Steam Turbines and Generators

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fm Page 1 Monday, May 10, 2004 12:54 PM
74
Steam Turbines and
Generators
74.1 Design of Steam Turbines

Steam Turbine Developments Bearings Steam Turbine
Materials
74.2 Working Principles
Impulse vs. Reaction Blades
74.3 Thermodynamics and Efficiency
74.4 Controls and Instrumentation
Stop and Control Valves Other Valves Supervisory
Instruments
74.5 Electric Generators
Generator Cooling
74.6 Turbine Generator Auxiliaries
Steam Seals Turning Gear Lube Oil System Hydraulic Fluid
System Water Induction Protection
Otakar Jonas 74.7 Steam Turbine Problems
Jonas, Inc. 74.8 Steam Chemistry and Turbine Corrosion
A steam turbine is a rotary engine that uses superheated or saturated steam produced by a steam generator
(boiler) to convert the thermal energy into work (mechanical energy). Steam turbines are used for driving
electric generators as prime movers or driving mechanical equipment such as compressors, fans, and
pumps. Turbines have been in use for over 100 years, and no new technology currently available can
replace them for high-energy-output applications. Steam turbine generators produce 80% of the 750,000
megawatts needed in the U.S. and the 3000 gigawatts worldwide. This chapter focuses on the basics of
turbine and electric generator design, working principles, and descriptions of key components. Steam
turbine problems and steam chemistry and corrosion are also briefly discussed. There is a large volume
of information dealing with all aspects of turbine and electric generator design, operation, and mainte-
nance that is beyond the intent of this chapter. Additional information is in the References and Further
Information sections.
74.1 Design of Steam Turbines [113]

Development of modern steam turbines started in the 1800s. In Sweden, Gustav Laval introduced the
first useful turbine in 1889. A turbine with multiple blade stages closer to todays turbines was designed
in 1883 in England by Parsons. Steam turbines are the simplest and most efficient engines for converting
large amounts of heat energy into mechanical work. They use superheated or saturated steam generated
2005 by CRC Press LLC

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74-2 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition
Nozzle Crossover piping

box HP turbine
inlet Low pressure
stages Journal
Thrust and High bearing
journal pressure
bearings stages Journal
bearings
Rotor
Pressure
Downloaded by [UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE LIBRARIES] at 05:38 04 October 2017
Pedestal
Front
Intermediate
Pedestal
To pressure stages Velocity
IP turbine To condenser
reheater inlet Extractions
FIGURE 74.1 Typical tandem compound, single reheat condensing turbine. FIGURE 74.2 Radial flow dou-
(Courtesy of EPRI.) ble-rotation reaction turbine has
only moving blades. (Courtesy of
Power Magazine.)
in one of many types of steam generators [812]. As the steam expands, it acquires high velocity and
exerts force on the turbine blades. The steam conditions range from a few psig saturated to 4500 psig,
superheated to 1112oF and steam flows up to 15 million pounds per hour (nuclear). Turbines range in
size from a few kilowatts (kW) or horsepower (hp) for one-stage units to 1500 MW for multiple-stage
multiple-component units comprising high-pressure, intermediate-pressure, and up to three low-pres-
sure double-flow turbines. Mechanical drive turbines range from single and double stage turbines to over
20 stages, depending on horsepower. The common size range for these machines is 5 hp to over 100,000
hp. Most larger modern turbines are multiple-stage axial flow horizontal units. Figure 74.1 shows a typical
utility tandem-compound reheat turbine with a combined high pressure (HP) and intermediate pressure
(IP) turbine and a two-flow low pressure (LP) turbine. There are other, infrequently used, designs of
smaller turbines such as the radial flow designs (see Figure 74.2).
In Figure 74.1, steam enters from the main steam lines (pipes) through stop and control valves into
the HP section. The first (control) stage is spaced somewhat apart from subsequent stages to allow for
stabilization of the flow. After passing through the HP turbine, cold reheat piping carries the steam to
the reheater and returns it in the hot reheat piping to the integrated HP and IP cylinder to pass through
the IP turbine section. The flow exits the IP turbine through the IP exhaust hood and then passes
through crossover piping to the LP turbine and exits to the condenser through the LP exhaust. The
typical modern steam turbine has a number of extraction points throughout all sections for the steam
to the feedwater heaters.
During its expansion through the LP turbine blades, the steam crosses the saturation line. The region
where condensation begins, termed the Phase Transition Zone (PTZ) or Wilson Line, is the location
where many of the corrosion damage mechanisms occur [14, 15]. In single reheat turbines at full load,
this zone is usually at the last minus 1 stage, which is also in the transonic flow region where, at the sonic
velocity (Mach = 1), sonic shock waves can be a source of blade excitation and cyclic stresses causing
fatigue or corrosion fatigue [1518].
Steam turbines can also be classified by their configuration. A steam turbine generator for electrical
power generation can be classified as a tandem compound or cross compound unit. A tandem compound
unit operates with all of the turbine sections rotating on a common shaft connected to one generator. A
cross compound unit has the turbine sections on two separate shafts: the HP and IP turbines are on a
single shaft connected to a single generator, whereas the LP turbine is on a separate shaft connected to
a separate generator. Virtually all new steam turbine installations are the tandem compound type. Many
combined cycles also have the gas and steam turbine and electric generator on one shaft (connected by

