ABriefAccountoftheHistoricalDevelopmentofPseudosphericalSurfacesFromto1827to1887 10041450

A B RIEF AC C O U NT
O F T HE
HIS T O R IC AL D EVEL O P M EN T O F
P S E U D O S P H E R IC AL S U R FA C E S
FRO M 1 8 2 7 TO 1 887 .
S U B M I TT E D IN P AR T IAL F U LFIL M ENT O F T H E R EQ U I R EM EN T S FO R T H E D EG R EE 0 F
DO C T O R O F P H I L OS O P H ! , IN T H E FAC U L T ! OF P UR E S C I E NC E ,
COL U M B I A UN I V E R S IT! .
B!
EMIL! C O DDIN G T O N .
P as s: 0!
hi s NE! ERA P n n m u c C ou n l
L ua n n . PA
1905
A BRIEF ACCO UNT O F THE HISTO RICAL DEVELO P MENT O F
P SEUDO SP HERICAL SURFACES FRO M 18 27 TO 188 7
THE A P PL I C A T I O N O F ONE P S E U D O S P HER I C AL SU R F A CE U P O N

A NOTHER AN D THE G EO METR ! O F THE S E SU R FA C E S .
T he de n itio n of pseudospherical surfaces .
T he de n itio n of t otal cur v ature accordi n g t o Gaus s .
T he applic atio n of s urfaces w ith co n stant cu rvat ure upo n o n e a n o t her .
T h e pseudospherical s urface s of rotatio n an d the helicoid al s u rfa ce .
E n n e p e r s surfaces

.
Asymptoti c li n es o n a pseudospherical sur face .
T h e ide n ti catio n of the n o n E uclidea n g eome t ry w ith p s eudosp herical geome t ry

-
.
T he proj ectio n s of a pseudos p herical surface upo n a pla n e analogou s t o t he ce ntral

an d stereogr aphi c proj ect io n o f a sphere o n a plan e .
T h e ide n ti catio n of p s eudospherical geome try w i t h t he me trical geomet ry of

C ayley .
II .
T HE S U R F A CE CENTERS AN D T HE TR A N S F OR M A T I ON O F
OF . O NE
P S E UD O S P HER I C AL S U R F A CE I NTO A NOTHER .
1 The theorem of tran sforma t io n .
2 . K ummer s theory of co n grue n ce s

.
3 . Wei n garte n s t w o theorems o n s urfaces w ho s e ra dii of c u r vat ure are fu nct iona lly

related .
R ib au c o u r s cyclic system of su rfaces

B ian chi s compleme n tary trans formatio n

.
G eodesic li n e s o n the surface of ce nt ers .
Lie s tran sform atio n

.
B a cklu n d s t ran sformat io n

.
D arb o u x s equatio n s for B ian chi s a n d B acklu n d s t rans form a tio n

.
T he t riply orthogo n al system of surfaces .
B OO KS O F RE F ERENCE .
1 . Du p i n , C D v eloppement s d e g om trie Pari s 18 2 1

.
, .
, .
2 . Gauss J D is qu isitio n e s ge n erale s circa s u rp e r c ie s cur v as 1 8 2 7 T ran sl ated

, . .
i n to E n gl ish by M es s r s M orehead a n d H il t ebei t el . .
3 . M in din g E F A B emerku n g fiber di e Ab w ickelu n g krummer Li n ie n v o n

, . . .
,
F l a che n J fur M ath VI 1 830

. . .
,
.
,
.
4 . L ob ats ch e w s ky Ka s an e r B o t o n 1 8 2 9
, Ne u e An fan gs gru n d e der G e o m e tric n ebs t
,
.
ei n er vo lls ta n dige n T heorie der Parallele n K asan 1 8 361 8 36 T ran slat ed .

,
.
i n to F re n ch by J H o iie l . .
E . M . C O DD I N GTO N .
M indin g , E F A . . .
, U eber die B iegun g ge w isser Fl a che n . J . fur M ath .
,
XVII I ,
1 8 38 .
Wie sich e nt scheide n l a sst ob z w ei gegebe n e kr u mme F l a che n au f ei n ,
an der ab w icke lb a r si n d oder n ich t ; n ebst B emerk u n g e n iib e r di e F l a che n

vo n u n v e ran d e rlic he m Krii m m u n g s m as s e J fii r M ath XIX 1 8 3 9 . . .
,
.
, .
Z ur T heorie der kii rze s te n Li n ie n au f krumme n F l a che n J fur M ath . . .

,
XX .
,
1 8 40 .
S err e t J , . A .
, N ote sur u n e equ a tio n au x d riv es partielles . J our n de M ath . .
,
X III .
,
1 8 48 .
Bo nn e t ,
M moire sur la th orie g n rale des surfaces . J de 1 Ec Pol cah
.

. . .
XXXII 1 8 48 .
,
.
10 L i ouvi lle J IV No t e to Applica t io n de

, . l an alyse a la g eometrie by G M o n ge ,
. .
18 50 .
6
2
log A A
L i ouv ill e , J S ur l qu atio n a u x diffe re n ces partielle s Jour n

11 .
, t 0 .
de M ath XV II I 1 8 5 3 .
, ,
.
12 . J elle t J H O n the Properties o f theI n e x te n sible S urfaces Tr ans actio n s of t he

, . .
, .
I rish Academ y V0 1 2 2 1 8 5 3 ,
.
,
.
13 Rie man n B Ueber die H y p othese n w elche der G eometrie z u G ru n de liege n

, .
, , .
G O tt Ab h 1 8 67 w ritte n in 1 8 5 4 tra n slate d i nt o E n glish by W K C lif

. .
, , , . .
ford N ature V ol VII

, ,
. .
14 C ay le y A S i x th M emoir upo n Q uan tics Philosoph T ran sa ctio n s B an d 1 49

, .
, . .
, ,
1859 .
15 C o d azz i Nota i n tor n o 1e s u p e r c ie che ha nn o costa n te i1 prodo tto dei due raggi
, ,
di cur v atura A nn al i di T o rto lin i T V III 1 8 5 7 .

,
. .
,
.
16 Kummer Allgemei n e T heorie der geradli n ige n S trahle n syst eme Jo u r n al v o n

, .
C re lle , 5 7 , 18 60 .
17 W e i n gart en J U eber ei n e K la ss e auf ei nan der ab wic ke lb are r F l a che n J i r

, . .
M ath L IX 1 8 6 1 .
,
.
,
.
18 . Enn e p e r A U eber ei n i g e F ormel n a u s der a n aly t ische n G eome t rie der F l a che n
, .
, .
S ct m ilc hZ .
,
VII .
,
1 8 62 .
19 Bour , T h orie de l a d efo rm atio n des su rfaces . J de . 1 Ec . Pol . cah .
XXXIX 1 8 62 .
,
.
20 W e in g art e n J U eber die O b e r ac he n fiir w elch e ei n er der beide n Ha u p tk riim

, ,
m u u gs h a lbm e s s e r ei n e F u n ctio n des an dere n is t J fur M ath L X II 1 8 63 . . .

,
.
,
.
21 Be l tram i I n tor n o ad alcu n e p roprie t a delle s u p e r cie di rivol uz io n e Ann ali

, .
di M at VI 1 8 6 4 .
, .
,
.
22 Dini U S ulla t eoria della su p e r c ie

, .
, Bat t G III 1 8 6 5 . . .
,
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,
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23 . S ulla s u p e r c ie g obbe c he p osso n o etc B att G III 1 8 6 5 ,

. . .
,
.
,
.
S ulle s u p e r c ie di cur v atura costa nt e B att G III 1 8 65 ,

. .
,
.
,
.
25 . D es sur faces a courbure costan te C R L X 18 6 5 . . .

,
.
,
.
26 Bel tram i Ricerche di a n alisi a pp licata alla g eometria B att G III 1 8 65

, . . .
,
.
,
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27 . D imost ra io n e di due formole del si g n or B o nn et B att G IV 1 8 66 z . . .

,
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,
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28 . Risolu zio n e del problema Ri p ortare i pu n ti di u n a s u p e r c ie sopra u n pia n o

i n modo che 1e li n ee geodetiche v e n ga n o rapprese n tate da li n ee re t te
,
.
A nn ali di M at VII 1 8 6 5 .
, .
, .
29 D ini U S opra alcu n i p unt i della teoria delle s u p e r c ie applicabili

, .
, A nn al i di .
M at VII 1 8 6 6 .
,
.
, .
30 H el m hol tz U eber die tha tsac hlic he n G ru n dlage n der G e o m e tric

, 1 8 66 . .
H I S TO R I CA L D EVE L O P M EN T OF P S EU D O S P H E R I CAL SU R F AC ES . 3
31 .
Bonn et M moire sur la th orie des surfaces applicables sur u n e sur face do nn e
,
.
J de l Ec Pol cah X L II 1 8 67
.

. . .
,
.
,
.
Be l tram i IL S aggio d in te rpre tazio n e della g eometria n o n e u clid e a B att G

, ,

. . .
,
VI 1 8 68 T ra n slated i n to F re n ch by J Ho u el Ann ales de l Eco le

.
,
. .
,

Normale VI ,
.
33 . Ch ris to e l E B Allgemei n e T heorie der ge o datis c he n D reiecke B erl Ab h

, . .
, . . .
,
1 8 68 .
34 . D ini, U S opr a al cu n i p u n ti della t eoria delle su p e rc ie M em della societ a

.
, . .
italian a I 18 68 .
,
.
35 . En n e p e r A A n alytisch geometri s che U n tersuchu n ge n

, .
, GO tt N achr 1 86 8 -
. . .
,
.
36 .
D ie c yklis c he n F l a che n S c t m ilc hZ XIV 1 8 69 . .
,
.
,
.
37 . Bel tram i E T eoria fon dame nt ale degli spaz ii d i curvatur a cost ant e A nn al i
, .
, .
di M a t II 1 8 69 . .
,
.
38 . D i n i U Ricerche sopra la teoria delle su p e r c ie

, .
, M em della s ociet a i talia n a . .
I L 1 8 69 ,
.
39 . S ulle s u p e r c ie che ha nn o u m sis t ema di li n ee di cur v atura pi an e A nn ,

. .
d U n i v T oscan a 18 6 9
. .
, .
En n e p e r A U eber ei n e E r w eiteru n g des B e gri s v o n Parallel ac he n

40 . , .
, GO tt . .
N achr .
,
1 8 70 .
41 U eber asymptotische Li n ie n GO tt Na c hr 1 8 70 . . .
,
.
42 . U nt er s uchu n ge n iib e r ei n ige Pu n kt e aus d e r allgemei n e n T heorie der

Fl a ch e n M ath A nn 1 8 70 . . .
,
.
43 . Rib au co ur A S ur la d efo rm atio n des surfaces

, C R L XX 1 8 70
.
, . . .
,
.
,
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44 . Din i U S ull e su p e r c ie c he h ann o n u sistema di li n ee di cur va tura sferi ch e

, .
, ,
.
M em della societ a italian a . II 18 70 .

, .
45 K l e in F U eber die s oge n a nnt e Nicht E uklidische G eometrie M at h An n IV

, .
,
-
. . .
,
.
1 8 71 .
46 . Krets ch mer , EL, Z ur T heorie der F l a che n mi t ebe n e n Kriim m un gs lin ie n . P ro gr .
Fra n k u t a 1 8 71 '
. .
47 . D ini , U .
, S opra al cun e formole ge n erali della t eoria delle s u p e r c ie . A nn ali di
M at IV 1 8 7 1. .
,
.
48 . Bel tram i IL S ulla s u p e r c ie di rota z io n e ch e serve di tip o alle su p e r c ie ps e u

, , ,
d o s fe ric he B att G X 1 8 72 . . .
,
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,
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49 . T eorema di geome tria p s e u do s fe ric a Batt G X 1 8 72 . . .

,
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,
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50 . Rib au co u r A S u r les d v elopp es des surfaces

, C R L XXIV 1 8 72
.
, . . .
,
.
,
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51 . Rib au co ur A S ur les sy s t e mes cycl iques , C R L XXVI 1 8 73 .

, . . .
,
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,
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52 . En n e p e r A B emerku n ge n ii b e r g e o datis c he Li n ie n
, . S c t m iloh Z XVII I
, . . .
, ,
1 8 73 .
53 . Es che rich , D ie G eometrie a u f de n F l a che n c o n stan te r n egat i v er Kriim

G .
mu n g Wie n B er L XIX 1 8 74 : . . .
,
.
,
54 . En n e p e r A B emerku n g zu de n a n aly t isch geome t rische n U n tersuchun ge n

, .
,
-
.
G O tt N a c hr . .
,
1 8 74 .
55 . K l ein P U eber Nicht E uk lidi s che G eome trie M ath Ann VII 1 8 74
, .
,
-
. . .
,
.
,
.
56 . S i mo n P U eber F l a che n mi t c o n s tan te m K rum m u n gs m as s

, .
, D is s H alle . .
,
1 8 76 .
57 . En n e p e r A U eber ei n ige F l a che n mit co n s tan te m K riim m u n gs m a s s

, .
, . G O tt .
N a chr .
,
18 76 .
58 . B o ckw oldt, G .
, U eber die E n n e p e rc hen Fl a che n m it co n s tan te m positi v em
Kr m m un gs m a ss . D iss . G O ttin ge n ,
1 8 76 .
E . M . C O DD IN GTO N .
59 . Hazzadakis U eber ei n i g e E ige n schaft e n der F l a che n mit c o n s tan te m

, J . N .
,
Krii m m u n g s m as s J fiir M ath L XXXVIII 1 8 79 . . .

,
.
,
.
60 . Lie ,Z ur T heorie der F l a che n c o n s tan te r Kriim m u n g Arch for M at 0g . . . .
N a tu rv IV 18 79 .
,
.
,
.
61 . U eber F l ache n dere n Kriim m u n gs ra die n durch ei n e Relatio n v e rkn iip ft ,
si n d Arch for M at o g Na tu r v IV 1 8 79
. . . . .
,
.
,
.
62 . K las s ika tio n der F l ache n n ach der T ra n s fo rm a tio n s g ru pp e ihrer geod a
t ische n C u rve n U n ive rs ita ts p ro g r C hristian ia 1 8 79 . .
,
.
63 . Bi an chi L Ricerche sulle s u p e r c ie a curvatura co st an te e sulle elicoidi

, .
, .
A nn ali di Pi s a II 1 8 79 ,
.
,
.
64 . C ayle y A O n the corre s p o n de n ce of ho m o grap hie s a n d rotatio ns M at h A nn

, .
, . . .
,
XV 1 8 79 .
,
.
65 . L e corn u S ur l q u ilib re des surfaces e x ib le s e t i n e xt e n sibl es

,

J de l Ec Poly . .

