368192735.

doc,
10/24/2006 03:54:00 PM,

Bangin in the Boiler Plant by Wayne Kirsner, P.E.

www.kirsner.org

Each time [the feedwater] pump goes On or Off, it makes a terrible bang, and pipes shakes like creazy Anyone have a[n] idea how to
eliminate (or decrease) water hammering in the steam boiler feeding line? Posted on May 22, 2002 at www.boilerroom.com/forum.html
I f
the
re
s water
hamme
n-
closure
water
hamme
r is
its
potenti
ally
more
potent
due to
both
column
-
closure
33
above
the
level
of the
e
cannot
sustain
a
column
water
vapor
at the
vapor
pressur
g the
valve
face.
Upon
collisio
like a
spring.
The
same
happen
Becaus
e water
is stiff
stuff, a
slight
e in the
pipe--
is
about
60 psi
and
surrou
nding
pipe
upon
cushio
n the
water
hamme
r
Colum
n-
Closur
e
Water
d by a
factor
of
from
20 to
any
void
formed
in a
pipe
r when little cousin, and atmosp of e of the n with s with compre per 1 colli- collisio hamm 1000 rise the
2
a known howev conden heric water 80oF the each ssion foot/se sion n. er -- In depend potenti
conden to er, sation- tank over water valve, succee causes c of could Hence, a ing on al to
sate or HVAC column induce from 33 the ding a huge water be as column Conde the grow
feedwa engine closure d water which high, about kinetic lamina pressur column high closure nsate deareat to the
ter ers and water hamme the the energy of e rise. velocit as: water Retur or entire
pump power hamme r2. water leaking psia). of water y. hamme n rating. length
A 10 fps
starts plant r is a is check motion which (This r will Syste Conseq of the
Colum When bound * 60
opera- commo drawn. valve is crashes figure not m uently, rise. To
n the on the psi/ fps
especia tors n Prior allows convert into is general in a see
Closur pump pressur = 600 In a
hot 14.7 psia
lly if becaus mecha to the water ed into the derived ly be conden what I
e is re- e rise psi.
the e, nism event, to potent rear of at the severe sate mean,
Water started, due to conden
fluid unlike of the drain ial the end of For a in system lets
hamm the water sate
being conden water pump from energy compre the system hydron , there compar
er--In column hamme system
pumpe sation hamme has the by ssed article) with ic can be e two
a of r can , water
d is at induce r in been vertical compre lamina . Thus, dissolv system few exampl
or near d water steam
Simple
off and column
water
ssing in front
easily
if the ed air s, 5. Void forms
hamme
non- as es:
Hydro will be be r can
bewater column
its hamme system the until the of it. pump in it, UNLE conden drops
nic acceler estimat For
saturati r, it s. valve its less liquid. The could howev SS sables
Syste ated ed if severe 80oF
on general adjace than 33 Specifi appear acceler er, the THEY to
In this m into the for two cold
tem- ly nt the feet cally, ance, if ate the above ARE evolve
article, the velocit reasons water
peratur doesnt Figure upper high. the you water >33 ft
figure DEAE
Figure 1. Void formed into a is shut down
when a pump whichin a valved
ethe lead to
I 1 tank This
partial
first could 1. Pump
y of shutcolumn
down is high RATE
:
void to
closed hydronic system lifting over 33 feet. The hasred
a numbers
D.the4. Water level falls
cush- to height of
explain vacuu the
cause catastr shows closed leaves lamin see the to 10 by a show sequenceFirst,
of events.
the m. fluid is vapor
of the ophic a (perha a a of lamina fps, factor steam ion a
hamme steam
mecha simple ps to void
Given
water-- s
known.