Steam Turbines and Generators 74-3
couplings). The number of exhaust flows to the condenser is a function of the number of low-pressure
turbine sections. Utility turbine generators can have two, four, or six exhausts to the condenser. Large
utility turbogenerators can be over 200 feet long and weigh over 2,000 tons.
Steam turbines are used in the following cycles [2, 4, 5, 811]:
Fossil fuel drum and once-through (supercritical and subcritical) boiler cycles
Combined gas turbine and steam turbine with HRSG (heat recovery steam generator)
Nuclear PWR (pressurized water reactor), BWR (boiling water reactor), other
Waste heat boiler
Trash, baggage, black liquor, etc. in drum boiler cycles
Geothermal
Solar
Ocean thermal energy (contemplated)
Most steam turbine generators for nonnuclear power generation rotate at the constant speed of
3600 rpm when they drive 60-Hz electric generators (U.S., Canada, etc.) and 3000 rpm for 50 Hz
generators (Europe, etc.). Most nuclear turbines operate at 1800 rpm (60 Hz) and 1500 rpm (50 Hz) to
accommodate higher steam flows using longer blades; since the blades are longer, the lower speed is
necessary to reduce blade stresses. Steam flows over 12 million lb/h are needed for the large nuclear
turbines because the steam inlet pressures and temperatures are low. The power output from a steam
turbine is controlled by varying the control valve position on the steam chest, thereby admitting more
or less steam to the turbine. The increased torque on the steam turbine generator shaft resulting from
the increased steam flow increases the power (MW) output.
Mechanical drive turbines generally operate over a variable speed range with maximum speed over
20,000 rpm. They are useful in driving equipment that frequently operates at lower loads. As the load
on a pump or fan is reduced, the turbine can slow down and reduce the capacity of the pump or fan.
As the demand increases, the turbine increases speed as required to produce the flow. This infinite type
of speed adjustment can result in large power savings compared to the constant speed operation of driven
equipment.
The engineering disciplines used in steam turbine design include:
Thermodynamics and flow (cycle, blade path, controls)
Mechanical design (stresses, vibration, strength at low and high temperatures, creep)
Electrical design (generator, controls and monitoring)
Materials (strength, fatigue, fracture mechanics)
Corrosion and water and steam chemistry
The modern design tools include:
Finite element stress, temperature, and vibration analysis
Computational flow dynamics (viscous, nonviscous, with condensation, with steam chemistry)
Life prediction and fracture mechanics methods
Prototype testing (performance, efficiency, vibration, etc.)
Material mechanical fracture, fatigue, creep, erosion, and corrosion properties
Steam Turbine Developments

After the hundred years of history, major developments are still taking place in the design, operation,
and maintenance of steam turbines. The driving forces for these developments are higher efficiency,
increased reliability, and lower maintenance costs (including longer inspection intervals). The main long-
term steam cycle and turbine developments are governed by the availability of better materials, which
can operate for the 30-year turbine design life at higher temperatures and are more resistant to fatigue,
corrosion, and fracture. The developments of the last decades include:

TABLE 74.1 Steam Turbine Materials

Component Material
Rotor CrMoV, NiCrMoV low-alloy steel forging

Discs NiCrMoV, CrMoV, NiCrMo low-alloy steel forging, 12Cr weld repair
Shell and piping Carbon steel, low-alloy steels
Blades and shrouds 12Cr stainless steels, 15-5PH, 17-4 PH, Ti6-4, PH13-8Mo
Erosion shields Stellite Type 6B weld deposited or soldered, same as blade, hardened blades
Stationary blades 304 stainless steel and other stainless steels
Expansion bellows AISI Types 321 or 304 stainless steels, Inconel 600
Bearings High tin babbit cast on bronze
Valves Body low-alloy steel, stems stainless steel, seats stellite

Bolts High temp. heat-resistant alloys, low temp. medium-strength steels
Turbines for advanced steam conditions for fossil fuel cycles (up to 4500 psi pressure and 1112oF
superheat) over 6% efficiency gain
Turbines for cycling and peaking duty (can be shut down once a day)
Longer last-stage blades and hollow stationary blades with moisture extraction slots leading to
better efficiency
Better blade path flow design (three-dimensional viscous flow) and curved and twisted stationary
banana blades leading to better efficiency and cyclic stresses
Better overall design allowing over 10-year inspection intervals
Better control of steam purity preventing deposits which lead to corrosion and loss of efficiency
and MW
Turbine bypass for faster startups
Retractable internal packings to prevent rubbing during startups
Tilt pad bearings for better alignment
Better rotor and blade materials
Superconducting electric generators (under development)
Magnetic bearings (under development)
Bearings
Turbine and driven equipment bearings range from pressure-lubricated journal type for large turbines
through ring-oiled journal bearings for small units and ball bearings for very small turbines. The oil-
lubricated journal bearings rely on maintaining an oil film between the bearing babbit and the rotor
shaft. Typically, each separate turbine section (HP, IP, and LP) has two radial bearings, and the whole
turbine set has one axial bearing because the steam pressure differential across turbine stages creates a
net thrust along the shaft.
Steam Turbine Materials

Typical materials used for various turbine components are listed in Table 74.1. Requirements for these
materials include resistance to creep and high temperature oxidation for the high pressure and interme-
diate pressure turbines and resistance to fatigue, corrosion fatigue, stress corrosion, pitting, and brittle
fracture for all components [3, 7, 11, 1618].
74.2 Working Principles [16]

The main steam turbine working principle [i.e., conversion of heat and pressure energy (Equation 74.1)
to kinetic energy of steam and work] was demonstrated over 2200 years ago by a Greek named Hero
see Figure 74.3. In his reaction turbine, the steam generated in a heated container (boiler) was shooting

Steam
Steam in
Exhaust
Rotation
Nozzle Moving
vanes buckets
Fixed Moving
Steam Pressure
Steam
Speed
Impulse stage Reaction stage
FIGURE 74.3 Heros reaction turbine. FIGURE 74.4 Steam flow through impulse and reaction
blading. (Courtesy of Power Magazine.)
out through two nozzles, spinning the whole device. In modern turbines, after multiple nozzles (station-
ary blades), there are rotating blades or buckets attached to a rotor.
Impulse vs. Reaction Blades

There are two fundamental types of steam turbine rotating blades from the perspective of how energy
is transferred from the steam to the turbine shaft. The energy is transferred by the steam expanding
through a series of stationary and rotating blade sections (stages). These blade sections can be of the
impulse and reaction types and for longer blades, the two types are often combined.
In an impulse turbine blade stage, the steam is expanded through stationary nozzles to impact the
rotating blades. The energy to rotate the turbine comes from the force of the steam impacting on the buckets.
In a reaction stage, the stationary nozzles and rotating blades are of similar shape, similar to an airplane
wing profile. The steam expands, increases in velocity, and loses pressure as it passes through the blade
sections. Pressure exists on the concave side of the profile and suction on the convex side. The resulting
force generated by the velocity turns the rotor. Figure 74.4 illustrates the principles of impulse and reaction
blading. A blade stage is a stationary plus rotating row of blades.
74.3 Thermodynamics and Efficiency [112]