. .
,
XX I X 1 88 0 ,
.
66 . L e n z U eber die E n n e p e rs che n F l a che n c o n s tan te r n egat i v er K riim m u n g

, D is s . .
G O ttin ge n ,
1 8 79 .
67 . L ie , S ur les sur faces do nt les rayo ns de courbure o nt e nt re eu x un e relatio n , .
D a rb o u x B ull IV 1 8 80 . .
,
.
68 . Z ur T heorie der Fl a che n co n s tan te r K riim m u n g Arch for M at 0 g . . .
N a tu rv .
, V .
,
1 88 0 .
69 . Bi anchi L U eber der F l ache n mi t c o n s tan te r n egati v er Kriim m u n g M ath

, .
, . .
A nn X VI 1 880 .
, ,
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70 . B a ckl un d A V Z ur T heorie der par t ielle n D i e re n tialgle ic hu n ge n M ath

, . .
,

. .
A nn XVII 1 88 0 .
,
.
,
.
71 . V oss A U eber ei n Pri n cip der Abbildun g krummer O b e r ac he n

, .
, M ath An n . . .
,
XIX 1 8 8 1 .
,
.
72 . N e b e l un g Tr igo n ome t rie der F l ache n mi t c o n s tan te m Kriim m u n gs m a s s

, . Pr .
D ortmu n d 1 88 1 ,
.
Lie T ran s fo rm atio n s the o rie der part ielle n D i e re n tialgle ic h

73 .
, ung .
(1 W
Arch for M at o g N atu rv VI 1 8 8 1
. . . .
,
.
,
.
Lie D iskussio n der D i e re n tialgle ic hu n g 8 Arch for M at

74 .
, F (z) . . . 0g . N a tu rv .
,
VI .
,
188 1 .
Z ur T heorie der Flache n tran s fo rm atio n e n

i
75 . B ackl un d , A V . .
, . M ath A nn XIX . .
, .
,
18 8 1 .
76 . H aas A , Vo rs u c hei n er D arst ellu n g der G eschich t e

, . des Kriim m u n gs m as se s 18 8 1 . .
77 . B i an chi L S ulle s u p e r c ie a cur v at ura cost ant e p ositi v a B at t G XX 1 8 8 2

, .
, . . .
,
.
,
.
We in g art e n J U eber die V erschiebbarkei t ge o datisc he r D reiecke i n krumme n

,
F l ache n B erl B er 1 88 2 . . .
,
.
79 . U eber die E ige n schafte n des L in ie n e le m e n te s der F l ache n v o n co n stan te m

K riim m u n gs m a s s J ir M ath X C IV u X C V 1 8 8 3 . . .
, . . .
,
.
80 . B ar bo ux G S u r les surfaces do n t la courbure t otale est co n s t a n te

, .
, C R , . . .
,
X CVII 1 8 8 3 .
, .
81 . S ur l qu atio n au x d ri v es part ielles de s s urface s 21 courbure co nsta nt e

.
c R X C VII 1 88 3
. .
, .
,
.
82 . M an g oldt H v K las s ik a tio n der F l a che n n ach der V er s chiebbarkeit ihrer

, . .
,
g e o d atisc he n D reiecke J fiir M at h X C IV 1 8 8 3 . . .

,
.
, .
H I STO R I C AL D EVE L O P MEN T O F P S EU D O S P HE R I CAL S U R F AC ES . 5
83 .
Bi an chi , L .
,
S opra alcun e classi di sistema t ripl i ciclici di s u p e r c ie o rt o g o n ali ,
Batt . G .
,
XXL , 1 88 3 .
84 . Lie , U n tersuchu n ge n iib e r Di e re n tialgle ic hu n ge n
. C hristian ia F orb .
,
XVIII .
,
18 8 3 .
85 .
Kuen U eber F l a che n v o n c o n s ta n te m Kriim m u n gs m ass M iin c h B er 1 88 4
, T h, .
. . .
,
.
86 .
B ackl und A V O m yto r med ko n s tan t n egat i v krO kn in g L u n d Arss kr 18 8 4
, . .
,
. . .
,
.
87 . C a yle y A O n the n ou E uclidia n pla n e geome t ry

, .
,
Lon do n R S oc Procee d -
. . .
,
XXXVII 1 88 4 .
,
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88 . Bi an chi L S ui sist emi t ripli ciclici di s u pe r c ie ortogon ali B att G XXII

,
.
,
. . .
,
.
,
1 88 4 .
89 .
S opra una cla sse di sist emi t ripli di s u p e r cie or togo n ali A nn ali di M a t . .
XIII 1 88 5 .
,
.
90 . S opra i sis te m i tripli ortogonali di Wei n gart e n A nn al i di M a t XIII . . .

,
188 5 .
91 .
S opra i s istemi t ripli or t ogo n ali d i We in g arte n . Rom Acc . . L . Re n d .
I , 1 88 5
. .
92 . V o l terra , V .
, S ulla deforma z io n e delle s u p e r c ie e s s ib ili ed in e s te n dib ili . Rom .
Acc L Ren d . I 18 8 5
. . .
,
.
93 .
Bi anchi L Aggiu n te alla memori a ; S opra i sis t emi t ripli or t ogo n ali di Wei n
, .
,
gart e n A nnali di M at . XIV 1 88 6 . .

,
.
94 .
S opra i s is temi t ripli ort ogo nali che co nt e n go n o u n sistema di s u p e r c ie ,
p s e u do s fe ris c he Rom Acc L Re n d II 1 88 6 . . . . . .

,
.
95 . W ein garte n J U eber die D eform ation e n ei n er biegs ame n u n au s de hn b are n

,
F l a che J fur M at h V ol C 1 8 8 6 . . .
,
. .
,
.
96 . D ob rin e r H D ie F l ache n c o n s ta n te r Kriim m u n g mit ei n em S y st em s p haris c h

, .
, er
Kriim m u n g s lin ie n Act a M at h IX 1 88 6 . .

, . .
L i p s chitz R U eber die O b e r ac he n bei de n e n die D i e re n z der Hau p tkriim

97 . , .
, ,
m u n g s ra die n co n s t a nt ist Ac ta M ath X 1 88 7 . .

,
.
,
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98 .
Bi anchi L S opra i s istemi doppiame n te in n iti di raggi Rom Acc L Re n d
, .
, . . . . .
III 1 8 8 7 .
,
.
99 . S ui sistemi doppiame nt e in n iti di ragg i A nn ali di M a t XV 1 88 7 . . .

,
.
1 00 . O e kin ghau s E U eber die P s e u do s p hare , H oppe Arch .

, V 18 8 7 . . .
,
.
1 01 . L ilien t h a l R V Z ur T heorie der Krm m u n gs m itte lp u n kts ach

, . . en
, M ath A nn . . .
,
XXX 1 8 8 7 .
,
.
1 02 . B emerku n g uber diej e n ige n F l a che n bei de n e n di e D i ffere n z der H aup t ,
k rii m m u n g e n co n sta nt is t Act a M ath XL 1 8 88 . .

, ,
.
1 03 . Nann e i , L e s u p e r c ie ip e rc iclic he Napoli Re n d 1888 . . .
1 04 . Le s u p e r c ie ip e rc iclic he B att G XXVI 1 8 8 8 . . .

,
.
,
.
1 05 . M arco lo n go R S ulla rapprese n ta z io n e co n forme della p se u do fe ra e sue applica

, .
,
z io n i Napoli Re n d
. II 1 8 8 8 . .
, .
Razzab o m A S opra certe famiglie di s u p e r c ie di ri v olu z io n e app licabil i

1 06 . , .
, .
B ologn a Acc Re n d 1 8 88 . .
, .
1 07 . P iron din i G S tudio sulle s u p e r c ie elicoidali

, .
, A nna li d i M a t XVI 1 8 8 8 . . .
,
.
1 08 . Wein garte n J U eber ei n e E ige n schaft der F l a che n bei de n e n der ei n e H aupt
, ,
kriim m u n gs ra diu s ei n e F u n ctio n de s a n dere n is t J ir M ath 1888 . . .

,
.
1 09 . L i o uvill e R S ur le s lig n es g od siques des surfaces 8 courbure co n sta n te

, .
, .
American J X 1 8 8 8 .
,
.
, .
110 . Voss A U eber diej e n ige n F l a che n au f d e n e n 3 S chare n ge o d atis che r Li n ie n e in

, .
, ,
c o n j u g irte s S ystem bilde n M u n ch B er 1 8 88 . .

,
.
E . M . C O DD I N GTO N .
1 11 Koen i g s S ur les surfaces do n t le ds peut e tre rame n de plusieur s m an iere s

, G .
, ,
2
au ty p e (le Liouville C R C IX 1 8 8 9 . . .
, .
,
.
Ra y L S ur u n p robl e me de l a th e ori e de s surfaces D a rb o u x B ull XIII u

112 , .
, . .
,
.
,
.
c R I C VIII 1 8 8 9
.
,
.
,
.
1 13 C hini M S ulle s u p e r c ie a curv a t ura media costan te B att G XXVII 1 8 8 9

, .
, . . .
,
.
,
.
114 Gu i ch ar d G S urfaces rapport es a leur s lig n es asym p totique s A nn de 1 Ec

, .
, . .

.
Norm VI 1 8 8 9 .
,
.
,
.
1 15 Rei na V S ugli o ric ic li delle su p e r c ie ps e u d o s fe riche Rom Acc L Ren d

, .
, . . . . .
1 889 .
1 16 Razzib on i, A D ell e s u p e r c ie sulle quale due serie di go e de tiche form an o n u

.
, ,
sis t ema co n iu g at o B ologn a M em IX 1 8 8 9 . . .

,
.
117 . S ulla rap p rese nt az io n e di u n a su p e r cie su di n u al tra al modo di Ga uss .
B att G XXVII 1 8 8 9 . .
, .
, .
1 18 Bi anch i L Ricerche sulle s u p e r c ie elicoidal i

, .
, B att G XXVII 1 8 8 9 . . .
,
.
,
.
119 Guich ard G Recherche s sur le s s urfaces courbure to t al e costan te A nn de

, .
, . .
l Ec Norm

VII 1 8 9 0
. . .
,
.
12 0 . sur l es surfaces qui p o ss ed e n t u n r seau de g od siques co nj u g u es C ,

. .
R CX 1 8 9 0 .
, .
, .
12 1 P a do va IL S opra u n teorema di geometria di e re n z ia le I st L omb Re n d

, ,

. . . .
,
XXIII 1 89 0 .
, .
12 2 Bi anchi L S opra u n a cl as se di rap p re s e nta z io n i equi v al e nt i della s fera s ul pian o

, .
, .
Rom Acc L Re n d . 1 8 90 . . . .
1 23 . S opra u n a n uova classe di s u p e r c ie appar t e n e nt i a s ist emi tripli orto

go n ali Rom Acc L Re n d . 1890 . . . . .
1 24 . Sulle s u p e r c ie 1e cui li n ee a ss in to tic he i n u n s istem a so n o curve a ,
torsio n e costan te Rom Acc L Re n d 18 9 0 . . . . . .
1 25 . S opra alcun e n uove classi di s u p e r c ie e di sistemi tripli ortogo n ali .
A nn ali di M at XVIII 1 8 9 0 . .
,
.
1 26 S ch warz H A G esammelte Abha n dlu n ge n

, II Bd S 363 if 1 8 9 0
. .
, . . .
,
. . .
1 27 Pic ar d R T h orie des equ atio n s au x d ri v es partielles J ourn de M ath

, .
, . . .
VI , 1 8 90 . .
1 28 Rib an co ur, A .
, M moire sur l a th e orie g n rale des s urface s courbes . J our n de .
M ath VII 1 8 9 1
Voss A Z ur theorie der Kriim m u n g der F l a che n M athA nn XXXIX 1 8 9 1
. . .
,
129 , .
, . . .
,
.
,
.
1 30 C o s s e rat R S ur les syst e mes cycliques e t la d efo rm a tio n des surfaces

,
.
, C R . . .
,
C XIII 1 8 9 1 .
,
.
13 1 . S ur les syst e mes co nj ugu s e t sur la defo rm atio n des surfaces C R . .

,
C XIII 1 8 9 1 .
, .
1 32 Bi an chi L S ui sist emi tri p li ort ogonali che co n te n go n o un a serie di s u p e r c ie

, .
, ,
co n u n sistema di li n ee di curvatura plan e A nn ali di M at XIX 1 8 9 1 . . .

,
.
1 33 W an g e rin A U eber di e Ab w ick elu n g v o n Ro tatio n s ache n mit c o n s tan te m

, .
,
n egati v em Kriim m un g m ass au f ei n an der N atu rf G es H alle 1 8 9 1 . . .

,
.
1 34 Ho llae n de r E U eber aqu iv ale n te Abbildu n g D iss H alle u P ro g r Miihlhe im

, .
, . . . .
a d Ruhr 1 8 9 1
. .
, .
1 35 P a dova E D i al cu n e classi di s u p e r c ie suscettibili di deforma z io n i in n ite sim e

,
.
,
u
S p eciali I st Lomb Re n d XXIV 1 8 9 1 . . . . .
, .
1 36 B a ckl und A V An w e n du n g vo n s a i z e n ber p artielle D iffe re n tialgie ic hu n ge n

, . .
,
au f die T heorie der O rtho go n als ys te m e M ath A nn X L 1 8 9 2 . . .