3. Check leaks
and the back!
of at = dfrom
+ [14.7psi*( water
] Pv,H2O
/psipressur
nism a long An e of
ring is rupture of
exampl prevent betwee enough an 14.7
movempsia upper void least 2 whenc hamme only
probab s and e of an the n the imagin d ent in was to 4. e r.
column void, bound psia,
ly operato impend tank face of ary slow long Air conden
colum r
closure ing from the
the
thin motion
on the
enough dissolv 6. Pump re-energized
sate is Secondor valve the
water column overp re-openedgenerat allowing ly, the into atmosp
flow
n deaths column drainin valve disk , is of a for the ed in
hamme of ressure vapor here
closure and, r, and,
closure g back and the water that compre due water water void ed, is
pressur will
water thus, water becaus top of makes ssion column will often
then, can to 2
Unless e of support
hamme has hamme e the the up the wave to evolve produc
examin acceler water the time conden a
r1. remain r. A check water face of traveli reach into for air
ed
e the ate to hamme sate,
2. Valvecolumn
if
ofClosed
ed pumpe valve column the ng its the pressure from
The most its r the
largely d at the . water back termin partial rise is deareat
term commo termin that is conden water
anony return pump (Actual column toward al vacuu less than ed
colum n al the 2L/c in sate is approx
mous raises leaks). ly the the velocit m feedwa
causes velocit pressur which at or imately
1 in the 80oF Proble void is comes pump y, the formed ter in
Also of y of e case the near its 33
known non- water m is, a to an at the overpr by the air has which
water perhap above saturati high
as fluid nuclear to a becaus partial abrupt speed essure water no dissolv
hamme s 5 to the on becaus
column engine receive e vacuu halt of exerted column impact ed air
separati r in 10 fps ambien per F. J. temper e the
ering r at a atmosp m and sound on the separat has
on and boiler before t Moody ature, pres-
world. height heric filled compre in valve ion and been
rejoinin plants strikin pressur correspo allows sure in
g Like over pressur with sses water. face act to ndence. reduce
the vapor h= column conden column
partial pressur (14.7 more sate .
vacuu e in the 12.0) distanc pipe
m void psi * e in rise be
created exertin 2.0 which anywh
above g /psi = to ere
the pressur 5.4 ft acceler near 33
reced- e on ate if feet as
Thus,
ing the top the was
if
water of the pump the
theres
column column (or case
a leak
is 2.7 anythin for
in the
almost psid-- g else3) relative
check
negligi will starts it ly cool
valve
ble allow a movin water.
(or
only void to g. In the
any-
psia. grow case of
thing Whats
to 200oF
Hot else more,
almost or
200oF below the
the hotter
conden the non-
entire water,
sate, water negligi
length the
on the column ble
of the conden
other ), the vapor
pipe sate
hand, 200oF pressur
rise pipe
has a water e
less 5 rise
vapor column obviate
feet, need
pressur blocke s the
calcula be less
e of d require
ted like than 6
nearly closed ment
so: feet
12 at its that the
above
psia. top can
the
Theref fall to 3
For level
ore, the just example
of the
net 5.4 , if the
upper lower
differe above
valve tank
nce the
were level to
betwee level opened facilita
n of suddenly
te a
atmosp water ,a
column column
heric in the
of water closure
pressur lower
would water
e tank. be hamme
pushin This driven
r-- if
g on results into the
void by there
the low in a
the were a
side of longer
atmosph leak
the void eric below
column that pressure the
minus gives a in the
conden
the water upper
tank. sate
Returni represe collisio up to duratio ng case and dynami leaking d n highpo conden surrou g the , there
ng to nted in n two. n of of a approa c load check conden conditi int and sate nding flash is no
the Figure approa The the very ch 2.0 factor valve sate on if collect column pipe steam cushi
previo 1, or ched value collisio flexibl if the to or return traps there will be and to oning
us damag two. of the n e run of exceed closed system are formin acceler oncomi conden of the
exampl e other (See dynami depend piping pipe 1.0, isolatio where blowin ga ated ng se and water
e piping the c load s on system were and a n flash g steam into conden its hamme
where compo sidebar factor the (natura 270 column valve. steam steam pocket. the sate. volume r
a pump nents? for a depend length l feet of If is into Figure steam Heat to strike.
is able descrip s on of the freque long. water conden trapped conden 3 pocket. transfe collaps (The
600 psi
to tion of the water ncy = At the greater sate is in a sate depicts Steam r from e. If sidebar
overpr
acceler dynami respon column 4 cps), other than 25 close high lines-- such a in the the the rate at the
essure
ate c load se time being the extrem feet to its point can situatio pocket steam of article
added
water factor). of the deceler dynami e, a long to saturati which drop n after will be to the steam s end
to the
to 10 object ated. c load very achiev on was conden the compre pipe volume elabora
system Dyna
fps struck The factor stiff ea temper inadver sate conden ssed as walls reducti tes).
