INTRODUCTION

Steam boilers are devices in which water is boiled to produce steam. The heat needed to
heat and vaporize the water can be supplied by a home, by hot gases recovered at the
outlet of another industrial apparatus (eg furnace), by the cooling fluid of an atomic cell,
by solar irradiation or by a current electric. When heat is supplied by hot liquid or by
condensing steam, other names, such as vaporizer and vapor transformer, are often used.
The synonym generator of steam is preferably used when speaking of boilers of a
certain importance. If the boiler itself is connected to others, some of which heat the
water (water heaters, economizers) or the combustion air (air preheater), and others
reheat the steam (reheaters), is often called the set evaporator group , and the part of the
group in which the evaporation takes place is called the vaporizer or vaporizer beam.
Devices which remove their vapor from the cooling fluid of a nuclear reactor (atomic
cell), although they are true evaporators or boilers in the broad sense of the word, are
usually called exchangers. During operation, the boiler itself is internally subjected to
the equilibrium pressure of the water and its vapor at the reached temperature. The other
elements of the group traveled by water or steam, from the feed pump (economiser,
reheater), are subjected to almost the same pressure, but the temperature of the fluid
may be lower or higher than boiling.
Theoretical framework
A boiler is a device that is designed to generate saturated steam. This saturated vapor is
generated through a transfer of energy (in the form of heat) in which the fluid, originally
in a liquid state, heats up and changes its state. The heat transfer is carried out by a
combustion process that occurs inside the boiler, progressively raising its pressure and
temperature. The pressure, as indicated at the outset, can not increase inordinately, since
it must remain constant so it is controlled by the exhaust of combustion gases, and the
output of the steam formed.
Because the steam pressure generated inside the boilers is very large, they are made
from highly resistant metals at high pressures, such as rolled steel.
The boilers are classified by their design in pyrotubular or aquatubular. However, they
can be classified from other aspects, which include, by the type of materials they are
built, by their application, by the way of air intake, by the type of fuel they use, by the
pressure with which they operate or by the heat-carrying fluid they employ.
HEATING PROCESS EQUIPMENT

One or more cauldrons provide the steam needed to use it in the machines and
equipment of the plant in the heating process. Combustion always produces
waste material such as soot, ash, smoke.
Steam traps are devices that are placed after a computer to separate the wet
steam from the saturated steam. This hot water is called condensate and it
returns to the cauldron.

SATURATED VAPOR HEATING WAYS

a) Direct steam:
Direct injection of the vapor to the material. It is used in places where
condensate is not a problem.
b) Indirect steam:
It is made by jackets, coils interchangers.
It transmits heat through the walls of the vessel to the fluid walls, machines.
The steam and the condensate do not come into contact with the material to be
heated.

SATURATED VAPOR APPLICATIONS

The water vapor generated by a cauldron has multiple applications, depending

on its pressure, temperature and flow are:
1. Heating machinery and process equipment.
2. Generation of mechanical power by steam engines.
3. Generation of mechanical power by turbines.
4. Generation of electrical energy by turbines.
5. Other minor uses.

CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS

They are classified according to various criteria, related to the arrangement of

fluids and their circulation, the dominant heat transfer mechanism, structural
aspects, mode of heat exchange, the form of the fuel burn, form of water supply
and many other factors .
Based on some of these criteria the boilers can be classified in:
Classification according to the flow of fluids inside the boiler tubes:
 a) Humotubular boilers:

In these boilers are the fumes that circulate inside tubes, while the water heats
up and evaporates on the outside of them. All this system is contained within a
large cylinder that wraps around the pressure body.
The fumes leave the boiler at temperatures above 70 C in order to avoid the
condensation of the water vapor they contain, thus avoiding problems of acid
formation and corrosion of the boiler. When evacuating the hot fumes, energy
losses occur with the consequent lowering of the performance of the boiler. The
smoke box (smoke collector) is the part of the boiler where combustion gases
converge in their final path, which through a connecting section lead to the
chimney.

b) Water-tube boilers:

Inside pipes the water circulates and the mixture of water

and steam. On the outside, generally in cross flow, heat
exchanges the fumes products of the combustion. In this
type of boilers also the home (enclosure where the
combustion takes place) is formed by walls of water pipes.
In them the exchange is basically by radiation from the
flame.
In this type of boilers is the water or thermal fluid to be
heated, is the one that circulates inside the tubes that
make up the combustion chamber and that are immersed
between the gases or flames produced by the combustion.
Steam or hot water is generated inside these tubes.
There are two types of groups of tubes of rise and fall that
communicate with each other in two domes.
c) Fire-tube boilers:

In this type of boiler the hot smoke from the hearth circulates inside the gas
tubes, changing direction in their path, until leaving through the chimney.
The heat released in the combustion process is transferred through the walls of
the tubes to the water surrounding them, the entire assembly being enclosed
within a suitably heat-sealed shell or shell.
Through this route, the smoke, give much of its heat to the water, vaporizing
part of this water and accumulating in the upper body in the form of saturated
vapor. This partial vaporization of the water causes the
increase of the pressure inside the vessel and its
visualization in the manometer.
Its overall expected performance over its useful life does not
exceed 65% at best. This type of generators, because of
their design do not allow high working pressures, beyond the
two or three atmospheres; are of simple construction and
have a moderate exchange surface, so they are not used for
high steam production. They are in compensation, very
economical in cost and simple installation, reason why its
current main use is for heating and production of steam for
industrial uses.

Classification according to the working pressure of the boiler

a) Low pressure boilers:
Boilers that produce steam at low pressure, up to about 4 or 5 kg / cm2.
This range of pressures is more common in hot water boilers than in boilers
that generate steam.

(b) Medium pressure boilers

They produce steam up to about 20 kg / cm2.
Generally saturated steam, used in the industry in general.

c) High pressure boilers

Associated with power cycles, they work with pressures of 20 kg / cm2 to near-
critical pressures.

d) Supercritical boilers.
They are boilers that work with pressures superior to the critic:
225.56%, 374.15 C. Used in large power generation plants in the US and in
some European countries.
Classification according to the production of steam
a) Boilers girls
They produce up to 1 or 2 tons of saturated steam per hour.

b) Medium boilers
Produces up to approximately 20 tons of steam per hour.
The small and medium-sized boilers are mostly low and medium pressure
humotubular boilers.

c) Large boilers
Boilers that produce from 20 tons of steam per hour, being normal to find
productions of 500 and 600 tons per hour. Generally superheated steam,
being aquotubular boilers.

Classification according to the fuel used

a) Liquid fuel boilers

Steam Generators of all types and sizes are made using liquid fuels.
They require storage facilities and service tanks, fuel preheating elements and
pumping and transport systems.
The viscosity of these fuels varies from 30-40 cSt (100 C) in low viscosity fuels
up to 700 cSt (100 C) and more for high viscosity fuels, such as those used in
power generation systems.
In industrial plants in general, viscosity fuels of the order of 380-450 cSt (100
C) are used. It is normal to have to preheat them to 30 - 40C to reduce their
viscosity and to be able to pump them to the burners.
For a good atomization of the fuel in burners that do not use vapor to atomize a
viscosity of 25 to 30 cSt (100C) is required, and using vapor atomization can
be used viscosities between 55 and 70 cSt (100C), therefore it is necessary
Preheat the fuel to temperatures from 80 to 130 C in the burner.
In large units it is common to start with a low viscosity fuel and then move to a
more viscous one.
Burners using liquid fuels are usually installed horizontally. There are some kind
of adjustable angle burners to be able to vary the radiation exchange in the
home.
The turbulence of the air entering the burner is important in order to obtain a
correct combustion and a suitable length of flame, so that it does not damage
the walls of refractory or the walls of water pipes and at the same time ensures
a complete combustion of all the drops of fuel. For this it is fundamental the
correct dimensioning of the size of the home.
b) Gaseous fuel boilers

They use both natural gas and LPG, propane air or gas obtained from gasifiers.
Generally gas burners operate at very low pressure, so it is common for them to
have significant pressure reduction systems.
In the case of having a gasifier that supplies a very particulate gas, torsional
chambers are used in order to increase the residence time of the fuel in the
home.
It is important to achieve a good air-gas mixture.
With gaseous fuels the risk of explosions due to accumulation of unburned fuel
is great, so it is extremely important to provide adequate safety measures. The
position of the gas burners is similar to that of those using liquid fuels.
It is common to use dual burners, which allow the use of one or another fuel,
depending on their availability and cost. The emissivity of the flames of these
fuels is different, so the exchange by radiation will be different according to the
fuel used. The same is true of the temperature of the fumes at the exit of the
home and the conditions of exchange in the convective zones of the boiler.
They are factors that must be taken into account, since they modify the results
obtained in the equipment. In any case, fuel oil and natural gas are the most
easily interchangeable fuels.