,
.
, .
H I STO R I CAL D EVE L O P M EN T O F P S EU D OS P H E R I CAL SU R F AC ES . 7
1 37 . Bi an chi L S ulla t rasforma zio n e di B a cklu n d per le s u p e r c ie p s e u do s fe riche

, .
, .
Rom Acc L Re n d . 1892 . . . .
1 38 . S ull a t rasforma z io n e di B a cklu n d p ei sist emi t ri p li orto g o n al i pseudo

sferici Rom Acc L Re n d (5 ) . 1 892 . . . . .
139 . S ulle de forma z io n i in n ite s im e delle s u pe r c ie e ssib ili ed in e s te n d ib ili .
Rom Acc L Re n d . 18 9 2 . . . .
1 40 . Ko e n in g s G R sum d u n m moire sur les lign es g od siques

, .
, T oulo u se
.
A nn ales VI 18 9 2 ,
.
,
.
14 1 . C o ss e rat R S ur l a d efo rm a tio n in n it s im a le e t sur les sur faces associ e s de

, .
,
B ia n chi C R C XV 1 8 93 . . .
,
.
,
.
1 42 . S ur les co n grue n ces de s droites e t sur la t h orie des surface s T oulouse .
A nn ales VII 1 8 9 3 , .
, .
143 . Guich ar d S ur les s ur faces do nt le s pla n s pri n cipau x so nt e qui dis ta n t s d u n

, ,

poi n t xe C R C XVI 18 9 3 . . .
,
.
,
.
1 44 . Wae lsch R S ur les surfaces 8 l me n t li n aire de Liou v ille e t les s urface s a

,
.
,
courbure co nsta nt e C R C XVI 1 8 9 3 . . .

,
.
,
.
145 . U eber die F l a che n c o n s tan te r Kriim m u n g Wie n B er C II 1 8 9 3 . .

,
.
,
.
P rob st F U eber F l a che n mit isogo n al e n Syst eme n v o n g e o d tische n K reise n

"
14 6 .
, .
, .
D iss Wiirzb u rg 18 9 3
.
, .
1 47 . Bi anchi L S ulla i n ter p re t az io n e geome t rica del t eorema di M outard Rom

, .
, . .
Acc L Re n d . 1 894 . . .
1 48 . Applicazio n i geometri che del me t odo delle appros s ima zio n i s uccessi v e di
Picard Rom Acc L Re n d . 1894 . . . . .
149 . S ul le s u p e r c ie i cui pian i pri n ci p ali ha nn o cost ant e il rapport o delle ,
dista n z e da u n pu n to ss o Rom Acc L Re n d 18 94 . . . . . .
15 0 . S ui sistemi tripli ortogonali di Wei n gar t e n Palermo Re n d VIII 18 9 4 . .

,
.
, .
151 . S o le r
, 8 0 p m u n a certa deformat a della sfera Palermo Re n d V III 18 9 4 . .
, .
,
.
152 . C o s s e rat R S u r des co n g rue n ces rectilign e s e t s ur le probl e me de Rib au c o u r

, .
, .
C R C XVIII 1 8 9 4
. .
,
.
, .
1 53 . Gent y R S ur les sur faces courb u re t otale co n st ant e S M F B ull XXII

, .
, . . . . .
,
.
,
1 8 94 .
1 54 . W an g e r i n A U eber die Ab w ickelu n g vo n F l a che n co n s tan te n Kriim m u n gs m a s se s

,
.
,
so w ie ei n iger an derer F l a che n auf ei n an der Fe s ts chift d U n i v H alle . . .
18 94 .
15 5 . Voss , A U eber isome tri s che F l a che n M ath A nn X L VI 1 8 9 5

.
, . . .
,
.
,
.
156 . P ilbi , S ulle s u p e r c ie che da u n dop p io sistema di traiettorie isogo n al i s ot to ,
n u a n gelo costa n te delle li n ee di cur va tura s o n o di vise i n parallelogrammi ,
in n ite s im i equi v ale n ti Rom Acc L R e n d 18 95 . . . . .

, .
157 . B usse P U eber diej e n ige pu n kt w eise ei n deu t ige Be z iehu n g z w eier F l a che n
, .
,
s tii c ke auf ei n a n der bei w elcher j eder g e o d atis c h e n Li n ie des ei n e n ei n e Li n ie ,
c o n s tan te r g e o d atis c he r Krii m m u n g de s a n d e ran e nt spricht B erl B er . .

-
.
158 . U eber ei n e s p e c ie lle co n forme Abbildun g der F l ache n c o n stan te n Kriim

m u n gs m a s s e s auf di e E be n e 189 6 . .
1 59 . B ar bo ux G L e co n s s ur la th orie g n rale des surfaces

, .
, B d I IV 1 88 7 1 8 9 6 . . . .
, .
1 60 . Bi an chi L Le z io n i di geometria di e re n zia le G6tt 1 8 9 4

, .
,

. .
,
.
1 61 . Ge n t y R S ur la defo rm a tio n in n it s im ale des s urfaces T oulouse A nn IX

, .
, . .
,
.
,
1896 .
1 62 . G ou rs at, E , . S ur les li g n e s asymp t otique s . C . R .

,
C XXII .
,
18 9 6 .
E . M . C O DD IN GTO N .
1 63 . L e theor e me de Gauss s ur l a courbure No u v A nn 1 3 1 89 5

C alin o n , A .
, . . .
, ,
.
16 4 . Wein g arten J S ur la d efo rm atio n des s urfaces J o u r de M ath

, 1 8 96 . . . .
1 65 . Bi a nchi Nuo v e ricerche s ulla s u p e r c ie pseudo s feriche A nn ali di M a t

,
. .
,
24 ,
1 66 . S opra un a classe die s u p e r c ie collegat e alle s u p e r c ie pseudo s feriche .
Rom Accad Li n 5 189 6

. . .
,
.
1 67 . K lein P Lie s T ran sformat io n M ath A nn 5 0 1 8 9 7

, .
,

. . .
, ,
.
1 68 . P S tacke l un d Fr En g el G auss die beide n B olyai u n d die Nich t E uklidisch e

. .
, ,
-
G eometrie M ath A nn 4 9 1 8 9 7 . . .
, ,
.
169 . B u kre ie w Flac he n e le m e n t der F l a che c o n s ta n te r Kriim m u n g

, K ie w U n i v . .
N ac hr ,
No 7 1 8 9 7 .
,
.
17 0 . V o ss A U eber in n ite s im ale n F l ache n D eforma t io n e n

, .
, . D eu ts che M ath Vol . , . 4,
18 9 6 .
171 . Z ur T heorie der in n ite s im ale n Bie gu n gde fo rm atio n e n ei n er F l a che .
M un ch B er 2 7 1 8 9 7 .
, ,
.
1 72 . S ur deu x clas se s de surfaces qui en ge n dre nt p ar u n mo v eme nt heli

c o id a l u n e famille de Lam T oulous A nn 1 1 1 898 . .
, ,
.
1 73 . Darb o u x L e go n s sur les sys t e me s ortho g o n au x e t les c o O rdin e s cur v ilig n es

, .
P aris 1 8 98 , .
1 74 . Guich ar d S ur le s surface s 8 co u rbure t ot ale co n st ant e C R 1 2 6

, . . . .
, .
1 75 . S ur le s syst e mes ort hogo nau x e t les syst emes cyclique s A nn de . . l E c .
Nom 1 5 18 98 .
,
.
1 76 . C ar d a K Z ur G eome t rie a uf F l a che n c o n s ta n te r Kriim m u n g

, .
, Wei n Ber . .
,
1 07 ,
1 8 98 .
1 77 . M e tz le r , G . P .
, S ur faces of ro tatio n w i th con st an t mea su re o f cur v ature . Am J . .
of M ath 20 1 8 9 8 .
, ,
.
1 78 . T zitz e ia S ur les s urfaces 8 courbure t o t al e co n s t an te

, C R 1 28 1 8 98 . . .
, , .
1 79 . B ar b oux G S ur la tra n s forma t io n de M Lie e t le s s urface s e nv elopp es de

, .
, .
sph e re s D a rb o u x B ull 1897 . . .
18 0 . Kommerell V B emerku n g zu r de n a sym pto te n lin ie n BO kle n M ath

, .
, 2 1 9 00 . .
,
.
181 . Wa e ls ch R U eber F l a che n mi t s pharis che n oder ebe n e n Kriim m u n gs lin ie n

, .
, .
Ho he s c hu le B riin n ,
1 33 , 1 8 99 .
18 2 . H ilbe rt , D .
, U eber F l a che n v o n c o n s tan te r G au ss ic her Krii m m u n g . T r an s . Am .
M ath S oc 1 1 9 01 . .
,
.
1 8 3 Z u hlk e P
. U eber die g e o datis c he n li n ie n u n d D reiecke auf de n F l a che n C o n
, .
,
staute n Krii m m u n gs m ass e s u n d ihre B e ziehu n g z u r die soge n annt e n n ich t ~
Eu c lidisc he n geometrie C harl otte n burg 1 902 .

, .
NO T E Th e abo v e list of book s is based upo n the o n e gi v e n by B uss e a t th e e n d of

.
his essay e n titled Ue be r e in e sp ecie lle co nfo rm e Abbildu n g de r Fldc hen co n s ta n te n
Kr m m u n gs m as s e s au f die
I n the follo w i n g pages t he n otatio n of the v arious authors quoted has bee n tra n s
lated i nt o th e n o t atio n used by B ian chi i n his book e n ti tled L e zion i di ge om e tria di e r
e n zia le si n ce the di ffere n ce i n the n o t atio n u s ed by the differe n t w riters is n o t of

,
1 5
special i n terest .
A list o f s ome of B ia n chi s form u l ae i s a dded at the e n d of this paper

.
H I STO R I CAL D EV EL O PM EN T O F P SEU D OS P H E R I CA L SU R F AC ES . 9
I .
T HE AP P L IC ATIO N O F O NE P S EU D O S P H ERIC AL S U RFAC E

U P O N AN O T H ER AN D T HE G E O M ET R! O F T HE
S U RFAC ES .
1 . S urfa c es
wh o se measu r e of c urvat ur e at every p o int is co nstant and nega
tive were called pseudosphe r i c al surface s by B eltrami in 1 8 68 in order as he , ,
said to av o id ci r c u mloc u ti o n S in c e the r efore the denition o f these surfa ces

,
.
, ,
depends up o n the d e niti o n of the meas ur e o f curvatu r e its e lf their histo r y

. ,
may be conside r ed as c o m me ncing in 1 8 2 7 when G auss in his g re at m e m o i r ,

2
entitled Disqu is itio n e s generales circa s u pe r c ie s c urvas e stablish e d the idea

of curvature as it is underst oo d today .
2 In this fam o us pape r G a u ss borr o wed f r o m the astrono m ers th e n o ti o n

.
of spherical repres e ntation and established a point to p o int c orr e sp o nd e nce - -
between a curved s ur face and a sphe re o f u nit r adius H e supposed a ra .
di n s of the sphere t o be draw n pa r all e l to the ass u m e d positive di rec ti o n o f

the norm al to the cu r ve d surfac e at a point P and the extremity o f th e ,
radius to be a point 19 c or resp o n di n g to P of the surface He dened the .
to tal curvat u r e of a part o f the surface e nclosed within certain limits as

th e area o f the g u r e on the spher e co r responding to it and distinguished ,
this curvatu r e f r om the very imp o rtan t noti o n of th e m e asure of cu r v atu re o f

the surface at a p o int whi c h is s o m e times als o call e d t o tal c urvat ur e This la s t
, .
is dened as the q u otient o f t he t o tal curvatu r e o f the surface ele m ent at th e

p o int by the a r ea of the s ur fac e e lem e nt o r in oth e r words the rati o of th e , ,
innitely sm all a r eas that correspond to o ne a n other on the c u rved surface and

o n the s phe r e H e remark e d further that the p o siti o n o f a g ur e o n th e
.
s phe r e can be eith e r simila r to the position of the co rr esp o nding gu r e o n th e

c ur ved s u rfa c e o r the inverse When the p o sition of tw o c o rr esponding g
.
u r es the one o n the surfa c e the o the r on the s phe r e is simila r he call e d the
, , , ,
c urved surface a convex o con v ex sur face or a s u rface with posi t ive c ur vat u re
-
, .
When the p o sition of the g u re is in v erse to that of the gure on the s u rface he
call e d the surface a concavo con vex su r face or a surface with n e gative cu r vat ur e
-
.
G auss intr o duced vari o us analytic expressi o ns f o r this measure of cu r vatu r e at

a point which he denoted by K am o ng others using a g e ne ral par a m et r i c re pre
, ,
s e n tatio n of a s u rfac e through the paramete r s 26 n he f o und that , ,
2
DD D
E
E0 F
"
whe r e D D F and 0 functi o n s of d a re th e of
'
, D , E, , u an r, c o e i c ie n ts
10 E . M . C O DD I N GTO N .
the rst and s e c o nd fundamental differ e ntial expressio n s of the surface the one ,
fo r the sq u a r e of the linea r eleme n t

2 2
da E da 2q dv d z *
,
the other
2 (7d D du 2
2 D du dv D WI)
'
where X , ! ,
Z are th e di r ection cosines of a n o r mal to the su r face at a p o int
:6 , y, 2 .
When he chose as a speci al system of parametric lines a family of geodesic

lines and their orthogonal trajectories h e sh o wed that E becomes a f u nctio n of ,
it al o ne and F vanishes so that the expression for the line eleme n t assumes the
,
form
2 2 z
d8 d u d ,
and h e c o uld derive for the curvature a simple correspo n di n g form
pa r tic u la r h e observed that if the system is a geodesi c polar system in

In
whi ch the v curves proceed from a p o int an d o is the angle that eac h geodesic
' -
v curve makes with an arbitrary but xed v curve and u is the arc length o f
- - -

each geodesic f r om the point then G is a function whi ch sa tises the equations ,
= 1,
and that if the v c urves fo r m a g e odesic parallel system that is if the v geo
r -
, ,
de s ic s a r e o r th o g o nal to a geodesic cu r ve u 0 and u is as before the arc len gth -
along the 0 curves f r om u '