The steam conditions in turbines and in the whole steam cycle are measured and calculated according
to established practices. Steam tables and thermodynamic diagrams are used to derive related steam and
water properties such as pressure, temperature, energy, and % moisture (quality) [24, 6, 12, 13]. For
steam turbines, a Mollier (entropyenthalpy) diagram is often used (see Figure 74.5 and Figure 74.6).
The steam expansion lines in these diagrams represent the average blade or flow path conditions. The
local conditions along the longer blades and elsewhere are different. The steam cycle conditions are
usually shown in a heat balance diagram (see Figure 74.7 for a fossil fuel drum boiler cycle).
The amount of power that can be generated by a steam turbine is a function of the initial steam pressure
and temperature, steam flow, exhaust pressure, and efficiency of the machine. Additionally, the bearings,
electrical generator, and other losses need to be considered, since these losses reduce the power output.
The heat content of a gas (steam) is equal to CvT and is called intrinsic energy. The gas can also do
work when its pressure is higher than some reference pressure. For steam turbines, the reference pressure

Entropy, Btu/lb F
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3
1650 1200 100 1650
erature, F 0
Temp
stant
C on
1600 1100 1600
900
1550 1000
1550
800
1500 900
1500
700
1450 800
1450
600
1400 700 1400

50
0
1350 600 1350

40
0
er
ph
1300 500 1300
os
30
0
Atm
150 0
0
0
200
300
Co
0
400
ard
100
ns
tan
500
1250 nd 1250
300
tS 400
0
up 20
200
Enthalpy, Btu/Ib
Sta
Enthalpy, Btu/Ib
550
erh 0
100
ea
t, D
eg
50
,F
300 1200
30
1200 10
6
20
Su 0
.69
pe
10
rhe
14
at 200
Lin
5
e
1150 Co 1150
5
2.
ns
tan
tM
2
5
0.
0.
ois 100
1100 1100
USED ENERGY
si
,p
re
1050 10 1050
su
es
Pr
nt
ta
ns
1000 15 1000
Co
AVAILABLE ENERGY
950 20 950
900 25 900
850 30 850
800 800
35
40
50
750 750
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3
Entropy, Btu/Ib F
FIGURE 74.5 Mollier (entropyenthalpy) chart with a turbine steam expansion line (used energy) and isentropic
expansion line (available energy).

sia
5p
a
psi
241
IP
600
8994%
HP
8088%
FOSSIL
ENTHALPY
REHEAT
sia
ia
LP
0p
ps
20
9091%
00
10
M.S.
90%
SATURATION
HP LINE
82% LP 87%
LP
85%
NUCLEAR
NUCLEAR
STEAM
NON-REHEAT
REHEAT
ENTROPY
FIGURE 74.6 Mollier diagram with typical utility turbine expansion lines and efficiencies.
is usually the condenser pressure. This energy is referred to as the work term, Pu. The sum of the intrinsic
energy and the work energy is called enthalpy, H, which in equation form is:
Pu
H = C u T + (BTU / lbm) (74.1)
J
Both the intrinsic energy, CuT, and the work term, Pu, are determined by measuring P and T of the
gas at rest. The total energy of a moving fluid such as steam flowing through a turbine has an additional
kinetic energy term, V2/2gJ. Thus, the total energy is:
Pu V 2
Total Energy = C u T + + (BTU / lbm) (74.2)
J 2gJ
where P = pressure (lb/ft2) absolute; u = specific volume (ft3/lbm); Cu = specific heat at constant volume
(BTU/lbm/oF); T = absolute temperature (Tmeasured + 459.6o); J = mechanical equivalent of heat (778.26
ft-lbm/BTU); g = acceleration of gravity (32 ft/sec2); and V = velocity (ft/sec).
In a steam turbine system, the mass and energy are preserved, and in the turbine itself, most of the
steam enthalpy is converted to the kinetic energy of the moving steam by the blades and is then used to
generate mechanical work.
The efficiency of a steam turbine is defined as the actual work produced divided by the (theoretical)
work produced by an isentropic (constant entropy) expansion. An isentropic process is an idealized
process that represents the amount of available energy (enthalpy). The second law of thermodynamics,
however, states that the conversion of this thermal energy to useful work cannot be 100% efficient. In
practical use, it will be less than 100% because of the second law and because of flow, condensation,
mechanical, and electrical losses in the turbine generator itself.
Expressed mathematically (see Figure 74.5), the efficiency of a steam turbine is as follows:

Efficiency = Actual work / Work from isentropic expansion

(74.3)
= Used energy / Available energy
Figure 74.6 shows a Mollier (entropyenthalpy) chart in which the expansion of steam in a utility
reheat turbine and in reheat and nonreheat nuclear turbines are illustrated. The efficiency is a function
of the machine type, size, and design and the steam inlet and exhaust conditions.
Power output of a steam turbine is the mass flow of steam through the turbine multiplied by the
difference in enthalpy across the turbine, with the result converted to kilowatts or horsepower. The inlet
enthalpy is known from the steam conditions, whereas the exhaust enthalpy is a function of the efficiency
of the expansion and the exhaust pressure/vacuum. Expressed mathematically, the power output for a
simple nonextraction steam turbine would be as follows:
Power output (kW) = Steam flow (1b / h) ( H in - H out ) /3413 (74.4)
where Hin = enthalpy of steam at turbine inlet and Hout = enthalpy of steam at turbine outlet. The
calculation of power output for a steam turbine can be illustrated by a simple example.
4073170.M 1460.4 H MFlow-lb/hr