c) Boilers for solid fuels

The solid fuels used are very varied: firewood in all sizes (rolls, chips, chips),
production wastes (wood pellets, sawdust, sugar cane bagasse, rice husks),
coal (in different spray grades) , etc.
Each one will require an appropriate technology to be able to burn them in the
best way, from mills to pulverize them finely to very sophisticated grids.
The design of the home for these fuels is extremely complex, having to consider
the intake of sufficient air and its correct mixture with the fuel, the permanence
of the particles in the home to burn completely and the disposal of the ashes
among other factors.
In general, households with a larger volume than those used in liquid and
gaseous fuel lime are.
The pulverized, finely ground fuels are injected into the home using appropriate
nozzles. There is some kind of fuel that is burned in a fluidized bed, regulated
by the entrance of air to different heights of the home. (This system is also used
in recovery boilers of the pulp industry). In the case of nonpulvurrent fuels the
design of the grids that support them during combustion is of fundamental
importance.
In developed countries, boilers are used to burn municipal solid waste.
Classification according to the circulation of the water inside the
boiler
It is a classification that makes sense in the aquotubular boilers, in the
humotubular the circulation of the water in the interior is always by natural
convection.

a) Natural circulation.

The circulation of water and water-vapor mixture occurs

naturally due to the difference in densities between the
colder water and the water-vapor mixture (siphon effect).
It implies having a closed circuit through which the water
circulates and an appreciable height difference between
the high and low parts of the equipment.
Small generators, medium-sized generators and a large
proportion of large steam generators are naturally circulating.

b) Circulation assisted.

In this case the natural circulation in the boiler tubes is

complemented by pumps installed in the circuit.
In this case also the boiler consists of a closed circuit, but
allows more compact constructions even with inclined
tubes.
It is used in those cases where the difference between the
densities of the cold and hot fluids is not too great,
typically for pressures greater than 140-160 bar.
They provide a faster response to variations in steam
demand than natural circulation, but pumps work with hot
water and high pressure, are more expensive and require
significant maintenance. In general, a backup system must be installed to avoid
stopping the entire boiler by operating the pump.
c) Forced circulation.

This type of boilers has a different conception, it is an open and not closed
circuit.
The pump pushes the water through a first exchange surface where it is
preheated, then goes to a second exchanger where it vaporizes and then, in
some cases, passes to a third exchanger where it is overheated.
Unlike the previous ones there is not a mass of water circulating without
vaporizing, the pump delivers all the water that is vaporized. It is not necessary
to emphasize the importance of the pump in this design, a stop of the pump
implies a stop of the boiler.

Classification according to heat exchange.

It is necessary to clarify previously that it is not a strict classification, it refers to
the type of predominant exchange that occurs in the surfaces of vaporization
(excludes the exchanges in the surfaces of recovery: preheaters and
superheaters). In all boilers have exchanges by radiation and convection, hardly
find one of these types.
In the home the exchange is predominantly by radiation from the flame, but
there are areas where it can produce convection exchange from the flue (eg in
the last part of the home of a humotubular boiler). Also in the other exchange
surfaces (convection banks and smoke pipes), in addition to the convective
exchange we can have radiation from the gases at high temperature.

a) Radiating, or total radiation.

They are those boilers that only have home, and there practically all the heat is
exchanged by radiation.
In general they are large aquotubular boilers, where the tubes where the steam
is generated form the walls of the home. The high temperatures in the
combustion cause a very important exchange of heat by radiation. In addition,
these boilers work at elevated pressures, so the required vaporization heat is
relatively low, and when using preheated feed water to temperatures very close
to that of saturation, the walls of household pipes are sufficient to transfer all the
heat of vaporization required.
b) Convectives.

Typically HRSG (Heath Recovery Steam Generator) boilers, without

combustion chamber. They use a hot fluid as a source of heat, the product of
some previous process (smelting furnaces, glass furnaces, gas turbines, diesel
engines, etc.)

c) Indirect heating.

They are boilers of thermal fluids in which an intermediate fluid, typically an oil,
is heated, and this is the one that, when circulating through an exchanger,
generates water vapor. The fluid is again recirculated towards the boiler.

Main parts of a boiler

At this point, only those general relevant parts of the design of the boilers will be
discussed.
Because each boiler has, depending on the type, characteristic parts, it is very
difficult to attribute to them all a certain component. Due to the above, the main
parts of the boilers will be analyzed in general, specifying in each case the type
of boiler that has that element.

Home or the fire

It is the space where the fuel is burned. It is also known as the "Combustion
Chamber". Households can be classified into:

a) Depending on your location

Exterior home.
Home interior.

b) According to fuel type.