pressur mic
thru a (i.e. longer would piping load ature, tently pressur sate the and on
e Load Withou
void the the exceed run factor all design e pump water conden meets
would factor4 t
formed piping column 1.0 if with a of 2.0. thats ed into below has column sate or
general cushio
by The system , the the run natural needed the its cycled advanc will exceed
ly not Accum ning
column dyna s more of pipe freque , system saturati off. es acceler s the
be high ulatio by
separat mic natural likely from ncy of besides . on thereby ate due rate of
enough n of When either
ion, load freque the tank to 40 cps, a rise Raisin pressur raising to the the
to Flash the non-
and factor ncy) dynami valve would in the g e
break Steam
assumi or compar c load was require piping, conden thereby Figure 3. Entrapped Flash Steam in a Condensate Rise
any
ng the impac ed to factor over at least To is a sate releasi 14.7 psia
steel t have a 4. Steam will condense as
fluid the will 90 feet a9 section which ng
piping
contain compo
factor duratio exceed long6 foot column of pipe is at or flash heat is lost, but
s little nents,
, as its n of one 6
For
long - in near its steam. 2 psig
or no someti the and dynami column closure which saturati The its ~5 ft
but it pump
dissolv mes collisio approa c load of water flash
could
ed gas known, n). 5 ch two. factor water hamme steam
break a
--a 600 multipl The For to be as for the r in a can 3. Steam collects if theres an inverted U
bellow great as
psi ies the conden accum or closed valve.
s-type 2.0, the
overpr impact sate ulate.
expans water 5. if pump starts first,
essure felt by column system 2. As pressure drops due to rise,
ion the , Figure increased pressure and slightly
is pulse
flash steam released if condensate
joint. subcooled water will* collapse
possibl object 5
The duration,
100 psi
It
e. Is struck shape of 2L/c, at sat temp. steam to permit water-water
could the See End formust
that in a collision.
even impulse larger version
exceede
overpr break a
collisio
n by a
also d1/6 the
1. Blowing traps heat up
23 ft
essure matters, natural
cast 14.7 psia
great factor but for period, condensate to sat. temperature
iron long Ts, of
enough of volume
valve columns the 10 psi Condensate at sat. conden
to from consu
if the of water system sables
break less rising in per 25 sec, temp 239oF increas med by
dyna or
an than a pipe, Wiggert. c=4300, on steam temper e in the
mic 3 cycles uncond
isolatio one to the pulse exampl For a then its not temper bubble ature temper oncomi
load may be natural L>(c/2) depicts on ensed
n valve e, for necess ature s will above ature ng
factor 4
consider freq. of (.25/6) a again, steam,
like the ary to a rise to that of thereby water
of the Referen ed 4 cps, or L > pumpe the the
that ce 2. square. boundi i.e. Ts= . 90 ft. have a commo a local the causin column
water will be column pump is If conden the y of holes
column about movin is de- usually steam sation- water Uni- in the
can run 30 psi g energiz placed enters induce level versity header
virtuall per 1 before ed, the at or the d water go low of were
y foot/se the line near feedwa hamme and the North expose
unimpe c of strike will the ter r or, check Carolin d to
ded velocit occurs. hamme entranc line, once valve a is a steam
into y that For r e to the say the leak, classic inside
the the these violent boiler. due to feedwa steam case. the
water column reasons ly. The Proble a low ter will An off- boiler.
column of , the same m is water pump enter line This
on the water water can check conditi is re- the boiler allowe
other attains. hamme apply valves on energiz distrib had d
side of In r to hot are which ed, ution been steam
the additio portray boiler unrelia expose column header warme to
void n, ed in feedwa ble-- s the - as d and enter
causin since Figure ter if they feedwa closure feedwa pressur the
g water the 3 will theres can ter water ter ized to distrib
to- downst be less a leak wear distri- hamme drains about ution
water ream forcefu path to out, be bution r. out. 40 psig
water water l than a improp header, The via
Conde
hamme column that system erly hamme steam plant
nsa-
r when is not where compo applied ring will steam
tion-
the two constra a valve nent at , and can becom fed
induce
column ined is lower certain ensue e thru a
d water
s against closed pressur types due to entrapp heat
hamme
collide. movem and e. are either ed in ex-
r can
ent, the struck. That, I highly fe- change
The be ex-
relative presu suscept edwate coil in
overpr Water pected
velocit me, is ible to r, its mud
essure Hamm if the
y of the water which, drum.