O and the arc length v is m easured on the cu r ve -
0 f ro m some xed point the f u nction G satises the equations

u ,
= 0
u =0
L astly h e wrote
2
rt 8
(1
whe r e the surface is r e presented by
z = f (w a y)
and p g , , r, s , t have thei r usual meaning as the partial derivatives of z with
r esp e ct t o a: and y .
2 2
6x 6 2: 6 2:
E = 2 F: 2 G
6a 60
6X 8 2: 6 X 6 2: 6X 6 2: 6X 8 2:
D = D , 2 2 2: D/ -
2 '
ea . da 60 .
au 8a 60 80 60
B ia n chi ls " ,
33 , 4 6 .
H I S TO R I CA L D EVE L O PM E N T O F P S EU D OS P H E R I CA L SU R F AC E S .
T he measure of curvature at a point as dened by G a u ss has now been

adopted as the stan dard denitio n and called the G aussian m easure of cu r vature
or total curvature B o th befo r e and afte r the time of G auss various denitio n s
.
of curvature of a su r face had been advan c ed by Eule r M e u sn ie r M onge and , ,
D upi n but these denition s have not re co mmended themselves and are n o w
,
almost forgotten .
G auss did not write directly o n th e subject o f pseudosphe r ical surfaces but ,
in his me m oir j u st qu o ted h e published two impo r tant discoveries which were
afterwa r ds easily applied to the special case of these surfaces T o G auss is .
due the c e lebrated theorem on the t o tal cu r vature (curvatura integra) of a geo , ,
desic trian gle for making use o f the geodesic polar system he found that the
,
total curvature of a trian gle wh o se angles a r e A B C is , ,
A+ B + C w
which is n egative for su r faces of negative curvature and positive fo r surfaces of

positive cu r vature An immediat e i n ference from this and what may be
.
rega r ded as the rst the o rem in the geometry of pseudosphe r ical surfaces is
that the area o f a geodesic trian gle on one of these surfaces is proportional to
its spherical de c iency This theorem was p r oved by Be rtram i in 1 868 *
.
3 G auss also established the well known theore m that K is an invariant of

.
-
b e ndin g that is any disturbing of the shape o f the surface which does n o t
, ,
'
inv o lve stretching or crushi n g leaves the value o f If at any point unaltered
, .
Thus if one surface is applicable up o n another the measu r e of curvature at co r

resp o nding points of the two surfa ce s is the sam e It was this invariant cha r acter .
of K that r st gave interest t o the study of surfaces of constant curvature .
G auss hi m self m ade no study of them but M inding 6 in a paper of 1 8 39 of , ,
which mo r e will sho r tly be said disc u ssed the sufciency of G auss theorem for
,

the applicability of one s ur face up o n anothe r and established that for su r faces ,
of constant c u rvat ur e and for these only is G auss theo r em a sufcie n t as well
, ,

as a nec e ssary condition .
In a previous paper in 1 8 3 0 he had integ r ated th e G aussian equation
1
K :
I/ G
assuming K to be con stant and had obtained the expressi o n for the linear ele
,
ment
618
2
du 2 [ sin
ww o r dv
K
When ab o ut to apply one surface upon an other he accordi n gly wrote for the
exp r essions f o r their linear element s
'
*
Page 37 .
12 E . M . C O DD IN GTO N .
z
s in
( en /F ) 2
ds dc ,
VK
2 'z 2
ds du
'
dv
,
in which the primes indicate the elements wit hrefere n ce to the seco n d surface .
T he analytical condition of applicability

d8 d8
,
he satised by puttin g
=u =
'
u , v a + v
where a may have any value from zero to innity T he rst equatio n shows .
that an y point o n the rst surface may be made to correspond with any poi n t o n
the second surface and the second equation that any geodesic curve o n the r st
surface p r oceeding from the p o int may be made to correspo n d with any geodesic
curve on the second surface proceeding from a corresponding point T hus the .
3
surfaces a r e applicable upo each other in
n 00 ways or to quote M in ding O n e , ,
can place two arbitrary points of the one upon two arbitrary points of the other ,
pro v ided that the lengths of the sho r test lines upo n the surface between the

pai r s o f points are equal to each other .
B ecoming interested in the study of surfaces of co n stant curvature M indin g 6

p ro ceeded t o det e rmi ne so m e of these s u rfaces When the surface is assumed .
to be of the form of z y) the di ffe r e n tial equation of his problem is

,
z
fi z 0 2
2
E
as dz
g
wh ere If : a constant .

This integration he said ,
has never bee n e e c te d up to the present time
,
exc e pt f o r K : C hanging the fo rm of the eq u ation by writing as 7 cos ,1

*
and y 7 sin ,I r in the pla c e of :6 and

y he attempted its solutio n o n ly for the ,
special case
6z
h ( h a constan t ) .
a?
A r st int e g ration gave him
K 1
(
I
dz : t dr a
2 = con stan t of i ntegration
Fo r surfaces of constant negative curvature he r st put a 0 in this equati o n 2
o f z and retai n ed h then he let [i vanish a n d a2 re m ain When the r st condi .
tion is f u llled he said the equati o n for 8 represents a curve which gene r ates
, ,
H IS T O RIC A L D EVE L O P ME N T O F P SEU D OS P H E R I CAL SU R F AC ES . 13
the surface in the same way as the straight line gene r ates the helic o idal surface
namely by a revolution ab o ut the axis of 8 while at the sam e tim e all its points

have a commo n moti o n pa r allel wit hz

T his s u rface was after wa r ds investi
.
gated by Dini and called the D ini helic o idal su r face When the sec o nd .
conditio n exists M inding found that the surface be c omes a surface of r o tation
,
and the 2 curves become its meridian lines He discovered th r ee types of thes e .
surfaces those for whi ch a has a positive value th o se fo r which it has a neg
,
2
,
ative value and th o se for which it is equal t o zero It was probably his .
original exp r ession fo r the linear element

,
2 2
8m 11 2
ds du d
ie
or
2 ?
cn ( 216 sinh dv
2
a (K : 1)
that suggested to him the expedient of putting 7

sin h cl
) in the equatio n fo r 8
2
when a is positive so that ,
z :
f a: a
2
s in hqs) d
2 .
2
while for a n egati ve value fo r a he natu r ally introd u ced the analogous exp r es
sion
z =
f i
( 1/ 1
Finally , when a
2
0 he put
1
r z f
c) tanh (I
) .
cosh d)
T his last equation for shows that it represents a t r actrix but M inding did not
8
c all the curve by its name although he remar ked that it approa c hes the axis of
,

rotation asymptotically He drew pictures o f the meridia n cu r ves o f these three
.
types and the plates appear at the end o f his article i n O r e l l e s J o u r n a l

.
In this way he obtained two classes of pseudospherical surfaces the helicoidal ,
surfaces and the three types of surfaces of rotation .
Knowing that all the three forms o f surfaces of rotatio n of curvature 1

c or r esponding to the three types o f the meridian curves a r e def o rmabl e int o
each other he 7 wished to bring their linear element into the same for m
,
613
2
du 2
s in hu dv
z z
.
He perceived that this could be easily acc o m plished f o r surfaces o f the r st kind
but that f o r those o f the second o r third kind it is necessary to nd fo r the par a
met r ic li n es a system o f ge o desic lines that go out from the same p o int H e .
developed a general expression f o r the linear element of a pseud o sphe r ical

surface
14 E . M . C O DD I N GTON .
1
l _

( s
2
( v
2
+ 7
1
2 _ 2 2 2
by writing rst
2 ? g
ds da? df
i dr e
r d wr
l -
l lu lu

i ,
dr
and then putting
h
J
(I (Z
t I P h ,
and
e
v d .
T he next yea r he wo r ked out a set of equation s f o r transfo rming this general
exp r essi o n f or the linea r element i n to the one ref e rred to a ge o desic polar system
2 2 2
ds (Z0 sinh
T aking two points co r responding to c o cirdin ate s ( t v ) ( t , v ) of the same sys
' ' '
'
, ,
te m an d den o ting the length of the geodesic line which co nn ects them by a a n d
the angle which this line makes with the curve 1) a consta n t by 6 he stated ,
that the va r iables v t 6 are related by the equation s

, ,
6
'
ctn 6 tan b (t
'
t ) tanh a
'
?
v s in b)
'
v
,
an d
2
sinh s in 6 1
'
v
r
0
'
v
'
b 2
v cosh
where
b = z
a
2
g

-
O au d h= O
and that these be c ome
v
r -
(t t
'
) sinh 0
'
cos 6,
(cosh sinh sin 6)

'
v
: ' '
7 a 0
when I
) 0
.
He did not f o rmally state the conclusion of this a r gume n t that the two sets
o f c o O rdin ate s v t and a 6 may be rega r ded as ly in g on two di fferent surfaces
, ,
and that the n these equations instead of changing the express i on for the linear
,
element o f one s ur face only i nto a slightly di e re n t f o rm will actually t r ansfo r m ,
one surface into another and that if the rst surface is supposed to be a surface
, ,
of r otation for which t a constan t and c a constan t are the meridian curves
and the parallels respe c tively the surface will be one of the three types o f which
,
h e spok e in his earlie r paper acc o rding as to whether

2
0 :
so that the above equatio n s will then transform a surface of one of those th r ee
types into one of the rst type .
by putti ng 66 for 7 an d r f or
1 i
Finally writing
,
(1
and decomposing the equation into two real equations he reduced it to

2
a
z
ds C 1
1
I ) .
T he same expression results when in additio n to the co n stant K constants g

, ,
an d hare introduced in putting
In this manner he established M inding s theorem that surfaces of the same
curvature are applicable upon one another in 00 3 o f ways T he simplest surface .
of constan t negative curvature upon which all the su rfaces of the same curvat u re
are applicable he fou n d to be the sur face ge n erated by the tractrix revolving
about its asymptote .
1
C oda z zi was the n ext mathematician after L iouville to make a study of
5
pse u dosphe r ical surfaces He was the rst to derive the expression fo r the linea r
.
eleme n t of the surface referred to a geodesic parallel system in the form

2 2 2
638 cosh dv
2
du u
He integrated G auss expression f o r curvature

1 a2 1/ G

K
l/
0
G
with the condition s that
1
[ l/ GJ =0u
1 u =0
p
where p is the radius of geodesic curvature of u 0, and obtained

1
I/ G cosh a sm hu .
Whe n u O is a curve of constant geodesic curvature 1 / p 0 a hypothesis , ,
that he makes i n connection with surfaces o f revolution and the formula for
2
d8 foll o ws .
H is chief contributi o n to the subject was to the pseudosphe r ical t r igo n omet r y .
H e developed M inding s formula for showing the relation bet wee n the sides and

angles of a ge o desic triangle

cosh a cosh b cosh c sinh b sinh 0 cos A
HI S TO R I CAL D EV E L O PME N T O F P S EU D OSP H E R I CAL SU R F AC E S .
and also the well know n formula

sinh a sinh b sinh c
s in A sin B sin 0
both of which are a n alogous to those o f spherical trigo n ometry .
C hoosing fo r his co O rdin ate s a geodesic polar system and writi n g the expres
sion for the linear eleme n t i n the form
d8 2
h
t e
2
sinh 2
u dv 2
he took for his triangle the area bounded by two geodesic lines goin g out f r om
the o r igin 2) 0 and v
, a co n stan t and by a thir d geodesic line making a n
'
,
an gle 71 8 with v
'
0 at a distance a from the ori gi n and an angle 6 with

,
v
'
a constant He the n integ r ated G auss equatio n for a geodesic li n e which
.

makes a n an gle 6 with any parametric geodesic li n e 2) a constant
d6 + dv = 0 .
an
By means of his equ atio n for the lin ear element an d the equatio n for cos 6,
( ha
cos 6
d8
he fo u nd that G auss equatio n becomes

c tn hu du c tn 6d 6 0
so that sinh u sin 6 a constant si n h a sin 8

, . He was then able to transform
the equation for d6 into
sinh u du
d8
which when integrated gives

, ,
cosh u cosh a cosh s sinh a sinh 8 cos 8

,
wher e u a and s are the arc lengths that form the sides of the triang le and 8
,
-
is the angle opp o site the side u .
4 D ini
.
2 29 22 ' 2 4
was acq u ainted with the wo r k of M inding and in the years
5*
1 8 6 5 and 1 8 6 6 he wr o te fo ur papers in which among othe r things he de v eloped

mo r e fully the subjects t o uched upon by the earlier mathematicians the equation ,
t r ansforming a pseud o spherical su r face of ro tation of one of the three types i nto
that of another and the determination of the form o f a helic o idal surface with
c onstant negative curvature .
H is method of nding the linear element 24 of a surface o f r o tation with c on

stant curvature as it is set forth in his seco n d paper is perhaps si m pler than
that o f his predecessors T aking the di e re n tial equation for the length of the
.
radius of curvature of a meridian curve at a certain point and the one fo r the ,
len gth of the normal betwee n the same point o n the curve and the axi s of the
2
revoluti o n he found the equation for the total curvature
,
l/ to be
a
z
dz d z
1
dz (2

?
c
which when integrated becomes

, ,
dz
1
dr l
where r is the radi u s of the parallel circle z is the axis o f revolution z , , M)

( 7
is the eq u ati o n of the meridia n curve and l is a co n stant of integration . He

ga ve to l the three v al u es s u ccessively
2 2
a ,
0, a
and thus found three fo r ms for the me r idian cu r ve ,
dz a
2
1 1
( 17 2
'
dz
(2 ) ( r Z
(s L
. _ p
and three corresponding forms fo r the linea r element
sinh
2
? 2 ?
(1 ) d3 ( a; a dr
2
2
( ) ds du z
dz: 2
(3 ) d8 2
du 2
a
2
co sh 2 3 a vg
(6
where u and 1) r ep r esent the parallel and me r idian curves respectively The .
surfaces ( l) (2 ) an d
, he said are the only surfaces of rev o lution with con
,
stant negative cu r vature T hey m ay be applied one on the other but as we

.
,
shall se e they c o nstit u te as t o their application three classes of sha r ply distinct
s u rfaces T he se co nd of these classes ( l 0) is made up of a single surface
.
,
the su r face which has for its m e r idian the curve with tangents of constant length ,
H I STO RICA L D EVE L O P M E N T O F P S EU D OS P HE R I CA L SU R F AC E S . 19
as already con sidered by L iouville and it serves as a transition from surfaces