Solid fuel home.

Home for liquid fuel.
Home for gaseous fuel.

c) According to its construction.

Smooth home.
Corrugated home.
Boiler exterior for Boiler interior interior for fuel Solid.Liquid, corrugated hearth.

This classification applies only when the boiler house consists of one or more
tubes, which are called "TUBO HOGAR".

HOME DOOR
It is a metal piece, hinged, generally coated inside with refractory or double wall,
where the fuel is dumped into the home and fire control operations are done.

GRILLS (or grating).

They are metallic pieces in the form of bars, generally rectangular or

trapezoidal, that go inside the hearth and that serve as support for solid fuel.
Due to the form of grate they have, they allow the passage of the "primary air"
that serves to produce the combustion.
a) The grills must be adapted to the fuel and must meet mainly the following
requirements:

They should allow the passage of air

They should let the ash fall
They should be allowed to be cleaned easily and quickly
Must prevent slag joining
The bars of the grill must be of good quality so that they do not burn or deform. .
They should be durable.
Some grille designs allow water inside to cool and prevent overheating.

b) Types of Grills.

Depending on your installation.

Fixed or Stationary .- Are those that do not move during work.
Mobile or Rotary .- Are those that are turning or moving while burning the fuel.
Depending on your position.
Horizontal
Inclined
Staggered

ASHTRAY.

It is the space that is under the grill

and serves to receive the ashes that
fall from it. Accumulated waste must
be removed periodically to avoid
hampering the passage of air
necessary for combustion. In some
boilers the ashtray is a water tank.

DOOR OF THE ASHTRAY

Accessory used to perform ashtray cleaning functions. With this adjustable door
you can also control the entrance of the primary air to the home.
When the fire is cleaned or the home is loaded, it is recommended that the door
be closed in order to prevent the flame ("tongue of a bull") from receding.
ALTAR

It is a small refractory brick wall, located in the home, at the opposite end of the
stove door and at the end of the grill, having to surpass it in approximately 30
cm.

The objectives of the altar are:

Prevent grit or combustible particles from grate. Provide resistance to the

flames and gases so that they are distributed evenly across the width of the grill
and thus achieve complete combustion. Put resistance to the hot gases on your
way to the chimney. This is achieved by delivering all their heat and leaving at
the proper temperature.

MANPOSTERIA

It is called masonry to the construction of refractory or common bricks whose

object is:
a) Cover the boiler to avoid heat loss and
b) Guide the gases and hot fumes in their travel.
In order to improve the insulation of masonry, there are sometimes hollow
spaces (air layers) that make it difficult to pass heat. In some types of boilers,
brick masonry has been completely removed, with only thermal insulation in the
main body and smoke boxes. Insulation materials such as glass wool coated
with metal sheets and asbestos are used for this purpose.

SMOKE CONDUCT

They are the spaces through

which the fumes and hot gases
of the combustion circulate. This
takes advantage of the color
delivered by these to heat the
water and / or produce steam.

SMOKE BOX

It corresponds to the space of the boiler in which the fumes and gases gather,
after having given its heat and before leaving by the chimney.
CHIMNEY

It is the outlet conduit of gases and

combustion fumes for the atmosphere.
It also has the function to produce the
necessary shot to obtain an adequate
combustion.

SHOT REGULATOR THE TEMPLATE

It consists of a metal gate installed in the smoke duct that communicates with
the chimney or in the chimney itself and whose purpose is to give greater or
less passage to the exit of gases and fumes from the combustion. This
accessory is actuated by the boiler operator to regulate the amount of air in the
combustion, allowing to increase (when opening) or decrease (when closing)
the flow. Usually used in combination with the ashtray door.
REGISTRATION LIDS OR INSPECTION DOORS
They are openings that allow to inspect, to clean and to repair the boiler. There
are two types, depending on their size: The manhole doors Handhole covers
The man door by its dimensions allows the passage of a man to the interior of
the boiler. The registration covers for being of smaller size only allow the
passage of an arm.
DOORS OF EXPLOSION
They are metal doors with counterweight or spring, generally located in the
smoke box and open in case of excess pressure in the combustion chamber,
allowing the gases to escape and eliminating the pressure.
WATER CAMERA
It is the space or volume of the boiler occupied by water. It has a maximum
upper level and a minimum lower level under which, the water, should never
descend during the operation of the boiler.
STEAM CHAMBER

It is the space or volume that remains on the maximum upper level of water and
in which the steam generated by the boiler is stored. The more variable the
vapor consumption, the greater should be the volume of this chamber.
In this space or chamber, the steam must be separated from the particles of
water which it carries in suspension. For this reason some boilers have a small
cylinder in the upper part of this chamber, called "dome" and that contributes to
improve the quality of the steam .
WATER SUPPLY CHAMBER

It is the space between the maximum and minimum levels of water. During the
operation of the boiler is occupied by steam and / or water, depending on where
the water level is.