of er in a feedwa
the reason hamme if more The
movin Boiler ter line
initial the r than water
g water Feedw enterin
collisio ASME damag 40oF level
hitting ater g the
n will B31.1 e8. cooler droppe
station Syste boiler
be code7 than d
ary m. is
slightly require 8
Based the below
water horizo
decreas If s a stop on the steam, the
is argumen ntal, or
ed steam and can level
that of t that even
since is able check impact hamme of the
water worse,
pre- to valve factor r feedwa
hitting slopes
compre backflo in the for violent ter
a valve down
ssion w into feedwa swing ly. distrib
or type as it
of the a ter ution
dead- check approa An
void boiler line, header
end so valves ches inciden
will feedwa and will in the
the the t
start ter line why it often be steam
resultin boiler relayed
the when 2.0 due drum
g 7
See to the entranc to me
downst the so that
overpr B31.1- small e. by Bill
ream feedwa the
essure 122.1. mass of Should Lower
water ter 7 the swing . spray
header as feedwater from the header drained out
into the boiler. See Figure 4A.
When operators noticed the low water level, the
boilers feedwater regulator valve was cracked open
to refill the boiler. What followed was a succession
of sharp bangs severe enough to cause operators to
evacuate the boiler portion of the Plant.
Bill Lowery, who investigated the incident, ex-
plained to me that the stop/check on the newly
erected boiler had been sited at the rear of the boiler
(in anticipation of a different boiler configuration)
some 22 upstream from the connection to the
feedwater input. In addition, the connection of the
6 feedwater line to the boiler was made thru a 6x
3 concentric reducer as shown in the figure. As a
consequence, when the feedwater distribution
header was exposed to steam due to the low water
condition and allowed to empty, the concentric
reducer retained 1.2 of water at the bottom of the
22 ft long horizontal pipe downstream of the stop-
check. (Figure 4A). Consequently, the 40 psig
steam at 287oF that entered the feedwater line lay
atop feedwater that had probably cooled
considerably since leaving the deaerator at 235oF
before the feedwater pump had been shut off several
days earlier. (The horizontal feedwater line might
have hammered at this point if induced steam flow
due to condensation in the feedwater pipe was
sufficient to entrap a steam pocket).
When the feedwater regulator valve was cracked
open to restore the water level in the boiler, the 6
feedwater pipe likely did not flow full when the
feedwater line turned horizontal after the stop and
check valves9. This allowed feedwater flowing in
thru the check valve to flow along the bottom of the
6 pipe. At the same time, steam contacted by the
large turbulent surface of relatively subcooled
incoming feedwater would have started rapidly
condensing thereby drawing replacement steam
from the boiler drum to replace it. In a roughly
half-filled horizontal pipe, it doesnt take much
relative velocity difference for steam flowing in
counterflow over condensate to draw up a wave of
condensate (via a Bernoulli-like effect) to plug the
pipe and en-
9
Full flow is guaranteed if the Froud No. exceeds
1. This would require a flow velocity of 4 fps in the
6 feedwater line: E.g. : For Fr= v/gD > 1,
v > [32.2 ft/s2 * .5 ft]^1/2 ~ 4 fps
trap a pocket of steam. See Figures 4B. & 4C. off and there is a leak path back to a system feedwater as the flash steam buoyantly rises. In the
component at lower pressure. Superheated boiler former case, a column closure water hammer will
The steam, once entrapped in sufficiently subcooled
water will flash allowing steam to accumulate in a occur when pumps are re-energized; in the latter
feedwater, will rapidly condense and collapse to a
high spot, if there is one, or directly contact case, condensation-induced water hammer is possi-
pressure approaching the vapor pressure of the
subcooled ble.
surrounding feedwater. With 40 psi pressure from
the boiler on one side of the water plug, and a low
pressure steam void on the other, the plug of water 22 long Hori-zontal
that bridged the top of the pipe will be accelerated A. Boiler Steam Drum and Incoming Feedwater Line showing Steam Incursion after run of 6pipe to mid
into the rapidly condensing steam void ultimately Distribution Header Has Become Exposed to boiler steam. As feedwater drained out the line, steam length of Boiler
striking the check valve in a water hammer event. entered the line.
