu report

Cheeseman plan National philosophy of educatoin
Curriculum development process Rahman Talib report
Divide and rule Razak Report
1. If the recommendations of the Barnes Report were fully

implemented, the Malaysian education system would be
different. Discuss.
2. To what extent has the school system produced Malaysians as
enshrined in the National Philosophy of Education?
APPENDIX 237
Appendix
WHAT IS A THINKING CURRICULUM?
T.F. Fennimore and M.B. Tinzmann
NCREL, Oak Brook, 1990
The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD)

publication, Toward the Thinking Curriculum: Current Cognitive Research
(1989), reviewed much of the research underlying the thinking curriculum.
Lauren Resnick, who edited the volume, coined the term "the thinking
curriculum." The overarching characteristic of thinking curricula described in this
Guidebook is: Thinking curricula fulfill a dual agenda by integrating content and
process. Within this agenda, students develop habits of mind with respect to
learning that serve them well both in school and in the real world.
While traditional curricula tend to teach content and process separately, a

thinking curriculum weds process and content, a union that typifies real-world
situations; that is, students are taught content through processes encountered in
the real world. Some thinking and learning processes apply across all content
areas and all areas of life and thus are generic: for example, decision making,
problem solving, evaluating, and comparing.
Processes may be realised differently in different content areas. They answer the
question, "What sort of thinking do historians (or mathematicians, scientists, etc.)
engage in as they practice their craft?" For example, scientists hypothesize about
the nature of the natural world in such a way that they can test their hypotheses.
Historians may also hypothesize, but cannot test their hypotheses as do
scientists; rather, they depend on primary and secondary source materials to
"test" their ideas. Content is inherent in these examples--the processes that
scientists and historians use clearly depend on the content with which they are
dealing. Students, then, learn content and construct meaning as they employ
generic and content-specific strategies. They acquire content as they plan,
evaluate, solve problems, make decisions, construct or critique arguments,
compose essays, and so on. In short, students acquire knowledge in carrying out
tasks requiring higher-order thinking-- they practice a craft, so to speak, as they
acquire knowledge.
238 APPENDIX
This approach to curriculum stands in contrast to traditional curricula.

Traditional curricula from kindergarten through high school, expect students to
master "knowledge" in school; and knowledge is usually seen as lists of facts and
definitions. A traditional curriculum does not expect students to use the
knowledge until they leave school. On the other hand, students engaged in a
thinking curriculum acquire content as they plan, evaluate, solve problems, make
decisions, construct or critique arguments, compose essays, and so on. At the
same time, the content students learn has the power to promote these higher-
level processes. In short, the essence of a thinking curriculum is the dual agenda.
Four characteristics emerge from this agenda. These are elaborated below.
The Scope of a Thinking Curriculum Promotes In-depth Learning
Important concepts and strategies need to be identified, organised, prioritised,

and taught in depth. This characteristic of a thinking curriculum helps clarify
what it means to be knowledgeable. A thinking curriculum does not strive to
produce "walking- encyclopedias," stuffed with facts, figures, definitions, and
formulas. Truly knowledgeable students may possess such information, but
more importantly, they possess key concepts and tools for making, using, and
communicating knowledge in a field. Knowledgeable students have learned how
to learn, how to organize information, and how to distinguish between important
and less important pieces of information. In sum, they have a working
knowledge of a field---a tool chest for the ongoing discovery and construction of
meaning---rather than a junkyard of isolated facts.
Thus, in a thinking curriculum, students develop a deep understanding of

essential concepts and processes for dealing with those concepts, similar to the
understanding that experts use in tackling complex tasks in their disciplines. For
example, students use original sources to construct historical accounts; they
design experiments to answer their questions about natural phenomena; they use
mathematics to model real--world events and systems; and they write for real
audiences. The thinking curriculum gives students the tools---the perspectives
and methodologies and concepts they need to carry out these authentic tasks.
Content and Process Objectives are Situated in Real-world Tasks
Rather than focusing on simple and discrete skills, students should engage in
complex and holistic thinking. This type of thinking reflects what individuals
performing tasks outside of school do. As Lauren Resnick has observed, out-of-
school thinking about complex~ tasks is: (1) situated in meaningful processes of
making decisions, solving problems, evaluating situations, and so on, (2) shared
among individuals also involved in carrying out the task, (3) aided by the use of
APPENDIX 239
tools, such as reference books, calculators, and other technology, and (4)
connected to real-world objects, events, and situations. In addition, out-of-school
thinking is often interdisciplinary, cutting across many "school subjects.
Other desired attributes of real-world thinking as well as a thinking curriculum