2400.0 PSIG 1000.0T P Pressure-psia
HEnthalpy - Btu/Ibm
TTemperature - F Degrees
3658482.M 1518.8 H
1389.1 H 150187.M
551.0 PIV 1000.0T 184.6 P 1389.1 H
179.1 P
290.0 P
3654599.M F.P.
1319.0 H 104505.M 13764.
1440.7 H 281.3 P KW
366077.M 3.00 150187.M
1319.0 H IN HG 1076.4 H
612.2 P 3183306.M
1389.1 H
248440.M
1389.1 H
4073170.M 184.6 P
470.7 H 69.9 P 4 45.0 P
485.1 T Flow
13.0 P L.P. 5.35 P
593.9 P
485.1 T
H7 121223.M 2634460.M
387.7H 1158.0 H
0 T.D. 408.7 T 12.7 P
10.0 D.C.
256635.M
366077.M 104505.M 1386.6 H
395.8 H 1440.7 H
418.7T UEEP1032.7 H
91922.M
272.9 P 1291.0 H 67.8 P 2.50 IN HG
408.7 T 207022.M 3345953.M
H6 1251.8 H 43.6 P
108.7 T
76.7 H
0 T.D. 128680.M
10.0 D.C. 1102.3 H
5.19 P
470582.M 357.3H
364.1 H 379.8T
389.8 T
263.3 H 293.8 T
234.6 H 265.7 T
125.4 H 157.5 T
166.1 H 198.1 T
77.7 H 109.7 T
65.8 P 42.3 P 12.3 P 5.03 P

298.8 T 270.7 T 203.1 T 162.5 T SPE
H4 H3 H2 H1
179.1 P 5.0 T.D. 5.0 T.D. 5.0 T.D. 5.0 T.D.
372.7 T
10.0 D.C. 10.0 D.C. 10.0 D.C. 10.0 D.C.
H5
91922.M 298943.M 420166.M 556107.M
0 T.D. 244.8 H 176.3 H 135.5 H 87.7 H
275.7 T 208.1 T 167.5 T 119.7T
FIGURE 74.7 Heat balance diagram for a utility fossil fuel drum boiler cycle. (Courtesy of ASME.)

Example
An industrial, condensing, nonextraction steam turbine with a throttle pressure of 400 psig and
500 F (Figure 74.5) and a steam flow of 100,000 1b/h exhausts to a condenser at 3.0 Hga. The
manufacturer states that the efficiency of this machine is 80.0%. Determine the power output of
this machine.
Solution
From steam tables and Figure 74.5:
Enthalpy of steam at 400 psig/500 F = 1243.2 Btu/lb (H1)

Entropy of steam at 400 psig/500 F = 1.5225 Btu/lb-oF (S1)

Enthalpy of steam at S1 and 3.0" HgA = 868.26 Btu/lb (H2S)
Exhaust enthalpy = [(H2S - H1) 0.80] + H1 = 943.23 Btu/lb (H2)
Power output = [100,000 lb/h (1243.2 - 943.23)]/3413 = 8789 kW
where 3413 is in Btu/kWh.

In this example, the enthalpy of the supply steam could be determined from pressure and temperature
measurements. The exhaust enthalpy, however, would not be known. The determination of enthalpy in
a two-phase region (where steam and moisture coexist) by pressure and temperature measurements will
only yield estimates of the actual enthalpy since the actual % moisture in the steam is not known. The
exhaust enthalpy, however, could be estimated by back-calculating, since the power output would be
measured during testing.
The above simplified example is based on a single-stage turbine with no steam extraction or induction.
All of the steam entering the turbine produces power and then leaves the turbine exhaust. In practice,
steam can be extracted from a turbine for the purposes of exporting steam to a process or improving
cycle efficiency by heating boiler feed water.
Frequently, turbine performance is expressed as turbine heat rate. The heat rate is defined as the number
of Btu that must be added to the working fluid (the steam) to generate one kWh of electrical power (Btu/
kWh). The heat rate is a function not only of the process conditions but also of the cycle design. In a
power station, the heat rate is affected by the number of feedwater heaters in the cycle, in addition to
steam pressure, temperature, exhaust pressure, steam flow, the type of unit (reheat versus nonreheat),
control valve position, and cycle losses.
Turbine heat rate is mathematically defined as
Heat input to working fluid / kW output (74.5)
Heat rate can also be expressed in terms of efficiency, as follows:
Heat rate = 3413 / (efficiency ) (74.6)
where efficiency is expressed as a decimal.

Two important but frequently misunderstood parameters are the expansion line end point (ELEP) and
the used energy end point (UEEP). The expansion line end point represents the turbine exhaust enthalpy
that would exist if there was no exhaust loss at the turbine exit. However, in practice, the expansion of
the steam from the low-pressure turbine into the condenser results in a loss that is a function of the velocity
through the turbine exhaust opening (exhaust hood). In the calculation of power output, the UEEP should
be used (not the ELEP) because the exhaust loss does not contribute to the generation of power.
Steam cycle efficiency is much lower than the turbine efficiency, ranging from about 20 to 46% (for
condensing cycles). The main loss is the exhaust loss where heat is removed by the condenser cooling
water [12].

Exhaust loss = UEEP - ELEP (Btu / lb) (74.7)
74.4 Controls and Instrumentation

Control of turbine operation includes speed (rpm) and load control for turbogenerators operating at
constant speed and speed and extraction and exhaust pressure control for industrial turbines where steam
is used in various processes. There are other controls of the auxiliary systems and the supervisory instru-
mentation monitoring the turbine conditions. The industry trend is for more automatic control; today, some
large power plants are fully automatic, having only one operator for the whole plant during normal operation.
Small-turbine needs in controls and instruments represent a minimum: speed governor, overspeed
trip, throttle-pressure gage, throttle thermometer, exhaust-pressure gage, and tachometer. Where the
turbine controls or affects exhaust-header pressure, its speed governor includes an exhaust-pressure
regulator to adjust the governor control.
The list of requisite equipment grows with turbine capacity and rising steam conditions. As an example,
the controls needed by some reheat turbines for automatic operation are shown in Figure 74.8. Shaft
speed is one of the most important variables in running a turbine. Governing systems control speed in
turbines large and small.
Speed governors are used to measure shaft speed and adjust the control/governor-valve openings to
pass the needed steam flow to keep speed within governors regulation range. To hold exact speed, speed-
changer spring or bellows tension must be adjusted manually or by an automatic frequency-measuring
device. When generators work in parallel, the speed changers are used to divide the total load between
the turbines on the line. Governors can use a flyweight (see Figure 74.9) or hydraulic pump connected
to the turbine shaft to sense its rotation.
A load-limiting meter overrides the speed governor to hold maximum load at any point the operator
wants. The limiter controls steam flow during startup by setting governor valves as needed.
Stop and Control Valves