Isolation Valve (open)
After the initial collision, the wave reflection would 40 psig,
Check Valve
probably allow the check valve to reopen causing 287oF
Feedwater from 235oF
the situation to repeat itselfat least until the
economizer cooled as it
feedwater line completely filled with water.
Normal Drum sat inactive during
Examination of the check valve after the incident Level
This should be extended boiler
didnt reveal any obvious damage, but to be yellow Feedwater
downtimeDistribution
prudent, the check valve was replaced with a new Header
valve. In addition, to avoid future problems, the
feedwater line was re-piped to slope up to the boiler
B. Closer Look Inside the Boiler
more than per foot so feedwater would no longer
Steam Drum as feedwater flow
drain should the distribution header become
commenced along the bottom of the pipe,Because the feedwater valve
exposed, and, even should steam enter the Induced open
steamFr <<1.0
accelerated condensation induced a flowwas
of cracked
feedwater line due to an upstream leak, the slope allowing feedwater to flow
steam from the boiler such that waves were
was sufficient to suppress water hammer. Bill
generated atop the feedwater along bottom of pipe rather
Lowery tells me that recent controlled tests of this than filling it.
fix under low water conditions in the boiler have
proved successful in suppressing waterhammer.
The lessons from this incident are several. The
most fundamental is that boiler steam cant be Boiler Water in Steam Drum
permitted to enter the feedwater system. It did in
this case for two reasons:
1. The stop and check valves were not placed at C. Steam Pocket becomes
the entrance to the boiler. entrapped and collapses
2. The water level was allowed to drop below the
level of the steam distribution header in a boiler
filled with steam when feedwater flow was off.
A less obvious but perhaps more common cause of Boiler Water in Steam Drum
water hammer in feedwater systems can occur if
boiler feedwater is allowed to backflow into the Flow from
feedwater system due a bad check at the boiler; and, Condensing steam Feedwater
will cause water
a flow path thru the feedwater regulator to the cracked feedwater
slug to slap into oncoming open
Figure 4. Backfeeding of Boiler
feedwater heater or other boilers at lower pressure is regulator
water sending shock waves valve
Steam into Feedwater Line the water-filled portion of
available when feedwater pump(s) are off. This throughout
condition requires both a leaky feedwater regulator the feedwater line.
and faulty check valve at the feedwater pump, if
there is one.
Boiler water will be superheated compared to the
reduced pressure in the feedwater line if pumps are
Column Closure and Condensation-Induced
Water HammerWhat You Need To Know
First and foremost: Neither mechanism of water
hammer is caused by fast moving steam picking up
a slug of liquid and hurling it downstreamthis
description of water hammer is a misconception.
Water hammer is caused by fluid accelerating into a
void and slamming into something that abruptly
stopsnot redirectsbut STOPS the water column.
A fast-moving condensate slug sloshing around an
elbow WILL NOT cause water hammer (even
though it does impart an impulse force on the
elbows supports at it is redirected around the
elbow).
What differentiates a Column-Closure water
hammer from a Condensation-Induced water
hammer event is the manner in the which the fluid
gets moving. To wit--
A Condensation-Induced water hammer
requires a rapid condensation event in which an
entrapped steam bubble surrounded by subcooled
condensate collapses thereby causing the
condensate to accelerate and slap into the void.
The collapse takes place on the order of a
microsecond. The motive power for accelerating the
water is supplied by the differential between the
surrounding steam pressure and the collapsing
pressure within the void. High pressures (> ~60
psig) lead to high fluid velocities and powerful
water hammer events on the order of several
thousand psi. This is the kind of water hammer that
shatters steam components and can kill operators.
Column closure water hammer, on the other
hand, requires no subcooling because no rapid
condensation need take place. The fluid is
motivated by a pump or imposed pressure
differential accelerating a column of water into a
void. The void is created by a either a vacuum
generated when a water column separates below a
closed valve or dead end, or steam is entrapped in a
high spot in a piping system. Column Closure
water hammer is generally, though not necessarily,
less forceful than condensation-induced water
hammer due to the limited velocity attained by a
pumped water column.