,

o f the rst class to those O f the thi r d .
2
In the special case when at a he called the rst su r face
2
the imaginary

sphere a su r face which was afterwards studied by Beltrami 8 and C ayley
,
4
D ini next t o ok up the problem of the applicatio n of these surfaces up o n one

another He re m arked that if in applying o ne su r face up o n a second the
.
meridian c ur ves of the two coincide b o th surfaces must be o f the same type
, .
H e then p r oceeded to examine the n ature o f the curves o n the deformed surface
into which the me r idian cu r ves of the original surface pass when the two sur
faces are of di fferent types For this purpose he rst s o ught the equati o ns
.
which transf o rm a surfa c e of the rst or third type int o a pseudosphere .
When a surface o f the rst type is applied upon one of the second h e put ,
a for sinh for by means of this substituti o n the linear element of the
,/
r
rst surface becomes
a form given by L iouvill e f o r the pseudosphere and the meridian c ur ves and ,
the pa r allel circles go over into a family o f geodesics meeting at a point and
their o r thogonal trajecto r ies He found that the def o rmati o n of a su r face of
.
the third type into a pseudosphe r e is more co mpli c ated In his rst paper .
he had developed the impo r tant theo r em that a surface that p o ssesses a syste m
of geodesics intersected at equal distances by curves each of which m eets the
ge o desi c s at the same constant angle not a right angle and va rying by a xed
, ,
law f o r each curve is either a surfac e of rotation or applicable u pon one H e

,
.
transfo rmed a surface with constant c ur vature referred to such a system of geo
de sic s and their t r aj e cto r ies fo r parameters into a surface o f r o tati o n by tw o
m ethods By the applicatio n o f the rst method the trajectories of the ge o d e
.
sics on the r st surfa c e pass o v e r int o parallel circles on the surfa c e of r o tati o n
and the family of curves that c ut the trajecto r ies o r thogonally become its me
r idian c ur ves H e f o und n o t o nly the eq u ation s fo r this tran sformati o n but
.
22 1"
also those fo r the revers e O peration 63
f o r defo r mi n g a surfac e of r o tati o n in
,

such a way that its parallels go over into a system of t r ajectories intersecting
eq u al lengths o n a family o f ge o desic lines .
O n the o ther hand when he def or med the geodesic lines o n his o r iginal sur
,
fac e into the meridians o f a su r face of rotation the trajectories became lo xo ,
dro m es He found that this last t r ansformation leads to but one su r face of
.
rotation the pseudosphe r e and he int ro du c ed i n this connecti o n for its linear
element the now well known ex pr essi o n 9 7"
, ,
2 2' '
2 2 zu z
ds du e c
which did n o t appear in any of the papers previousl y discussed .
P . 40 .
20 E . M . C O DD I N GTON .
It was probably this last result that suggested to him transforming a

pseudospherical surface of rotatio n of the third type whose li n ear element is
u
d8 2
du 2 2
on cosh 2
dc 2
a
i nto a pseudosphere whose linear element is
2 z zu l a
ds du f e dvf
by means of the equations

da t
u u a
a cosh sm h
a a
u u
1 + 1)
1
l o g S i nh
a a
t '
0
1
.
H e found that the parallels of the rst surface pass over into loxodromes o n
the pseudosphere an d that the meridians of the r st s u rface pass into the ortho
gon al trajectories of these loxodromes He proved that the c osine of the angle
.
at which these loxo dromes meet the me r idian c ur ves is eq u al to cosh n /a that ,
they possess a constant geodesic curvat ur e and that their orthogonal trajectories
are geodesic lines .
He rem arked that the intermediate s u rface obtained by using the rst eq u a ,
ti o n o f transformation only is the screw s ur face of constant negative curvature

,
wh o se helices correspond to the loxodro m es of the pseudosphere .
D ini was very much interes te d in surfaces of this nat ur e to which he devoted
9 2
,
one paper exclusively in 1 8 6 6 but before tak ing u p the examinati o n o f its con
,
t e nts a digressi o n will here be made for the consideratio n of c o ntributions of

B ian c hi and B eltrami t o D ini s other theorems Bianchi 63 intr o duced a general

.
m e th o d f o r transfor ming a surface of rotation of any of the three types into a

pseudosphere .
Instead of ch o osing a new system of geodesics on the o r igin al surface and

then actually bending it until these cu r ves bec o me the meridians o f the new sur
face B ianchi followed Liouville s suggesti o n and used minimal lines for parame
,

ters so that w hen the surface is bent the lines of reference remain the sa m e
, , ,
.
Referring both su r faces to minim al lines he denoted the linea r element of the
s ur face which h e w ished to deform by
2
ds 2
m
(w 30
and chang e d the expression fo r the linear element of the pse u dosphe r e ,
P . 16 .
H I STO R I CAL D EVE L O PMEN T O F P S EU D O S P HE R I CA L S U R F AC E S . 21
21 1
2 2 A
rl8 ( lu 6 dc 2,
,
nto
I
4 A2
( is da dB
2
(a
where l/A is the total curvature of both su r faces
2
.
H is equations of transformation were the n
1
a c , 8
, c (a , b an d o a re constants ) ,
a3
] b
an d by wr iting fo r a and 8 their values in terms of u and U and fo r a: and 3/

,

their values in terms of u and v the parallel and me r idian curves of the surface
'
,
to be deformed h e found three sets of equation s fo r t r ansfo r ming a surface of

,
the rst second and third type respec tively into a pseudosphere :
,
1 u
c e
l
a
a si n h
sm
a
( )
1
161
u u
e

= s1n h c o s 'v cosh
E g
n /a
u 1
_ e
a
e 2 2 2 u /a
,
0 a e
(2 )
v
vl , 2 2 Zu /a
0 d e
u
u a I0g cosh av
,
;
(3)
u v
v
1
= a ta n h e

The r st o f these sets of equations is the same as the one give n by

if in the latter the poi n t (1 0) be chose n for the point ( C t ) T he third set i s
, , .
identical with D ini s fo r expressed in the same n o tatio n Dini s equatio n s become

1) log tan h u log

0
1,
u
,
log n
,
log sinh u ,
and when one is subtracted fr om the other

u
,
log cosh u v .
The v alidity of tran sformi n g the general expressio n for the linear element
2 2 z
ds E da 2q dc d
P ag e 14 .
22 E M C O DD I N GTO N
. . .
int o the form in te r ms of the co nj ugate compl e x variables 6 and 6u
( 26 1 760
( curvature )
2
ds x
was investigated by IVe in garte n 79 three years later He decided that such a .
t r ansf o rmation is permissible for surfaces of constant cur v ature an d that then ,
the reciprocal of the di e re n tial qu o tient 6 6 /6 u must satisfy two partial dif
fe re n tial eq u ations .
T he g e omet r ical interpretati o n of the di fference in the value of the constant

in the equation fo r the m eridian c u rve o f the three types of surfaces of rotation
was clearly dete rm ined by Belt r ami 32
T he early papers of this mathematicia n
.
o n the subject of pseudospheri c al s ur faces were c o ntemporaneo u s with those of
D ini and b o th appeared side by side in the Italian j ournals during the years
1 8 64 and 1 8 6 5 .
B elt r a m i 6 wrote a long t r eatise on the general theory of surfaces in which

2
he c o nside r ed in particular geodesic curvature ev o lut e and involute surfaces an d ,
differential paramete r s He applied the various theo r ems that he obtained t o

.
th e special case of pseudosphe r ical su r faces all of which theorems will be dis ,
c u ssed in detail in the chapte r on E vol u te S urfaces and the T ransformati o n

Theory In the same year that thi s t r eatise appeared Beltrami published a
.
21
paper devoted entirely to the pseudosphere in which he investigated its geo

met r ical p r operties .
He ga v e a ge o metrical proof of D ini s statement that the second class of

pseud o spherical surfaces of r otatio n is composed o f a single surface which is ,
equivalent to saying that the pseudosphere is always bent into a pseud o sphere ,
that is it is identical with itself if bent when the m eridians a r e retained as

, ,
me r idians H e rst showed that the radius of geodesic curvature of every

.
pa r allel of a pseudosphe r e being equ al to the length of the tangent to the

,
me r idian cu r ve between its p o int of tangency and the axis of r evolution is a co n ,
stant R where I/R is the total curvature of the surface H aving p r oved
2
.
that geodesic c u rvature is an invariant o f bending he then O bserved that when , ,
the pseudosphere is so deformed that its meridian curves remain meridian curves ,
the r adius of a geodesic cur vature of eve r y parallel cir cle of the de formed surface
is B that its meridians a r e theref o re curves with tangents of constant length
, ,
and that they must therefore be identical in fo r m with the meridians of the
o r iginal su r face since to o ne v alue fo r the tangent length there corresp o nds but
,
one t r actrix .
He also showed at this time that the area and volume of a pseudosphere are
, ,
eq u al to those of a sphe r e with the same n umerical value of curvature thus ,
m aking an analogy betwee n the simplest forms of surfaces of rotatio n w ith co n

stant positive curvature and constant negative curvature .
. . .
5 . to 1 868 the only su rfa c es of constant negative curvature that had bee n
Up
determined and studied were surfaces of rotation and heli co idal surfaces T o .
these were added a n e w group O f su r faces by E e e 42

in 1 86 8 In a
n n p r .
memoir written in that year h e determined all the su r faces of co n stant curva
tu r e one o f whose families o f lines of curvat u r e is comp o sed of plan e curves or
,
of spheri c al curves As he showed the presence of a system of plane lines of

.
,
curvature on a surface of constant curvature requires that the second system of

lines of curvatu r e should be spherical and conversely moreover the planes o f , , ,
the one system meet in a straight line and the c ente r s of the spheres of the other
systems lie on that line T he surfaces p o ssessing these char acteristics whether
.
,
of positive or n egative constant curvature have since been called En n e pe r s ,

s u rfaces .
T he determination of surfaces with either plane o r spherical lines of curva

ture had alr eady been attacked by Jo achim s thal B onnet and S erret and Bonnet 9 , ,
in particular examined su r faces fo r which the lines of curvature of the on e

family are plane and those o f the other family are spherical and showed that ,
for surfaces of rotation the lines of the one system are in planes all of which
pass t hrough the same st r aight line and the ce n tres of the spheres o n which are

traced the spherical li n es of curvature can lie o n a right line .
En n e pe r co n sidered surfaces of constan t curvature not of rotatio n a n d set
1 1
R 1132 9
2,
assuming it and v as the para m eters of the li n es of cur vature of which to a

co n stant are the plan e lines of curvature an d R , and R2 are the princip al radii
of curvature P utti n g
.
1 1 1 t 1l 1 + t
(1 ) _
B, 9 1 + t

R2 g l
t

and employing the equatio n s

a i/ Z l ai/ E V7}

6
=
'
6 2) 18 , R
I: 6c da Ez Rl 6n
he obtained the following equation in t

3 1
6 tan t a tan
" 1
t 1 t
3
1
2 2 2 2
60 6 73 1 t 29
and the equatio n s for E and G,
1 1 + t 1 l t
3 1/ E VG
D e n oti n g by a the angle the plane it a co n stant makes with the surface si n ce ,
H I STO R I CA L D EV E LO PMEN T O F P SEU D OS P HE R I CAL S U R F AC ES . 25
R1 B 2 a
( )
4 ct n a a functi o n of it alone ,
1/ 5 21
.
h e substituted the n ew variable

u
,
ctn a du .
He obtai n ed from (3 ) and (4 ) a di ffere n tial equatio n fo r t Integrating .
this equatio n an d substituting the value thus obtained for t i n equatio n he

di ffere n tiated the resulting equation twice with respect to u an d arrived at a
differenti al equatio n for v T he integral of this equatio n
.
1
2
A cosh 2n B sinh 214, 0,
S in
,
<7
contain s three arbitrary co n stants T he form o f the surface depends upo n the
.
value of these constants and the relation that exists between them .
En n e pe r concluded there was n o loss of generality in putting B 0 and ,
investigated accordingly L ate r Kuen 85 showed that thereby a class o f surfaces

.
was overlooked .
After considerable reductio n s in which the two equations ,
0 A cosh 2v1 ( r, = function of 1) alon e )
(In
,
= 0 + A c o s h2u , 1 ,
a;
formed a chief element he proved that the planes of the lines of curvature u
,
a constant meet i n a straight line and that the l in es of curvature v a constant

,
lie on sphe r es that cut the surface orth o g o n ally and whose centers lie on the
st r aight line
.
In choosi n g the x ed li ne as the axis of z an d representing by (t the angle

between the intersecti on of the plane with the my plane and the axis of :8 b e ,
d e ned the surface by the followin g three equations ,
x s in
dc!
) sin '
0
7. 6 c!
)
( C A co s h2 v, ) dv
dv sin 2
or Ou

where (I
) satises the equatio n
2 2
0 1 4
sin '
o .
2
9
.
. . .
A detailed study surfac es was made by Bo ckwo ldt 5"i n 1 8 74

of En n e pe r

s
for surfaces of co n sta n t positive curvature and by L e n z 6"in 1 8 79 for surfaces

of constant n e gative curvature i n which the co or dinates of points o n the surface
'
are exp r essed in elliptic functions of the two parameters .
T here i s one case and it was considered by En n e pe r in which th e sur face is
expressed thr o ugh the elementary fun ctions namely when a is con stant a n d B , ,
"
as be fore is zero H e then took .
1
0 2
sm
'
0
a n d the equation of the surface becomes
z =
Z + l/ g
1 z z z 2
tan i

co s a
g s n a (v fl/
i z 2 2
S 111 0 10 g
g sin a + n s n a x y
g
'
z xz z
g s in a
n s in a
y
an equation which shows that the surface is generated by a tractrix whose ver
tex describes a helix on a right circular cylinder T his is Dini s helicoidal sur .

face and it is thus found to occupy a special p o sitio n in the En n e pe r s s urfaces

.
Kuen in an interesting paper in 1 8 84 set f o rth in a clear light the relatio n s

35
between the surfaces determined by En n e pe r and th o se whi c h could be derived

from the three s urfaces of rotation by B ian chi s method for deriving o ne pseudo

spherical surface from another w hen the geodesic curves with reference to which
they a r e d e rived meet at a point at innity ?
6 G eodesic lines and their orthogonal trajecto r ies were the only curves co n
.
1
s ide re d on pseudosphe r ical surfaces until 1 870 when En n e pe r began to write
on asymptotic cu rves S ince re al asy m ptotic curves cannot exist except o n sur
.
faces of negative curvature En n e pe r began his investigations on the subje c t for