Valves control the flow of steam through a turbine. Stop valves are provided on the turbine to admit
steam during normal operation or to shut off the steam very quickly in the event of an emergency. This
function is often performed by a throttle-stop (also stop-throttle) valve, which controls steam flow to all
inlet nozzles during turbine warmup and is fully open during load operation. These valves are normally
fully opened or closed. The control or governing valves are located in the steam chest at the turbine
Main MS
steam DS
BD Gland blowdown valve
4 5 CV RD RD CV Turbine control valves
7 DS Desuperheating spray valve
MS Main steam stop valve
1 10 6 NR Extraction nonreturn valve
H-p I-p L-p RD Relief diaphragm
2 turb turb RI Reheat intercept valves
turb RS Reheat stop valves
3 9 NR NR 1 Speed governor
BD
8 RI 2 Overspeed governor
3 Pre-emergency governor
4 Load-limiting meter
NR 5 Initial-pressure regulator
6 Low-vacuum trip
RS 7 Control-valve position meter
Condenser
8 Solenoid trip; hand or relay
Reheater 9 Low bearing-oil-pressure trip
10 Thrust-position trip
FIGURE 74.8 Elements of the automatic load control. (Courtesy of Power Magazine.)

R R Speeder Weights Weights

spring in out
Flyweight centrifugal force, F

102
Speed, %
Speeder-
Fly- spring scale 101
weights 100
A 99
98
Turbine-
shaft B
Speeder worm
rod gear Dead band
Governor
travel
In Governor travel Out

F = MR (rpm)2
FIGURE 74.9 Flyweight governor balances the force of springs and rotating weights and moves speeder rod which
is connected to a control valve. (Courtesy of Power Magazine.)
inlet and control the flow of steam to the turbine. On larger units, multiple control valves are used to
provide better efficiency over the load range. Figure 74.8 shows locations of the valves at the turbine
steam inlet. The turbine control valves can be operated in either a full arc admission or partial arc
admission mode. In full arc admission, all of the control valves are opened simultaneously, with the stop
valve used to control flow. In this mode of operation, there is more even heating of the turbine rotor
and casing. In partial arc admission, one control valve is opened at a time (sequentially). The turbine is
not as evenly heated; but the efficiency of the turbine is better, since valve-throttling losses are reduced.
The valves should be periodically exercised to ensure their reliable operation and prevent turbine over-
speed and possible destruction.
Other Valves
For control of the steam extractions, extraction valves internal to the turbine or on the extraction piping
are used. In large turbine piping, reheat intercept valves may be used to prevent turbine overspeed in
case of turbine trip.
Supervisory Instruments
A supervisory instrument system monitors several operating variables on a steam turbine. It uses sensing
elements or detectors, mounted on the turbine, which transmit electrical or fiber optic signals to remote
recording and/or indicating instruments. Measured variables generally include turbine-shaft vibration,
shaft eccentricity, shell expansion, differential expansion, control-valve position, turbine speed, and
various turbine-metal temperatures. An example of the supervisory instrumentation for a utility turbine
is given in Figure 74.10.
74.5 Electric Generators [2125]

The electric generator (see Figure 74.11) is a rotating machine that converts the mechanical work of the
turbine into electrical power. This conversion is accomplished by inducing an electromotive force by the
relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field. The stationary part of a generator is called a
stator or armature. The moving part is called a rotor or field. In order to create the magnetic field, an
exciter, which is a separate rotating machine on the same shaft as the generator, provides the DC electricity
to magnetize the rotor. The frequency of the AC voltage generated by a synchronous generator is
proportional to the speed of the rotor in revolutions per unit time. A two-pole synchronous generator
for a nonnuclear-type power plant must revolve at 3600 rpm to generate a 60-Hz voltage, as the following
equation illustrates:

4 10
1 Spindle-eccentricity meter
1 2 2 2 7
2 Shaft-vibration meter 7
3 Spindle-position meter H-p I-p L-p
4 Casing-expansion meter turb turb turb
5 Differential-expansion meter
6 Speed and governor-valve- 13
8 3 7 13 13 13
position recorder
7 Bearing-oil pressure, temperature, 13 11
11
sight-flow glass, temperature alarm 5 9 12
12
8 Tachometer
9 Steam pressure, temperature, flow
10 Nozzle-group pressures
11 Extraction-steam pressure,
temperature
12 Exhaust-hood pressure, Condenser
temperature 9
13 Gland-steam pressure, temperature
Reheater
FIGURE 74.10 Typical supervisory instrumentation for a utility turbine. (Courtesy of Power Magazine.)
FIGURE 74.11 Schematic of an electric generator: 1, rotor; 2, retaining rings; 3, stator core; 4, stator bars; 5, fan;
6, hydrogen coolers; 7, head tank for cooling water. (Courtesy of Alstom.)
f = (P /2) (N /60) (74.8)
where f = frequency in Hz, P = the number of magnetic poles, and N = the speed of the rotor in rpm.
A nuclear turbine operating at 1800 rpm would require a four-pole generator to generate 60 Hz. Standard
voltages range from 550 to 20,000 volts.
Generator Cooling
Generators must be cooled to remove the heat produced by the windings.
Stator-Winding Cooling Liquid flow through individual strands of the stator bar has been the
method used to cool stators on large generators since the mid-1950s. Low-conductivity demineralized