On more thing
While the two mechanisms of water hammer Ive
discussed in this article cover most instances of
water hammer in a boiler plant, the internet-posted
incident described below the title to this article
could have had another, and more pedestrian,
explanation.
Water hammer was experienced when the feedwater
pump was turned OFF. If the hammer occurs
simultaneously with pump shut-off, and, as
indicated in a subsequent post, there is only one
check valve between the pump and boiler, the
hammer could be due to the check valve flapper
hanging up. E.g., when the pump shuts off,
feedwater line pressure will drop to approximately
that of the feedwater tank from which the pump is
drawing; boiler pressure will then accelerate
feedwater backward thru the hung-up check valve.
When the backflow is significant enough to cause
the check valve to release and slam shut, the water
column in the line will come to an abrupt halt
against the check valve with a thud, if not a bang.
The End
References
1. Wiggert and Hatfield, Liquid Slug Motion in
Compliant Piping, Forum on Fluid transients,
ASME International Mechanical Engineering
Congress and Exposition, Atlanta, GA, Nov
1996 (Also included. in Ref. 4 below)
2. Chou and Griffith, Admitting Cold Water into
Steam Filled Pipes Without Water Hammer due
to Bubble Collapse circa 1988.
3. EPRIs Resolution of Generic Letter 96-06
Waterhammer Issues Users Manual and
Technical Basis Report TR-113594-V1 and V2,
December 2000
4. Water Hammer Handbook for Nuclear Plant
Engineers and Operators, EPRI TR-106438,
2856-03, May 1996
W. Kirsner, Condensation-Induced
5.
Waterhammer, Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning,
Jan 1999
Steam Cushioning of Column-Closure Water Hammer
Consider an oncoming water column moving at 10 fps into a steam filled pipe and striking a dead-end. Calculate
the amount of steam compression, and hence backpressure, necessary to raise steam temperature sufficiently to
cause steam to condense at a rate so as not to impede the water column. Intial steam pressure assumed 0 psig.
The mass rate of steam condensation so as not Steam
to impede the on-coming water column is:
m*stm = v A 10 fps
v
V* = (1/26.8) lbm/ c.f. * 10 fps * A s.f. = 0.37*A lbm/s
Heat Transfer Required to condense m*stm at approximately 0 psig:
Q* = 970 Btu/# * 0 .37A lbm/s = 362*A Btu/s
Lets suppose heat transfer to walls is negligible and only consider heat transferred to the surface of the water disk.
(This is probably valid as the column closes in on the dead-end where wall area is small and the compression and
condensation becomes most critical. If the water column were striking a second water column, heat transfer Area
would = 2A).
Q* = h A (Tstm T cond)
Per Peter Griffith, the Chairman of the Expert Panel Review of EPRIs Technical basis Report Resolution of Ge-
neric Letter 96-06 Water hammer Issues , h=64,000 Btu/hrft2F [=17.8 Btu/sft2F] correlated well with simulations
and experiments on column closure water hammer events where the water surface is assumed to be highly irregu-
lar and wall heat transfer is ignored.
Equating the required heat transfer at 10 fps with the above equation:
362*A Btu/s = 17.8 * A (Tstm T cond)
Therefore for an adequate rate of heat transfer to enable steam to condense in advance of the onrushing
condensate:
(Tstm T cond) = 20.3oF
The amount of compression, and hence backpressure, to warm steam 20.3oF from 212oF to 232oF is ~8 psi if the
steam remains within the saturation dome (above the dome superheated steam warms at a significantly greater rate
with increased pressure). For example, compression from 14.7 psia, 212oF, 96% quality to 22 psia, 98% to 100%
quality, warms temperature to 232oF. (It is assumed that steam cannot compress into the superheat region above
the steam dome because of the presence of the free water surface. Compressed steam that momentarily enters the
superheat region is presumed to evaporate water thereby returning it to the saturation curve and, essentially, riding
the curve to the left while evaporating additional steam which makes up for the enthropy debt--see Mollier
Diagram at end of article).