,
these s ur faces only afterwards supposing the cu r vature t o be c o nstant as well

,
as n egative Asymptotic curves on pseudospherical s u rfaces possess peculiar

.
properti e s that render them imp o rtant in the innitesim al defor m ation of a s u r m
face and in the derivin g of a new pseudospherical surface f r om one that is

known . Fo r the latter operation it is impo r tant to kno w the exp re ssion for the
linea r element o f the surface referred to asymptotic curves En n e pe r f o und . .
this exp r essi o n by inserting in the C odazz i M ainardi fundamental equations -
60 60 6F
E
H F ZF

a E D

6 D a
76 F

Z
3 VE G F 2 2 (E G ) l/ E G F 2
Page 5 6 .
H I S TO R I CAL D EVE L O PME N T O F P S EU D O S P HE R I CA L SU R F AC E S .
60 6E
E F

au av D D
0
BF 6C 60
QG F G
a

a D a av au D
an 2 (E G F 2
) 1/ E 0 _ F 2
6E 6
G F
TE 76

. D
0
N E G F
a
"
the v alues D 0 D and K
,
a consta n t which are the condi
0 : l/R 2 ,
tions that the lines a a constant and v a c o n stant shall be asymptotic

: :
z
c urves on a sur face with curvature B
l/ H e thus r educed the equations to .
CE 6G 60 6E
0 F m E F f
5 ? ar af

m

f r om which he saw that F is a f u n ctio n of u alone and G is a function of '

0
alone so that the expressio n for the linear eleme n t may be written
,
z 2
d3 2
du 2q dv ( 20
an d the equ atio n for the c u rvature K beco m es

2
1 1 6 2 a)
K
R 2
s in 2 6) Bu 6 1)
whe r e 2w the angle betwee n the asymptotic cu r ves an d F cos 2a) .
En n e pe r discovered the famous theore m known as E n n e pe r s theorem that

,
the square of the r adius o f torsion of an asy m ptotic c u rve at every point is equal
to the product of the principal radii of curvature of the surface at that point ,
with the minus sign placed before it In proving this theorem he obtained the
.
two follo wing equations for the curvature l /p an d the torsion l /r o f the v v
asymptotic curve 1) a constant

, ,
VI?
'
1 6v 1 D
the rst of which shows that its geodesic curvature is equal t o its curvature ,
and the second that its torsio n squa r ed is equal i n value but O pp o site in sign to
the curvature o f the surface an d is co n sequently constant when the curvature of
,
the surface is co n stant .
En n e pe r also remarked that if one s u r face is appli e d o n a n othe r one syste m ,

only of asymptotic curves o n the rst surface can by any possibility pass over
into asymptotic curves on the second su r face as for example the generators of , , ,
a skew surface .
In the same year D ini made a study of aym pto tic curves
,
7
S upposing the .
surface t o be r e presented upon a S phere after the method of G auss he denoted ,
its linear element referred to a r bit r ar y parameters 21 and O by .
( 78
2
E da 2
N e w ( 1 G dt
z
i
and the sphe r ical image of its linear ele m ent by

g
2
G dv
' '
2
( 78 F du 2F da dc .
"
H e de r ived the C odazz i M aina r di eq u ations fo r the coeffi ci e nts E F and G

-

for the coefcients D D D of the second f u nda m ental di fferential expres
'
, , ,
sion f o r the s u rface and int r od u cing the conditions necessary in order that the
pa r ametri c lines on the sphe r e shou ld represent the asy m ptotic curves of a sur
face o f n egative cu r vat ur e #
2
he red u ced these equations to
,
%
l I
E
a 5
? a
_ F
a
F
6 1) 6 26 7)
6
and to
"
CE 60
_ 0 0
an 6 2
when u is a constant
,
. .
H is expression for the spherical representation of the linear element is there

fo r e
,
th
2 2 z
ds 2 F du de cin
'
e
and for the linear element of the s ur face itself it is

2
dc
'
2
?
du 2 F du clv -
d8 2 a
,u.
for in an ea rlier paper he had re m a r ked that the a r c lengths of asymptotic curv e s
are always p r opo r tional to the arc lengths o f thei r spheri c al image in the ratio
of the c urvatu r e of the sphere to the cu r vature of the su r face and that the angle
between two asymptotic cu r ves on the su r face is the supplement of the angle
between the two lines that represent them on the sphere .
D ini was the r st t o obse r ve f ro m the fo r m of this exp re ssion that asym p
to tic curv e s divide a surfa c e into innitely small lozenges

H a zz idakis
59
went .
a step f u rther than D ini and f o und the ar e a of one of thes e loz enges to be
A B 0 + D 2 7: whe r e A B 0 D r epresent its four angles
, ,
He ,
.
o btained this val u e by integrating along its bo u ndary the equation f o r the ar ea
of the quad r ilate r al
H I S TO R I CA L D EVE L O PMEN T O F P SEU D OS P HE R I CAL S U R F AC ES . 29
ff s in 2 wdu dv ,
where sin 2 a) is given by the equatio n for the measure of curvature K ,
2
1 6 2w
K : 1
sin 2 a) an 6 2)
V oss 71
approached the subject of asymptotic c u rves f r om the c o nside r ation of
equi distan t c u rves He gave that na m e to a system of curves o n a surfa c e which
-
.
form a net work of quad r ilaterals whose opposite side are equal H is expres
-
.
sion f o r the linear element of the surface when u a constant an d v a con ,
stant represent these lines becom e s ,
( 28
2
du 2
2 cos 2 m du dc dc z
whe r e 2 6) the o btuse angle o f a qu ad r ilate r al T o nd the surface for which .
the equi distant curves are asy m ptotic lines he made the necessary substitutions
-
in the C od azzi M ainardi equations

-
D = O,
. D
H
= O
F : 1 G 1,
and r e duced the m to two pa r tial di ffe r ential equati o ns

I
D
0,
whose common solution is

D
. E a cons t an t
F2
T his expressi o n denotes the measure of c u rvat ur e of the s u rface with the n e ga
tive si gn s o that Voss thus pr o ved that only u p o n surfaces of constant negative
,
curvature can a system of equi distant c ur ves be composed of asympt o tic lines
-
.
Voss also found the characteristic equati o n for surfaces of constant negative
curvat ur e 1 /B 2
6 2 2 a) sin 2w
2
au av B
by deforming the meridian and pa r allel c urv es of the pseudosphe r e into equ i
distant curv e s .
T he eq u ation fo r an asy m ptoti c c urve o n a pse u d o sphe re was deriv e d by

Belt r ami 48 in 1 8 7 2 In that year he publish e d a paper wh o s e title O n th e
.
,
S urface of Rotation that serves as a Type f o r all P s e ud o spherical S u r faces ,
shows the natu r e of its contents In o r der to obtain a set of eq u ati o n s for the
.
su r face h e called the axis of r otation the axis of z the plane of the m axim u m ,
parallel circle the 06 y plane the angle measured on this plane that an y meridian
,
30 M C O DD I NG TO N
. .
makes with a xed meridian the an gle 4) and the acute angle that the tan gent
to the meridian at any poi n t makes with the axis of rotation the angle 6 His .
equation s for the co o rdinates a: 2 z of a point on the surface of curvature

are then
6
m = i
r s n 6 co s , y = r s in 6 s in d >, z = r o
g c tn - co s 6
2
E very point on the surface is therefore determined by the value of qb and 6 at

that point The expression for the linear e lement of the surface then becomes
.
2
d3 2
( ctn 6 d 6 2
sin2 6 dd? )
and may be transformed into the usual form
( 23
2
(I
n
2
9
3
6
4 "
d
by means of the equations

s in 6= = v,
while if R I and R 2 denote the principal radii of curvature

, ,
RI = r c tn 6, E2 = r t an
~
6 .
Beltrami began the study of asym ptotic curves from a very interesting point of
view He considered rst a curve which he dened as the curve of in te rse c
.
tion of the surface with the tangent plane to it at the point 6 6 of the m eri 0

dian lying in the m2 plane He proved with respect to this curve that it has
.
two branches goi n g out from the point of tangency ( 6 60 ) each of which
makes an angle 6 with the tan gent to the meridian curve and that when very
0
small arc len gths of the osculating circles of those two bran ches meas u red from
the bran c h point are revolved about the axis of 2 they will generate a surface
differing by a quality of the fourth order o n ly from the original surface The .
two branches of the c urve of intersection since their planes of osculation are the ,
tangent plane to the surface at the point 6 6 will coi n c ide respectively with 0
the two asymptotic curves of the surface goi n g thro u gh that point ; accordingly
Beltrami remarked that if two asymptotic lines be drawn through a point on a
meridian curve they will each make an angle with the tangent to the meridian
at that point that is equal to the angle which that same tangent makes with the
axis of rotation He built up the following series of propositions on this
.
theorem :
S ince the equation for the sine of the angle I which any curve makes with
the geodesic meridian c urve 6 60 is given by
6 1/ G (Z
1) 7 s n
'
i 6d

2
an a; ( 18
and when the curve is an asympto tic c u i ve p 6, the arc length of an a sym p
to tic curve is given by
32 E . M C O DD IN G TO N
. .
1 65 am ? are
da
d
)
an
.
a?) 2 8 7) au
l/ E G
2
F
He moreover showed that since the linear ele m ent of the s u rface remain s
, ,
uncha n ged when the surface is bent and e is so small that when raised to the ,
second power it may be neglected it m ust happen that ,
2 dw dn = 0 ,
or x y 2 may be regarded as the co o rdinates of a point on the second surface

, , .
that corresponds to the rst by the orthogonality of its elements .
A second theorem of bending that relates to surfac es of negative curvature is

that When two surfaces are asso c iated that is when the bending in variant of the , ,
one at every point is equal to the distance of the tangential plane at correspond
ing points of the other from the origin the total curvature of one of the s u r ,
fa c es must be n egative The disco very both of the existence of such pairs of
.
surfaces an d of the theorem concerning the m is the work of Bianchi 39 T h e .
associated surface of pseudospherical surfac es have been studied within the

1"
9
past few years by C o s se rat 13 31
G uichard , and Voss
'
1
.
The use of asy mptotic lines in the transformation of one pseudospherical s u r

fac e into another will be considered later It is ne c essary here to t u rn to the .
development of the geometry of lines on these surfac es .
7 While the mathematicians of France Italy and G ermany were discovering

.
,
the various properties of surfaces of negative constant curvature and adding

'
from time to time to the development of their theory so as to make them take
an important position in the class of surfaces of constant curvature co ns idering ,
them merely as a ne c essary adjunct to the completion of the study of that class ,
another topic of more general interest was attracting the attention of men all
over the world This matter was none other than the recognition tha t; E u clid s
.

fth postulate equivalent to the statement that only one line parallel to a xed
,
line can be drawn throu gh a point is not capable of demonstration from the pre
,
ceding hypotheses .
Grau s s among others gave some study to the subject and recogni z ed in con
2
n e c tio n with it the existence of a new geometry which he called the non ,
E uclidian and which he distinguished from the E uclidian by the essential char
,
ac te r is tic that in it there is never any similitude in the gures without equality .
G auss never published a complete exposition of his theories but referred to ,
them occasionally in various papers since published in the G o ttingen edition of

his works and in his correspondence with S c humacher It is in a letter to the .
latter that he gave the now familiar expression for the semi circumference of a -
circle with radius 7 in the non E uclidian geometry

'
-
,
WA
7 '
1

7
K K
( e e
) (K z a c o n s ta n t)
2
H ISTO RI CAL DE V EL OPM EN T OF PS E U D OSPH ER I CA L SU R F ACE S .
and remarked that for the E uclidian geometry If becomes innitely great but ,
G auss contributions to the new geometry were slight in comparison to those of

L o b atche wsky .
h k
In 1 83 1 L o b atc e ws y produced a pamphlet on the theory of parallel lines

,
of which G auss said in another letter to S c humacher I have found in the work ,
of L ob atc he wsky no surface n e w to me but the statement is entirely di e re n t

,

from that I had contemplated .
In this pamphlet L o b atch e ws ky set forth a whole imaginary geometry based

,
on the hypothesis that two lines parallel to a third may be drawn through a
point and demonstrate d a series of propositions analogous to those of the E uclid
ian geometry I n 1 8 5 4 Riemann 3 wrote his renowned Habilitatio n s chrift in
.

which he introduced for hyperspace of any di m ensions the idea of three kinds of
c onstant curvature positive zero and negative In particular he c onsidered
, ,
.
two fold space and stated that all surfaces of positive curvature are developable
-
upon a sphere and all those of z ero curvature upon a cylinder S urfaces of .

negative c urvature he said will touch the cylinder externally and be found
, ,

like the inner position (towards the axis ) of the surface of a ring He made .
the further statement that the surfaces with positi ve curvature can always be
so formed that gures may also be moved arbitrarily about upon them without
bending namely they may be formed into sphere surfaces ; b u t not those with
,

negati ve curvature He thus suggested the idea of a geometry on surfa c es of
.
constant negative curvature as opposed to spherical and plane E uclidian geom

e try N o mathematician ho wever connected the n ew geometry of L o b atch
.
, ,
e w s ky
with the geometry of pseudospherical surfaces until Beltrami wrote his essay
o n the non E uclidian geometry in
-
which he showed analytically that all the
propositions and theorems of the new geometry can be reali z ed by means of
g u res lying upon such a surface .
His method of proof was based upon such a choice of parameters at and 1) that
a linear equation between them represents a geodesic line on the surface C on .
sequently the surface may be represented upon a plane in such a way that its
geodesic lines become straight lines Beltrami 28 wrote a paper in 1 8 6 5 on this
.
representation showing that it is possible only for surfaces with constant curva
ture and that it is analogous to the central projection of a sphere together with
,
its linear substitutions .
He represented the geodesic lines by

an 61) c 0
and the straight line on the plane by

ax by c 0
so that the equations for transforming the one into the other are
34 E M C O DD I NG TO N
. . .
v = y,
and the plan e and surface correspond to each other point to point .
S ince the general di fferential e quation of any geodesic curve is
I
2 ( du d 2
v d 2
u dv ) 0 E G _F 2
( )
'
6 13 6F 6G 5E 6E 6F
2E
+ G 3F + 2 F
du g d?)
an j
dz 6 16 Eu au
6E 60 80 5F 60 3
6
2G +E du d 2
20
+ 3F 2 0
E E W 55 5
and in the case considered this must become