water, the coolant used today, is supplied to the stator winding by an external pumping and cooling
system. This closed system is designed to operate as an independent subloop in the turbine/generator
control system. The generator is protected from loss of coolant flow and high coolant temperature by a
load runback circuit, or a time-delayed trip circuit, depending on the load-following capability of the
steam-supply system.
Rotor Cooling For years, all large turbine/generators have been designed to operate in a hydrogen
atmosphere, to capitalize on the improved cooling capability of hydrogen compared to air. A gas-control
system performs the dual function of supplying hydrogen to the generator to maintain proper coolant
operating pressure and carbon dioxide during hydrogen purging and filling operations. This system
consists of regulators and controls for supplying the hydrogen and carbon dioxide and a control cabinet
with the instruments necessary for monitoring generator gas pressure, purity, and temperature. Shaft oil
seals and associated control equipment prevent hydrogen from leaking out of the generators. Some smaller
turbine generators use air instead of hydrogen for rotor cooling.
74.6 Turbine Generator Auxiliaries

Many auxiliary systems that are required for operation are provided with a steam turbine generator.
Some of the major auxiliary systems are briefly discussed below.
Steam Seals
At locations where the steam turbine shaft penetrates the casing(s), a steam seal system is used to prevent
steam from leaking out of the seals which are above atmospheric pressure and air leaking into the LP
turbine seals which are below atmospheric pressure. For medium and large turbines, labyrinth seals are
used. For smaller turbines, shaft sealing can be accomplished by graphite ring seals. Labyrinth seals are
noncontact seals between the turbine casing and rotor where ridges or strips are used to reduce steam
leakage by multiple pressure drops through the seal.
A steam seal system uses steam leak-off from the high and intermediate seals during operation to seal
the low-pressure seals. When the turbine is on-line, the machine is said to be self-sealing. When the
turbine is being brought on-line, a separate source of steam is used to seal the turbine prior to establishing
a condenser vacuum. Figure 74.12 shows the typical flow pattern for a labyrinth steam seal system on a
unit startup and during normal operation.
Internal seals that force most of the steam to flow through the blade path are also noncontact seals
using similar principles as the labyrinth seals. Some use removable seal strips which are refurbished
during turbine overhauls.
Turning Gear
During periods when the turbine is shut down and prior to startup, the hot rotor must be rotated to
prevent bowing of the rotor shaft. This action is taken to prevent excessive vibration on startup and
possible bearing damage and is usually accomplished with a motor-driven device operating at 3 to 5 rpm.
Lube Oil System

The turbine generator must be provided with an oil lubrication system for the bearings. The lubrication
system consists of a number of shaft-driven and electric motor-driven pumps, filters, oil coolers, and an
oil reservoir. The shaft-driven pump is used when the turbine is above 90% of rated speed. Below this
speed, AC or DC motor-driven pumps are used. The high-pressure control oil system, which operates
the control and stop valves and turbine governor, is supplied from the lube oil system. Bearing oil
temperature is maintained at ~120oF at the inlet to the bearings. The bearings are supported in pedestals
(metal boxes), from which the oil drains back into the oil reservoir.

L.P. TURBINE GLAND H.P. OR I.P. TURBINE GLAND
ATMOS L.P. EXN. I.P. EXN. ATMOS

14.7 PSIA 14.6 PSIA 1719 PSIA VACUUM VACUUM 1719 PSIA 14.6 PSIA 14.7 PSIA
STEAM
FROM GLAND
SEALING SYSTEM
TURBINE ROTOR
L.P. H.P. HEADER HP/IP
L.P. HEADER
DURING START UP
TO GLAND STEAM CONDENSER
ATMOS. L.P. EXN. I.P. EXN. ATMOS.

14.7 PSIA 14.6 PSIA 1719 PSIA VACUUM OVER 20 PSIA 1719 PSIA 14.6 PSIA 14.7 PSIA
OVERFLOW TO
GLAND SEALING SYSTEM HP/IP
L.P.
H.P. HEADER
L.P. HEADER
NORMAL OPERATION
TO GLAND STEAM CONDENSER
FIGURE 74.12 Typical flow pattern for a labyrinth steam seal system on a unit startup and during normal operation.
Hydraulic Fluid System

In modern turbines, the electro-hydraulic control system (EHC) uses hydraulic fluid for valve actuators.
The EHC fluid system powers the hydraulic actuator at each steam valve. A fire resistant phosphate-ester
fluid is usually used to minimize the fire hazard in case of a leak. The hydraulic fluid is also used in the
emergency overspeed trip system.
Water Induction Protection

It is possible to induct water into the turbine from cold piping during a unit startup, an extraction line,
the boiler, or a desuperheater. Water induction or water hammer incidents are more likely to occur
during unit trips or load changes. The dense water, in comparison to the steam, can cause considerable
damage to the blades, and the cold water in contact with hot turbine metal can cause cracking of metal
or rubbing between moving and stationary parts due to differential expansion.
The ASME has developed a standard that should be followed when designing systems associated with
a steam turbine. ASME TDP-1 provides design details on how to prevent water induction. Although the
standard applies mainly to steam turbine generators, the guidelines are also applicable to mechanical
drive turbines.
74.7 Steam Turbine Problems [17, 11, 1519]

Turbines and their attached equipment are typically designed for a 30-year service, but many steam
generating units in the United States are over 40 years old. The maintenance period for turbine disas-
sembly, inspection, and major maintenance has now been extended up to 10 years, and up to 20-year
warranties, during which there should not be any major damage, are being offered. Problems occur by
wear, corrosion, erosion, cavitation, fatigue, and creep at high temperatures due to normal operation
and operating errors. The main impact occurs when the turbine component damage results in an
unexpected forced outages. About 90% of the cost of forced outages is the cost of lost production and
replacement power; it can be up to $1 million/day. Table 74.2 lists the major problems.