The velocity reduction due to backpressure will depend on the magnitude of the pump head or pressure driving
force devoted to overcoming pipe friction. For a high-head pump, for example, with say 40 psi available to over-
come pipe friction, a backpressure on the scale of 8 psi will reduce the terminal velocity of an accelerated water
column by only about 11% ( =1-(32/40).5 ) assuming a relatively flat pump curve.. For a pump devoting little head
to overcoming pipe friction, on the other hand, more than a few psi of backpressure may reduce water column
terminal velocity to the point where water hammer severity is insignificant. (Of course, an iterative calculation is
required to calculate the amount of backpressure developed in the void since the critical input to the very first
equation above to calculate the rate at which steam must condense is the assumed velocity of the oncoming water
column).
 Three alternate processes are depicted by the red arrows for
compressing atmospheric pressure steam so it warms 20oF
as required to provide enough heat transfer to make the
steam disappear (i.e., condense) in front of the inrushing
water (assumed to be 10fps).

In all cases for compression of wet steam below the dome

the steam must be compressed to 21.6 psia to warm 20oF.
The vertical arrow represents isentropic compression of wet
232oF, 21.6 psia steam; the arrow slanted up and to the right represents
compression with entropy increase to the same pressure.
212oF, 14.7 psia
The 3rd case where the red steam arrow follows the
saturation curve to the left (entropy decreases!) represents
the resultant of two imaginary process arrowsone vertical
from the saturation line into the superheat region where the
steam warms considerably for a small increase in pressure,
then a second process where the superheated steam
evaporates moisture from the free surface of the on-rushing
water at constant pressure bringing the steam back to the
saturation line. The entropy increase of the evaporated
water (process arrows not shown) makes the net entropy
increase positive.

This 3rd case is confusing in that it entails a small amount of

steam evolving from the water surface due to heat transfer
from superheated steam whereas the whole premise of the
calculation is to find the pressure at which the steam is
warmed sufficiently above the onrushing water temperature
to condense the steam and thus get it out of the way of the
onrushing condensate.

The Joukowski Equation
The over-pressurization due to water hammer, Po, is equal
to :
Po = c v
Where:
density of condensate
c = the speed of sound in water (which is a function of
waters stiffness).
v= the velocity reached by the water column
If moving water strikes stationary water, a multiplier
arises from the extra springiness of water hitting water.
(Essentially the collision puts two water springs in
parallel effectively halving waters stiffness).
To get an order of magnitude estimate for the over-
pressure created in for every I fps of water velocity prior
to a collision where water density is roughly 60 #/c.f., and
c" is corrected downward 10% for the coupling of steel
pipe walls with the water column, and air cushioning is
minimal, overpressurization equals:
Po = 60#/c.f. * 4300 fps * 1 fps = 55.6 psi
gc
Dynamic Load factor10
The dynamic load factor or impact factor, as
its sometimes known, multiplies the impact felt
by the object struck in a collision by a factor of
from less than one to up to two. The value of the
dynamic load factor depends on
the response time of the object
struck (i.e. the piping systems
natural frequency) compared to
rectangle
the duration of the collision). 11
The duration of the collision
depends on the length of the
water column being decelerated.
The longer the column, the more
likely the dynamic load factor
will exceed one and approach
two. For example, for the
bounding case of a very flexible
piping system (natural frequency
= 4 cps), the dynamic load factor
would exceed 1.0 if the run of
pipe from tank to valve was over
90 feet long12 and approach 2.0 if
the run of pipe were 270 feet .2 .4
long. At the other extreme, a
very stiff piping run with a
natural frequency of 40 cps,
would require at least a 9 foot
long column of water for the
dynamic load factor to exceed 1.0,
and a column of water greater than
25 feet long to achieve a load Figure XX. Impact Factor as a function of pulse-to-period ratio
factor of 2.0. The figure shows Impact and the squareness of the pulse . Specifically, = peak pulse
factor as a function of pulse-to-period time/total pulse time so rectanglular pulse =1 and triangular = 0 but 0 on
ratio and the squareness of the chart represents an isosceles triangular pulse, RT is a right triangle.
pulse is shown in Figure XX
reproduced from Wiggart (Reference
1. and 4.)
10
Reference 2.
11
The shape of the impulse also matters, but for long columns
of water rising in a pipe, the pulse may be considered square.
12
For dynamic load factor to be as great as 2.0, the water
column pulse duration, 2L/c, must exceeded1/6 the natural
period, Ts, of the system per Wiggert. For a natural freq. of 4
cps, i.e. Ts= .25 sec, c=4300, then L>(c/2) (.25/6) or L > 90 ft.