2 z
du d d u ( ll) : 0,
he saw that the coef cient of each term of the right hand member of the equa -
tion must vanish identically so that the reduction furnishes a s e t of equation s

whose integrals give for E F and G the values ,
R 2
R 2 2 2
E F
uv
G
(u + a
)
where l/R is the curvature of the surface and a is an arbitrary constant

2
.
He was thu s able to write down at once the expression for the linear element
of a surface with con stant positive curvature
z
R ( )
2 2 2 2 2 3
2 ( a
0
) du i du d v ( at u
) dv
d .
? 2 2 2
( u + v + a
)
l
which he changed into
)
z
R 2
v
2
) du
2
q du dv (a
2

2
) dv
2
ds
for pseudospherical surfaces by w riting R and a for R 2 2 2

and a " .
This expression for the linear element w as his starting point for his investi
gatio n s on the non E uclidian geometry in 1 8 6 8 and from it he developed other
-
properties peculiar to the surface and to L o b atche wsky s imaginary plane He

.
observed that if 6 be the angle between two lines 11 a constant and v a .
constant that
l/ a
z u z vz
a
cos 6 ,
si n 6=
By using polar co o rdinates r and (1) he found a second expression for the linear
element for the surface
HI STO R I CAL DE V EL OPM EN T O F PS E U D OSPH ER I CAL SU R F ACE S .
2 2 2
7
,
d4)
( 173
2
R 2
2 2 2
a r
1
?
From this he derived equations for the length p of a geodesic line (I) a con
stant and for the are 0 of a geodesic circle r
'
a const ant or as he called it a , ,
geodesic circumference ,
R
p
_
lo g
a
m 10 g
a + r
2 2 a
-
a l/ u
g
Fp

7
~
7 = a tan h
r
p
a = qSR s in h .
His expression for the circumference of a geodesic circle is therefore simi lar to
to the one found by G auss ,
R R
) R ( P / P/

7r e e
From these equations he saw that the curve whose equation is
M 0
2
a
2
bounds the region of real values He remarked that when the surface is re pre
.
sented upon a plane this curve becomes a circle which he called the limiting
circle because all the points corresponding to real points on the surface lie
within it all those corresponding to the ideal or imaginary points on the surface
,
lie without it and the points on its circu mference correspond to innitely far off
poin ts on the surface He also showed that the geodesic lines of the surface
.
become chords of th is circle and that since two points fully determine a chord
, ,
two points will determine a geodesic line .
From the equation for 6 he further observed the nature of the parametric lines
on the surface that they consist of two systems of geodesic lines which are so
,
related to each other that the two fundamental lines o 0 v 0 meet at right , ,
angles at the origin while the co o rdinate lines u a con stant are orthogonal to
v 0 and the co o rdinate lines o a constant are orthogonal to u 0
He showed by a rigorous proof that any two lines that o u t each other o rtho g
o n ally may be chosen for the fundamental lines in stead of u 0 v 0 and ,
that conseque n tly any geodesic line may be made to c oincide wit hany other and
the surface superposed upon itself for changing the pair of orthogonal geo
,
desic lines intersecting at the origin into any other set of orthogonal geodesic
lines through any other point does not alter the form of the expression for the
linear element .
These two characteristics the s u pe rpo s ab ility of the surface upon itself and
,
the determination of a geodesic line by two points Beltrami called the funda ,
. . .

mental criteria of elementary geometry and since they belong equally to pseudo ,
spherical surfaces and to the L o b atche wskian plane he said : I t becomes ,
evident that the theorems of the plane non E uclidian geometry exist u n c o n -

ditio n ally for all the surfaces of constant negative curvature .
Th e keystone of the non E uclidian geometry is the proposition that two

-
straight lines can be drawn through an y xed point parallel to a given straight
line Beltrami proved this proposition by means of his geodesic representation
.
of the pseudospherical surface on the plane in the following manner : rst it is

necessary to show that the angle between two geodesic lines intersecting at a
real nite point on the surface is never 0 nor but that the angle may be 0
or 7r when the curves intersect at a point of innity I f this angle is repro .
sented by I and the angle on the plane between two chords corresponding to the

'
geodesic lines be represented by [ and the angles which the chords make with
r
the axis of X by y and 2 respectively \l l and are related by mean s of the

2
1

.
,
equation
Ml/
'
2 2 v2 s in
( a u
) \l
r
tan l
xr
2 '
cos sin u )
a c o s xr
l ( v co s p
u s in
v :2 a
? 2 2
the right hand member of which can only be zero when u
-
0 a that is '
,
when the two chords meet on the perimeter of the circle consequently the angle ,
is 0 only when the geodesic curves meet at a point at innity which corresponds
with the point of intersection of the chords on the peri m eter of the limiting
circle .
When a given geodesic and a given point on the surface are represented by a
chord of the limiting circle on the plane and a point within its perimeter two ,
of the chords drawn through that point will meet the rst chord at its e xtre m i
ties o n the circumference of the circle therefore the two geodesic lines which , ,
correspond to the two chords will meet the given geodesic line at innity mak ,
ing with it an angle 0 and they will therefore both be parallel to it though
dra w n through one poi nt .
Following the line of thought laid do wn by L o batch e wsky Beltrami next ,
dened the angle of parallelism II as half the angle between the two geodesic
lines drawn through a xed point parallel to a gi ven geodesic line To deter .
mine tan II he constructed the corresponding angle and lines on the plane He .
chose the center of the limiting circle to represent the xed point and the line
corresponding to the geodesic bisector of the angle of parallelism for the axis of
so so that the co ordinates of the extremities of the chord representing the given
geodesic line are (x y) and (90

, He could then write
,
l/ a
z 2
x
tan II = g=
a:
and from the equation

HISTO R I CAL DE V ELO PM EN T O F PS E U D O SPH ER I CAL SU R F ACE S 37
= 1/ u 2 + = tan hB le n g th of g e o d esi c b is ec to r )
z
r v a .
(p
R
,
he could obtain for x along the ax is , y 0, the value
x a tanh I1 ,
B
so that on the sur face
1
tan H a

sinh 1
R
a form e quivalent to the one given by L o batche wsky .

By means of the above equation he was able to express M inding s equation
for the an gl e of a geodesic triangle in terms of the angles of parallelism of the
sides and thu s obtain the fundamental equation of the non E uclidian trigonometry -
sin II ( 6 ) sin H ( 0 )
cos A co s II ( 6 ) cos II ( c ) 1
sin II ( a )
where a b c are the sides and A B 0 the angles of the triangle
, , , ,
.
Finally he found the area of a triangle to be proportional to its spherical

deciency a fact which results from G auss theorem that its total curvature is
,

equal to the sum of its an gles m inu s

From the theorems of pure geometry Beltrami returned to the s u bject of the
three different forms of the pseudospherical surface of rotation He rst found .
the equation for a geodesic circle or as he called it a geodesic circumference

,
whose center is the point u v and whose radius is p to be

, , ,
2
a uu
0
2 w p
cosh
l/
z z 2 2 R
( )( a 3) u

0 at u 0
and by mean s of it he deduced that the expression for the linear element assumes
one of the three di fferent forms given by D ini ,
2
u z 2
ds 2
(du sinh dv ) ,
R
2 2 zu R z
ds (du e dv ) ,
2 2 2
ds (du cosh
according as to whether the centers of the geodesic circumferences chosen for

one family of parametric curves are real at innity or ideal that is whether o n , ,
the plane the corresponding points lie w ithin the limiting circle on its pe rimeter
, ,
or entirely without it .
He also remarked upon the peculiar properties of the three types of geodesic
38 E . M C O DD I NG TO N
. .
circumferences how those of the third type with a common center are parallel
, ,
to a geodesic curve a property which belongs to all geodesic circles on a sphere

, ,
but which b elongs only to geodesic circles with an ideal center on a pse u do sphe ri
cal surface ; how a geodesic circle of the second type is identical with what is
known as the limiting circle or ho ricycle of L o b atc he wsky that is a cur ved , ,
line such that all the perpendiculars erected at the middle point of its chords are
parallel to each other ; how the geodesic lines orthogonal to a family of geodesic
circles of the rst type go through a common point usually chosen for the origi n
(u v 0
In this same paper in speaking of the three types of surfaces of rotation
,
which correspond to the above three forms of the linear element he remarked ,
that in the actual application of a surface of rotation of the rst type upon a
pseudospherical surface of a di fferent form it is necessary to make a slit in the ,
surface from the point of intersection ( u c O ) of the meridian curves in

order to apply the pseudospherical cap about the point ( u v 0 ) u pon '
the second surface He went on to observe that surfaces of rotation of the sec
.
ond or third type have each a minimum parallel circle that for the last named ,
surface this minimu m circle is the geodesic curve to which all the other par
,
allel circles are parallel and that at equal distances from it on either side lie two , ,
m aximum parallel circles between which lies the re al part of the surface and that
when a pseudospherical surface is applied upon a surface of rotation of the sec

ond or third type it may be wrapped about it an innite n umber of times These .
properties though evident from the drawi n gs of pseudospherical surfaces at the

end of M inding s memoir in vol ume XIX of C r e lle s J o u r n a l were not de

,
scribed by him nor were they spoken of in any of the papers previously mentioned .
8 Beltrami wrote a paper in 1 8 7 2 devoted exclusively to the subject of the

.
48
pseudosphere m aking therein a partic u lar study of its asymptotic and geodesic
,
curves His theorems on geodesic lines following in natural order after his
.
,
remarks in regard to these curves in his E ssay on the I nterpretation of the

N on E uclidian G eometry will now be considered

-
.
,
If the expression for the linear element of the pseudosphere of curvature

1 /r be written in the usual form
2
z e Za /r
ds do e d 2
where the parameter 0 represents the arc length of any meridian curve and the
parameter ct denotes the angle that that meridian makes with a xed meridian
measured on the plane of the maximum parallel the general equation for the ,
radius of geodesic curvature of a curve becomes
p :
z 27 '
2
)
y
O d
40 E. M C O DD I NG TO N
. .
that the L o batche wskian geometry is a geometry such as that of the imaginary
spherical surface X 2
1 2
Z2= 1 (spoken of by D ini page 1 8 ) and that
7
,
the i m aginary surface may be bent without extension or contraction into the real

surface considered by Beltrami .
He remarked that this bendi ng is an imaginary process for the points and
lines on the rst surface are imaginary and those on the second are real whil e ,
the angles and distances are real on both su rfaces He denoted the co o rdinates
'
of a point on the imaginary sphere of curvature 1 by X ! Z and th e , , ,
c o erdin ate s of a point on a pseudosphere of the same curvature by x y 2 He , , .
w as then able to transfer the linear element on the surface denoted by
2 2 7 2 2
( 23 d) ? ( 21 olZ
into the linear elements of the pseudosphere represented by

2 z z
d3 dro dy dz ,
by means of the three sets of equation s

13 u o
X 17 : Z
l/ l l/ l l/ l
g v2 z v2 2
u u zl,
v
'
e
2L
6
x = co s sm 6, y= sm sm 6, z = lo g c tn cos 6,

.
where u an d v are Beltrami s parameters w hich when linearly connected re pre

,
sent a geodesic curve .
Having established the fact that the ima ginary sphere is transformable into a
real pseudosphere C ayley proceeded to consider the geodesic curves on the r st
,
surface The equation of a geodesic curve on the imaginary sphere may b e

.
written in the form s imilar to that of a geodesic curve on a real sphere
d X + 61 + 7
CZ 0 (a ,
b,
but C ayley observed that since for a point corresponding to a real poin t of a
pseudosphere X is a pure imaginary and ! and Z are real we se e that for a , ,
geodesic corresponding to a real geodesic of the pseudosphere X must be a

pure imaginary and X and Z real In order to have all the coefcients real he
.
therefore made the substitutions

K P = iX
, Q = LX + K
by mean s of which the equation becomes

%ia

01
~
AP + B Q +
HISTO R I C AL D E V EL O P M E NT O F PS E U D OSPH ER I CAL SU R F ACE S . 41
where A B and C are all re al Applying the same equations of transforma

,

.
tion to this equation as he had formerly applied to the imaginary sphere to

deform it into a pseudosphere he found that the equation assumes the form
which is the form obtained by Beltrami for the geodesic curves on a pseudo
sphere.
Thus C ayley proved that the imaginary surface and the real surface are so
related to each other that to every point and to every geodesic line of the one
there corresponds a point and a geodesic line of the other .
C ayley applied the same method of projection on the plane of the greatest
parallel to the case of a geo desic line that cuts a meridian curve at right angles ,
as Beltram i had applied to asymptotic curves By tracing the course of the .
projected line he saw that it continues to cut at right angles the radius of the
maximum circle into which the meridian is projected that in the neighborhood ,
of the circumference of the circle it is almost a straight line and that the further
away the point of intersection of the meridian cur ve with the geodesic line on
the surface lies from the plane of the unit circle the nearer the projectio n of the
,
line approaches the center of the circle and the more curved it becomes while ,
the circle itself is an envelope of geodesic lines .
The question as to whether Beltrami s geodesic projection of a pse u do sphe r

ical surface on a plane may represent the whole plane of L o b atche wsky s geom
82
e tr
y was asked by Hilbert and answered by him in the negative for he
1
,
proved that it is impossible to construct an analytic surfac e with constant nega

tive curvature that contains no singularities First he assumed that such a sur
.
face can be constructed and showed that in that case it will be completely
,
covered by a net work composed of two families of asymptotic lines for he