TABLE 74.2 Turbine Corrosion, Erosion, and Deposition Problems

Cost per
Damage Inspection and Possible Safety Eventd
Problem Mechanismsa Root Causesb Detectionc Issues ($ millions)
Disc/blade attachment cracking SCC, cf. P D, CH UI, V, MP Turbine wreck 1 to 20

Disc bore cracking SCC, P D, M UI Turbine wreck 2 to 20
Blade airfoil cracking CF, P, WE D, CH V, VSA Penetration of 0.1 to 2
casing
Blade root cracking CF, SCC, P D, CH V, UI Penetration of 0.2 to 2
casing
Blade airfoil and valve erosion SPE D, O of boiler CM, V None 0.5 to 3
Blade airfoil damage FOD Cleanliness, M V, CM None 0.1
Stationary blade cracking CF, P D, O V, DP None Low
HP/IP turbine rotor cracking LCF, CR D, O, H, M UI, MP Turbine wreck 2 to 30
Rotor cracking CF, F, P D, O MP, VSA Turbine wreck 2 to 10
High temperature steam Pipe Creep, LCF, D, O UI, MP, MET Failure 1 to 20
cracking graphitization
LP Casing weld cracking SCC D, M V, DP, UI, MP None Low
Casing and extraction piping FAC D, CH V, UI Steam leak 0.1 to 1
Cross-over pipe, expansion SCC D, CH V, UI, leak Steam leak 0.1 to 2
bellows
Bearing wear Wear, F Dirty oil, O Vibration, V, None 0.1 to 2
temperature
Thrust bearing wear Wear CH deposits V, rotor position Turbine wreck Up to 10
on blades
Loss of MW and efficiency Deposits, P, FOD, CH, D, O, A V, performance None Up to 2/year
WE, SPE monitoring
Destructive overspeed Fracture O, CH Not Applicable Turbine wreck Up to 200
Turbine rubbing Wear O, CH Vibration None 0.2 to 5
a cf., corrosion fatigue; F, fatigue; SCC, stress corrosion cracking; P, pitting; FAC, flow-accelerated corrosion; LCF, low cycle
fatigue; LCCF, low cycle corrosion fatigue; WE, water droplet erosion; FOD, foreign object damage; SPE, solid particle
erosion; CR, creep.
b D, design and material selection; CH, chemistry; O, operation; A, age; M, manufacturing and maintenance; CM, condition
monitoring; MET, metallography.

c V, visual; UI, ultrasonic inspection; MP, magnetic particle; EC, eddy current; DP, dye penetrant; VSA, vibration signature
analysis.
d Lost production and repairs per one event. The cost of lost production is typically much higher than the loss from repairs
with a ratio of up to 10:1.
74.8 Steam Chemistry and Turbine Corrosion [11, 12, 1519]

Chemical composition of turbine steam is important for prevention of turbine deposits, which could
lower turbine efficiency and MW generating capacity and cause corrosion. Maintaining steam purity is
often neglected. It is one of the main functions of boiler design and operation and steam cycle water
purification to produce steam of the desired purity, which is determined by the turbine steam conditions.
For superheated steam turbines, the concentrations of steam impurities, such as salts, hydroxides, silica,
and metal oxides, should be in the low part per billion, ppb range (1 ppb is 109 by weight). For turbines
using saturated and wet steam, the concentration can be higher.
When the concentration of a specific impurity in superheated steam exceeds its solubility, the impurity
precipitates and deposits having generally harmful effects. The solubility of steam impurities decreases
as the steam expands and is the lowest at the lowest pressure turbine stages before condensation occurs.
For a utility reheat turbine, solubility of NaCl and NaOH at this point is about 5 ppb and solubility of
silica about 20 ppb. Salts, acids, and hydroxides, which concentrate by deposition on steam turbine
surfaces, are hygroscopic, particularly near the saturation line, and form concentrated aqueous solutions
that can be very corrosive. In the lower-pressure turbines, NaCl can concentrate from low ppb in

Steam Expansion Line

1018 to 20 Molecular Seeds/kg
NaOH + xH2O
Caustic Stress Dry Salt

Corrosion Carcking
Salt Zone Nucleation on molecular seeds
Pitting, Corrosion - Some disc and blade surfaces
Fatigue, Stress Re-evaporation on hot surfaces due to
Corrosion Cracking heat transfer and flow stagnation
Enthalpy
Flow
-Acc 28% NaCI solution
eler NaCI +8H2O
ated
Cor Satu
Hot rosio ration
par n Line
Condensation ticle Re-evaporation
s
Shock? Tran
Re-e Shosonic Wilson Zone??
vapock
ratio 6%
n
8%
Wa
t er D 10%
roplet
Erosio 12%
n
Entropy
FIGURE 74.13 Mollier diagram with the LP steam turbine expansion line and regions of steam impurity concen-
tration and corrosion.
superheated steam up to 28% solution in the so-called salt zone. Behavior of typical steam impurities
in steam turbines is illustrated in the Mollier diagram shown in Figure 74.13.
Defining Terms
Blade Stage The combination of one stationary and one rotating row of blades.
Buckets Turbine blades.
Condensing turbine Any turbine with an exhaust below atmospheric pressure. Turbine exhaust steam
contains moisture droplets.
ELEP Expansion line end point; enthalpy of exhaust steam if the exhaust loss at the turbine exit is
neglected.
Enthalpy A measure of the internally stored energy; the ability of a substance to provide useful work
from energy, expressed in Btu/lb-F.
Entropy A measure of the ability of steam to give up heat to produce work. As the entropy of steam
increases, the ability of the steam to do work decreases.
Feedwater heater A heat exchanger that uses extraction steam to heat feedwater and condensate in a
power station.
Governor Regulates the turbine speed.
Heat balance diagram Diagram that shows the temperature, pressure, enthalpy, and flow of all
streams in the cycle.
Impulse blades Blades that use the force of the steam impacting on the blades or buckets to rotate
the turbine.
Mechanical drive turbine A steam turbine connected to a pump, fan, or a similar device to provide
motive power.
Mollier diagram Entropyenthalpy diagram, usually used for steam turbines because it conveniently
shows the steam expansion lines and all parameters needed for efficiency and blade stage
evaluations.
Noncondensing or back-pressure turbine Any turbine with an exhaust above atmospheric pressure.
Reaction blade Blades that use the force generated by the velocity in the stages to rotate the turbine.
Steam chemistry The concentration of contaminants or additives in steam and resulting chemical
characteristics of deposits and water droplets [11, 12, 1419].
Steam purity The concentration of contaminants or additives in steam.
Steam quality Percent of saturated steam by weight in a steam/water mixture. Sometimes imporperly
used for chemical purity and water and steam chemistry.