are: orientations to problem solving and critical and creative thinking;
dispositions toward learning, including a sense of efficacy, a desire to ponder
and learn, and persistence; and understanding and valuing multiple
perspectives, especially different cultural perspectives. In a thinking curriculum,
thinking processes with such attributes are carried out in collaboration with
students, teachers, parents, and community members using tools and resources
to perform real-world tasks. Thus, content and process objectives can be achieved
when learning tasks stimulate complex thinking and involve true collaboration
among students.
Tasks are Sequenced to Situate Holistic Performances in Increasingly

Challenging Environments
This aspect of a thinking curriculum is both difficult to understand and express.

The major point is that students should always be engaged with a whole task. We
should not ask them to learn and practice one element of a task at a time and then
to integrate these pieces into a whole performance. Such integration will seldom
happen as easily as we might hope. Some educators may mistakenly believe that
young children and low-achieving students especially must begin with the parts
and gradually orchestrate these parts into wholes.
An example should help clarify this characteristic of a thinking curriculum.

Summarising is a common skill learned in school. In conventional curricula,
young students frequently are expected to learn how to summarise by first
learning each "step" in the summarising process. They are taught these steps one
at a time. Ample time is given to practice the first step; for example, categorising
items or activities described in a text under a more inclusive label. Indeed, they
may complete numerous worksheets on categorising. Then, the teacher may
teach them a second "step;" for example, deleting redundant information. Again,
the students practice. This approach continues until students have been taught all
the steps or subprocesses thought to be involved in summarising. In short,
curriculum tends to routinise the task. Finally, students are asked to put all these
subskills together. Unfortunately, many students cannot do this---they are stuck
at the subskill level, each of which they might perform beautifully, but which
they cannot integrate into a smooth process of summarising.
240 APPENDIX
In contrast, in a thinking curriculum, summarising would be conceived and

taught as a holistic process. Rather than fragmenting the process, it would be
taught in a context or environment in which students can succeed. For young
children, this might mean asking them first to summarise relatively short
paragraphs that deal with information with which they are very familiar. The
teacher may also ask students to work collaboratively to summarise information
at this initial learning stage. As students gain skill and confidence in
summarising, the teacher would ask them to summarise longer paragraphs,
perhaps containing less familiar information. In summary, a thinking curriculum
always treats tasks as indivisible wholes; variations that acknowledge the novice
status of the learner are changes the teacher can make in the environment.
Abundant research indicates that all students---including young children and

low-achieving students-- can succeed with such a holistic approach. For instance,
low-achievers typically perform at a much higher level than when taught skills in
a fragmented manner. In addition, holistic learning is much more likely to be
interesting to students and to promote a sense of control over their own learning.
Thus, a thinking curriculum is not chopped up into isolated skills and facts;
rather, it involves the holistic performance of meaningful, complex tasks in
increasingly challenging environments. A thinking curriculum promotes a sense
of efficacy and confidence in students. Materials and content are structured so
that students gradually regulate their own learning and so that learning is always
meaningful and makes sense. These goals---self-regulation and meaningful
learning---are promoted in a variety of ways in thinking curricula For example, a
thinking curriculum encourages students to clarify their purposes in performing
a task, to assess what they already know, and to predict what is to be learned. It
helps them highlight what is most important and thereby fosters feelings of
control over subject matter. It explores students' attitudes about themselves as
learners and about learning in the content areas. It provides opportunities for
students to assess difficulties they have in learning and consider strategies they
could use to overcome learning difficulties. It stresses continuing to work in the
face of ambiguity, solving problems despite unexpected difficulties, and looking
at problems as challenges to learn more and better. By being engaged in
curriculum in this manner, students come to see themselves as successful,
capable learners.
A Thinking Curriculum Actively Connects Content and Processes to Learners'