SELECTION OF BOILERS

To ensure the correct selection of the equipment to produce steam (or hot
water), a number of variables must be considered. A satisfactory installation
reflects a high sense of responsibility; On the other hand, inadequate selection
leads to problems that ultimately affect all stakeholders.

PREDOMINANT FACTORS FOR THE SELECTION OF BOILERS

Amount and type of steam required

Fuel available
Future requirements
Consumption regime
Daily use

REQUIREMENTS

On the other hand, the user expects the team to meet certain basic
requirements, which include the following:
Safety in the service
Simplicity
Low acquisition, operation and maintenance costs
Adequate service

The wide variety of designs and types of equipment currently offered make the
selection of the boiler a rather complex problem. But on the other hand this
abundance, has allowed the obtaining of a boiler suitable for each case. Below
we will give a very general guide for the selection of boilers based on the
different factors listed above.

If an industry wants to install a boiler where it is known that consumption is

irregular, ie there are times of high demand alternating with others of little or no
consumption, the most recommended boiler will be one of the large volume type
of water.

In those cases where the demand is even in the whole working day, the
recommended boiler will be an igneotubular, of multiple tubes of smoke, since
they have high yield and good production of steam.
If a high pressure boiler is needed, the aquotubles will be suitable, which also
produce large amounts of steam with a high performance.
When the quality of the steam to be obtained is important, ie if dry or wet steam
is required, depending on the intended use, the boiler must have an accessory
to improve the quality of the steam may be the case of boilers provided with
"dome" or steam superheaters.

In any case, whatever type of boiler to choose, the choice must be made by a
qualified professional to ensure that the boiler chosen is finally the most
suitable.

OBSERVATION ACCESSORIES

WATER LEVEL INDICATORS

Each boiler must have at least two water level indicators and at least one must
be of the glass tube type (direct observation). The other may be taps or test
keys. The direct observation water level indicator consists of two metal
connections, one connected to the steam chamber and the other to the water
chamber of the boiler.

Externally they are connected by means of a glass tube that indicates the level
of water that is inside the boiler.

The water level pipe should be in the most visible part for the boiler operator. If
it is more than three meters high, it should be placed leaning forward to facilitate
its vision.

The gaskets of the fittings must be adjusted when the boiler is steamed.
This should be done with care so as not to break the glass tube and avoid burn
injuries.

When changing the glass tube or need to tighten the gaskets, pre-close the
connection valves with the boiler. Be careful to reopen the valves once the
repair is complete.
PRESSURE INDICATORS

The most used of them is the

manometer, which is an instrument to
measure the effective pressure that
exists inside a boiler. Never operate a
boiler that does not have the proper
pressure gauge and in good condition
The pressure gauge is connected to
the steam chamber of the boiler
through a curved pipe, shaped U or S,
so that water acts on it and not steam.
The object of the curve is to prevent
live steam from reaching the interior of
the mechanism, so that it will not
deform with heat and lose its accuracy.
In this curve water accumulates, forming a seal that will always act on the
instrument. When the boiler has a variable consumption of steam, the
manometer needle moves with small oscillations - This is totally normal
CONCLUSIONS

The boiler is the main part of a factory whose purpose is to generate steam
which is widely used to obtain any product, can also be used as heating
medium for large places and work with various types of fuels whether liquid or
solid .

RECOMMENDATIONS

Since we know that is the main part of a factory we must be very careful when
operating it as bad operation and poor maintenance could be damaged and
generate great damages as a big explosion we must control the pressure of the
steam every now and then. We must treat the water that we are going to use for
the boiler as it could occur corrosion inside it or settlement of solids inside.

Bibliography

http://es.scribd.com/doc/17302256/DISENO-DE-CALDERAS
http://es.scribd.com/doc/43936656/PARTES-PRINCIPALES-QUE-
COMPONEN-UNA-CALDERA-Las-partes-mas-importantes-que-
componen-una-caldera-son
http://www.estrucplan.com.ar/Producciones/entrega.asp?IDEntrega=295
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