Steam tables Properties of steam (pressure, temperature, volume, enthalpy, entropy, etc.) shown in
tabular or electronic form [13].
Steam turbine A rotary engine that converts thermal energy to useful mechanical work by the impulse
or reaction of steam.
Superheated, saturated, and wet steam Terms describing the amount of liquid water in the steam.
Turbine-generator A steam turbine connected to an electrical generator to produce electric power.
Also, turbogenerator.
Turbine rotor Shaft to which the rotating blades are attached.
UEEP Used energy end point; enthalpy of steam at the turbine exhaust.
Water induction The admission of water into a steam turbine.
References
1. Stodola, A. 1945. Steam and Gas Turbines, Peter Smith, New York.
2. Scegljajev, A. V. 1983. Parni Turbiny (Steam Turbines), SNTL, Prague.
3. Sanders, W. 2002. Turbine Steam Path Damage and Maintenance (Volumes I and II), Pennwell,
Tulsa, OK.
4. Cotton, K. 1993. Evaluating and Improving Steam Turbine Performance, Cotton Fact, Rexford, NY.
5. Main Turbine Performance Upgrade Guideline, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: January 1997. TR-106230.
6. Salisbury, J. 1974. Steam Turbines and Their Cycles, Kreiger, Huntington, NY.
7. Turbine Steam Path Damage: Theory and Practice, EPRI. Palo Alto, CA: June 1998. AP-108943.
8. El-Wakil, E., 1984. Power Plant Technology, McGraw-Hill, New York.
9. Stultz, S. and Kitto, J. eds. 1992. Steam: Its Generation and Use, Babcock & Wilcox, Barberton, OH.
10. Singer, J. 1981. Combustion Fossil Power Systems, Combustion Engineering, Inc. Windsor, CT.
11. ASME. 1989. The ASME Handbook on Water Technology for Thermal Power Systems, ASME, New York.
12. O. Jonas. 1983. Steam. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Vol. 21, 3rd Edition. John
Wiley & Sons, New York.
13. ASME. 2000. ASME International Steam Tables for Industrial Use, ASME, New York.
14. Moisture Nucleation in Steam Turbines. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: October 1997. TR-108942.
15. Jonas, O. Steam Turbine Efficiency and Corrosion: Effects of Surface Finish, Deposits, and Moisture.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: October 2001. Report 1003997.
16. Jonas, O. 1985. Steam Turbine Corrosion. Materials Performance, 24(2):918.
17. Turbine Steam, Chemistry and Corrosion: Experimental Turbine Tests. EPRI. Palo Alto, CA: June
1997. TR-108185.
18. Jonas, O. and Dooley, B. 1997. Major turbine problems related to steam chemistry: R&D, root
causes, and solutions. Proceedings: Fifth International Conference on Cycle Chemistry in Fossil Plants.
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA. TR-108459.
19. Jonas, O. 1994. On-Line Diagnosis of Turbine Deposits and First Condensate, 55th Annu. Int.
Water Conf., Pittsburgh, PA, 1994.
20. Review of Corrosion Resistant Coatings for Steam Turbine Components. EPRI. Palo Alto, CA:
November 1981. CS-2124.
21. Kaiser, J. 1991. Electrical Power: Motors, Controls, Generators, Transformers, Goodheart-Willcox,
Tinley Park, IL.
22. Belove, C. 1986. Handbook of Modern Electronics and Electrical Engineering, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. New York.
23. Generator Cooling System Operating Guidelines: Cooling System Maintenance and Performance
Guidelines During Start-Up, Operation, and Shutdown Prevention of Flow Restrictions in Gener-
ator Stator Water Cooling Circuits. EPRI. Palo Alto, CA. December 2001. TR-1004004.
24. Svoboda, R. and Jonas, O. 2003. Electric Generators. Low Temperature Corrosion Problems in Fossil
Power Plants: State of Knowledge Report. EPRI. Palo Alto, CA.

25. Scarlin, R. et al. 1984. Environment induced cracking of generator rotor retaining rings, In Cor-
rosion in Power Generating Equipment, Speidel, M. and Atrens, A., Eds., Plenum Press, New York.
Further Information
Elliott, T. C. 1989. Standard Handbook of Powerplant Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Potter, P. J. 1959. Power Plant Theory And Design, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) provides standards and codes for design and
testing, organizes conference and research
ASME Performance Test Codes: PTC6, Steam Turbines (1996), PTC20.1, Speed and Load Governing
Systems for Steam Turbine-Generator Units (1988), PTC20.3, Pressure Control Systems Used on
Steam Turbine-Generator Units (1986), PTC20.2, Overspeed Trip Systems for Steam Turbine
Generator Units, (1986), PTC19.11, Water and Steam in the Power Cycle (1974).
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI): Numerous reports on corrosion, design, maintenance, etc.
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) publishes material and testing standards, orga-
nizes conferences.
ASM International (American Society of Materials) publishes magazines and handbooks, organizes
conferences.
NACE International (National Association of Corrosion Engineers) publishes magazines and hand-
books, organizes conferences.
IAPWS (International Association for Properties of Water and Steam) compiles thermodynamic and
transport properties of water and steam (steam tables) and properties of chemical solutions relevant
to steam generation, organizes periodic conferences, recommends research.
pc-GAR (Generating Availability Report, Statistical Data 1982-2000). North American Electric Reliability
Council (NERC). 2002. Updated annually.

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74.1 Design of Steam Turbines

74.1 Design of Steam Turbines [113]

2005 by CRC Press LLC

74-2 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

Nozzle Crossover piping

2005 by CRC Press LLC