Backgrounds
Educators can begin to create a thinking curriculum by first considering the

experiences and knowledge that students bring to school and then expanding
upon and refining these experiences and knowledge by connecting them to new
APPENDIX 241
learning. The content and processes learned then build on students' family,
community, and cultural experiences. The knowledge students acquire is
meaningful and applied. In addition, students are motivated to learn when
curriculum considers their experiences and the issues and problems with which
they are concerned as well as their patterns of processing knowledge. The
content in a thinking curriculum is relevant to important issues and tasks in the
lives of students.
When students can relate school learning to important real-life issues, they are
more likely to seek and value the perspectives of others---peers, teachers, parents,
community members, and experts. In so doing, they develop interpersonal
competencies for creating and participating in dialogue with individuals who
have different perspectives and backgrounds. Thus, they not only connect
content to their own backgrounds, but they also learn how different people
interpret and organize content based on their different perspectives. As a result, a
thinking curriculum builds multicultural understanding while encouraging the
philosophical understanding of different kinds of knowledge and the limitations
inherent in attending to only one perspective on a subject. Students will thus be
better prepared to participate in an increasingly global society. Understanding
and valuing multicultural perspectives emerges from dialogue in a classroom
that is a community of open and sustained inquiry.
MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702

Curriculum Development Text Book

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Curriculum Development Text Book

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

HMEF5073

Module Writer: Prof Dr John Arul Phillips

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, September 2007

Copyright Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2011, HMEF5073

Topic 1 What is Curriculum? 1

Topic 2 Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum 22

2.9.1 Confucius on Education 42

Topic 3 Psychological Foundations of Curriculum 48

Topic 4 Social and Historical Foundations of Curriculum 76

4.4 Cultural Diversity and Curriculum 83

Topic 5 Curriculum Development Process 100

Topic 6 Curriculum Design 128

6.3.1 Scope 133

Topic 7 Curriculum Implementation 152

Topic 8 Curriculum Evaluation 177

8.3.1 Context, Input, Process, Product Model (CIPP Model) 182

Topic 9 Curriculum Issues and Trends 198

Topic 10 Curriculum In Malaysia 224

What Will You Get From Doing This Course? xii

How Will You Be Assessed? xviii

How Should You Study For This Course? xix

WHAT WILL YOU GET FROM DOING THIS COURSE?

DESCRIPTION OF THE COURSE

AIM OF THE COURSE

OBJECTIVES OF THE COURSE

HOW WILL YOU GET THE MOST FROM THIS COURSE?

Please ensure that you have all of these materials.

Topic Title Week of Work

Topic 1: What is Curriculum?

Topic 2: Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Topic 3: Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

Topic 4: Societal and Historical Foundations of Curriculum

Topic 5: Curriculum Planning

Topic 6: Curriculum Design

Topic 7: Curriculum Implementation

Topic 8: Curriculum Evaluation

Topic 9: Curriculum Issues and Trends

Topic 10: Curriculum in Malaysia

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

HOW WILL YOU BE ASSESSED?

WHAT SUPPORT WILL YOU GET IN STUDYING THE

myINSPIRE ONLINE DISCUSSION

HOW SHOULD YOU STUDY FOR THIS COURSE?

(b) Proposed Study Strategy

4. To begin reading a topic:

Academic Writing xxvi

Details about Assessments xxviii

Paraphrases: The student paraphrases a closely reasoned argument of

(ii) How Can I Avoid Plagiarism?

Journal DuFour, R. (2002). The learning-centred principal. Educational

Online Evnine, S. J. (2001). The universality of logic: On the connection

DETAILS ABOUT ASSIGNMENT

Facilitator-Marked Assignment (FMA)

General Criteria For Assessment of FMA

Homework should be made more meaningful

Whether we consider curriculum narrowly as a listing of subjects to be taught in

1.1 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM

Just like most things in education, there is no agreed upon definition of

Summary of Various Interpretations of Curriculum

Cronbleth (1992) defines curriculum as answering three questions: What