-
proved that no one of these lines ever intersects one of the curves of the family
to whi ch it does not belong more than once and never intersects a member of
its o wn family and that they have no double points or singularities of any kind
,
.
He then saw that the surf ace can be regarded as bounded by four of these

asymptotic lines no matter what its extent may be and that by D ini s theorem
its area will never be greater than 271 O n the other hand he recalled G auss
expression for the area of a geodesic circle with radius p on a surfa c e of curva
ture 1 R2 ,
R w (e P R
e
and saw that if he supposed the surface to be bounded by such a circle with a
,
r adius indenitely great its area must be greater than 2 72 S uch an in co n s ist
,
ency between the two methods of measurement showed him that there must be
singularities somewhere on the surface and that therefore the projection of such
,
an analytic s u rface does not represent the whole of L o b ats c he w Sky s plane
.
. .
9 . I t remained for Klein ;to reconcile these two geometries the P seudo ,
spherical geometry of Beltrami and the non E uclidian geometry of L o b atche wsky -
with still a third the M etrical geometry of C ayley

,
.
C ayley rst originated this geometry in 1 85 9 as a result of h

1*
is studies on ,
the projective properties of points lines and planes I n this connection he ,

.
,
considered the distance between t wo points (x1 y,) and (x2 y2) on a plane as , ,
denoted by the formula

x1 m2 + y1 y2
CO S
and between two points (x 1 , y1 , z

) (x2
l , y2 , on a sphere by the formula
x1 x2 + yl y2 + z z
1 2
cos
where x1 y1 z l ac, y, z, are ordin ary rectilinear co o rdinates C ayley observed

'
.
,
that the rst formula might represent the angle between the polars of the points
with respect to a conic whose equation is
+ y = 0
2 2
x
and the second the angle between the polars of the points with respect to a
,
spherical conic whose equation is
Therefore in order to measure the distance between any two points on a plane ,

he assumed an imaginary conic which he called the absolute and formed the

expression
-
1
CO S
l/ (a , b, c l , y, , b, c
Q a
c
z, y, ,
where and are the homogeneous c o ordIn a te s of the and

'
w, yl , 2
1
x2 , y2 , z
2 po m ts
2 2 2 2
( a , b, o
g r
e , y , z
) ( L90 by 02 : O ,
is the equation of the conic .
He observed the fact that the two points together with the points of inter
section of their binding line with the absolute are in involution and that two
system s in involution are ho m o grapically related He also discovered that if ,
line co o rdinates are used instead of point c o erdin ate s exactly the same formula
will measure the angle between two lines and that in that case these lines and , , ,
the tangents drawn to the absolute from their point of intersection are in in vo
lu tio n .
C ayley himself never applied his theories to the case of pseudospherical sur
faces but Klein perceiving that if he assumed a general formula
, .
HI STO R I CA L DE V ELOPM EN T O F PS E U D OSPH ER I CA L SU R F ACE S .
_1 (a , be 0
0 55 1,
z )
z
2i 0 00 8
for the measure of distance between two points on a plane he could derive from ,
it C ayley s expression by puttin g for U the value i/2 and the expression of the

E uclidian geometry by letting 0 become innitely great introduced as a third

value for 0 a real nite quantity and thus obtained an expression that satises
,
the requirements of the theorems of the non E uclidian geometry -

.
Klein denoted the absolute in homogeneous point c o O rdin ate s by
sothat the general expression for the distance between two points a: and y
becomes
a .

y
V m

w
where and 0 W are the expressions which result when the c o O rdin ate s
u
.
1
ge
l , :3
3
of the point
,
x or the co O rdin ate s y
, y, y,
of the point y are se t in , ,
Q and,
is the consequence of putting the co Ordin ate s of a: in the polar of y
or con versely .
He changed this general expression into the equivalent for m
n e w
and observed that the expression under the sign of the logarith m is the anhar
monic ratio formed by the two points x and y and the points of intersection
with the absolute of the line joining them .
He obtained a similar expression for the distance between two lines re pre
sented by u an d v namely
<I
D (I
)
0 log it no
when (I) 0 is the equation of the absolute in ho mogeneous line c o O rdin ate s .
He saw that both expression s u nder the sign of the logarithm are anharmonic
ratios the rst formed of four points the second of four lines each of which
, , , ,
according to C ayley belongs to a system in involution and that therefore every

, ,
point in a line except the points of its interse c tion with the absolute may be
linearly transformed in every other point and every ray in a pencil except the ,
two tangent to the absolute may be linearly transformed into every othe r ray
,
.
Klein investigated the nature of the absolute and discovered its characteristic
p roperties ; rst that since for an imaginary value of 0 it is imaginary for a
, ,
. . .
real value of 0 it m ust be re al and that in that case since only real distances
, , ,
are considere d the anharmonic ratio is positive and all real points lie within its
,
cir cumference ; second that it lies at innity for if a conic is assumed to be a

, ,
circle with a: as its center and y a point on its circumference its radius w ill be ,
by C ayley s formula equal to

2
1
0
22 0
1
co s
an
n
and will become innitely great when y lies on the circumference of the conic
0 0 third that it is impossible to determine the region outside of the ab so
,
W

lute the ideal region for by means of a linear transformation a man starting
, ,
from any point within the conic to walk to its innitely far o ff circumference at -
a uniform velocity will never reach it much less then will he know what lies ,
beyond .
He therefore concerned himself only with the points and angles within the
absolute and saw that for every line the fundamental elements are real but that ,
for each pen cil of rays they are ima ginary since no re al tangent can be drawn ,
from an interior point to the conic He then put for 0 the value 73 2 so that .

the sum of the an gles about a point i s the same as in ordinary plane geometry .
This description of the absolute that it is a real circle at innity within whose
,
circumference lie all real points is exactly the same as the denition of Belt
,
rami s limiting circle and Beltrami s expression

,

for the length of a geodesic li ne from the center of this circle is exactly the same
as Klein s if 0 R /2 C onsequently the propositions proved by Beltrami with

, .
respec t to parallel lines the angle of parallelism and trigonometrical ratios belong
,
equally to the metrical geometry an d may be solved by means of gures drawn

in the plane of the absolute .
This geometry Klein called the Hyperbolic geometry and the spherical and
E uclidean geometries he called E lliptic and P arabolic respectively making the ,
distinction between them depend upon whether the right line has two real ,
imaginary or coincident points at innity He called the measure of distan c e

, .
of the Hyperbolic and E lliptic geometries the general metrical determ ination , ,
and that of the P arabolic the special metrical determination He remarked

, .
that the two may coincide at a point or in the n eighborhood of a point but that ,
at points at a dist ance from the point of contact the general m etrical determina ,
tion is greater or less than the special according as to whether the fundamental ,
.
conic is imaginary or real He designated as m easure of curvature the greatness

.
of the respective gain and loss and found that it is the same at every point and
, ,
that it is equal to 0 2
.
HISTO R I CAL DE V ELOPM EN T OF PSE U D OSPH ER I CA L SU RF ACE S . 45
'
He regarded all the points and line s on the plane as the p rojections of lines
'
and planes in space and the absolute as the section of a cone whose vertex lies
at a determined point in space and whic h passes through the circle of innity ,
and was able to prove that projective geometry can be completely developed
although absol u tely free from the question of metrical determination He thus
.
showed that the hyperboli c geometry since it has a real value for U is the geom
,
e try of surfaces with constant negative curvature and that the non E uclidian -
geometry the pseudospheri c al geometry and the hyperbolic geometry are essen
,
tially one and the same .

II
TH E S U RFAC E OF C E N T E RS AND TH E T RAN S FO RM AT I O N

O F P S E U D O S P H E RIC AL S U RFAC E S .
1
1. The theorem that 00 new pseudospherical surfaces may be derived from
one that is known an d the geometrical method for the determination of the n e w
63
surfaces were derived by Bianchi for a simple case only in 1 8 7 9 I n 1 8 8 1 the .
theorem was developed analytically so as to apply to a more general case by

86
B acklund and was geometrically interpreted for this general case by Bianchi 99
in 1 8 8 7
.
I n its gener aliz ed form the theorem m ay be stated as follows : if on a surface

of constant negative curvature 1 /R 2 a system of lines be cho sen whose prin
c i al normals at every point make a constant angle
p ( yr/2 a ) with the normal
to the surface at that point and if tangent lines be drawn to these curves on each
,
of which a constant length R co s a is m easured O R the extreme points of the

,
constant lengths on these tangent lines will lie upon a second surface which has
also constant negative curvature 1 /R and which can be completely determined
2
when the rst surface and a are known .
This theorem as here written was not announced all at one time nor was it
the work of a single man but i t is the result of the discoveries of many other
,
theorems and it represents the labor of many men of different nationalities .
It is necessary in tracing the gradual development of the theory which lies

16 99
beneath it to go back to Kummer s treatise on ray systems for Bianchi
,

,
observed that the tangent lines may be regarded as forming a congruence of

,
right lines for which the two pseudospherical surfaces are the focal surfaces .
Thus he pointed out that the whole theory of deriving new pseudospherical sur
faces fro m a gi ven one is dependent u pon Kummer s theorems
.
2 Kummer s paper entitled T h e Ge n e r a l T he o ry of C o n ru e n c e s of R i h

.
g g t
L in e s was published in 1 8 6 0 His deni tions and theorems which were afterward
.
used by Bianchi in the development of this theory may be brie y stated as fol
2
lows : suppose a syste m of ra y s to be composed of 00 right lines if all the rays ,
of this system pass through a surfac e arbitrarily chosen as a surface of reference ,
each ray is determined by its dire c tion cosines A ! Z and the co o rdinates
'
, ,
x y z of its point of intersection with the surface with reference to a set of

, ,
rectangular c o O rdin ate s in space I f the linear element of the surface of refer
.
46
. . .
3 Weingarten investigated a class of surfaces which are distinguished by the

.
property that at every point one of their principal radii of curvature is a func
tion of the other and which are now called IV surfaces S urfaces with con
,
-
.
stant negative curvature come under this heading and they are also connected
with this class of surfaces by the fact that every pseudospherical surface is a
n appe of the evolute of a W su rface .
Weingarten wrote two papers on these surfaces which appeared in G r e l l e s
17
J o u r n a l In the rs t p ublished in 1 8 6 1 he proved the theorem that the two
.
, ,
n appes of the evolute surface of a surface whose principal radii of curvature R 1

and R are bound together by a relation 13, QNIBI are each applicable upon a
2 ,
surface of rotation and that if the rst nappe corresponds to the lines of curva
, ,
ture u a constant of the in volute surface along which the principal radius of
curvature is denoted by R and the secon d n appe correspon ds to the lines of
,
curvature v a constant of the in volute surface along with the principal r adius
of curvature is represented by the expression for the linear elements of the
rst nappe assumes the form
(IR ;
ds i R:
(Z c
f z
du i
,
and that of the second nappe the for m
He also de m onstrated the con verse of this theorem that if a surface is develop , ,
able upon a surface of rotation it may be considered as a nappe of the e volute

,
of a surface whose radii of curvature are f u nctionally related .
As a special illustration of the con verse of this theorem Weingarten s u p ,
posed one o f the nappes of surface of centers to be developable upon a cate

m oid and proved that the relation which binds together the pr incipal radii of
,
curvature of its involute surface is

B IR 2 a
z
a con stan t )
:
( a ,
thus proving in an in verse fashion that a nappe of the evolute surface of a

pseudospherical surface is applicable upon a catenoid .
I n hi s second paper on W s u rfac e s published in 1 8 63 he demonstrated a

2
, ,
second theorem that the spherical representation of the linear element of such
a surface referred to its lines of curvature for parameters may be denoted by
1 2
d
2
d3
K
where and K are functions of u and v of such a nature that they dene the
principal radii of curvature R 1 R , of the surface by mean s of th e equation s
,
R. MK ) . R. = MK )
H ISTO R I CA L DE V EL OPM EN T OF PS E U D OSPH ER I CA L SU R F ACE S .
The expression for the linear element of the W su rface itself when expressed in ,
this notation then becomes

,
g
do
4> ( E )
Beltrami in a series of articles on the application of analysis to geometry ,
published in 1 8 65 proved both Weingarten s theorem and its converse and for
,

the latter foun d that a ruled helicoidal surface forms a case of exception for ,
although this surface is applicable u pon a surface of rotation it cannot be the ,
nappe of a surface of centers He showed at this time that the curves on the
.
nappe of a surface of centers which are enveloped by the norm als to the involute
surface are geodesic lines he therefore remarked that if the geodesic lines of an
,
evolute surface become right lines the tangents to them at every point instead
of lling all space red u ce to a system of s traight lines with a single parameter
and are not sufcient to generate an orthogonal surface he discovered rather
that then the geodesics themselves can generate a ruled surface which if it is
, ,
applicable upon a surface of rotation is applicable upon the m inim al surface of

rotation the catenoid an d is parallel to a series of pseudospherical surfaces
, ,
instead of being a nappe of their evolute surface .
29
D ini also investigated this case of exception to the con verse of Weingarten s

theorem in his paper on helicoidal surfaces in the same year He found that
, .
the r uled helicoid that is applicab le upon a c atenoid is a screw surface generated -
by a right line that moves along a helix lying on a cylin der making a right ,
angle with the helix at every point and a constant angle with the cylinder and ,
that it may be regarded as the locus of the normals of another helicoidal surface
upon which these same helices lie .
2
A
I n the same treatise on the application of nalysis to G eometry Beltrami
made known several very important theorems concerning the surface of centers .
He denoted a surface whose principal radii of curvature are function ally related
by S its lines of curvature by u
, a constant and v a constant its principal ,
radii of curvature and the two nappes of its evolute surface corresponding to
those lines of curvature respectively by R , and S I 8 2 , .
First he demonstrated the general theorem that if two systems of curves one
, ,
of which is composed of geodesic lines be conjugate to each other and if tan

,
gents be drawn to two of the geodesic lines that lie innitely near each other at
points a , an d a 2 where they meet a curve of the other system these tangents will ,
meet at a point which is the center of geodesic curvature of a curve which passes
through the point a , and is orthogonal to all the geodesic curves of the rst
,
system Applying this proposition to the case of the nappes S

. of the evo , I,
lute surface o f a l/V surfa c e he obtained the results rst that since the norm als
-
, ,
to the surface S taken along its lines of curvature u a constant touch the rst
. .
nappe of the surfac e of centers S 1 along a family of geodesic lines which are the , , ,
evolutes of these lines of curvature and which may also be denoted by u a con
stant and the normals to the surface taken along the lines of curvature v a con
,
'
stant are tangent to this same nappe along curves which as Kummer has shown *
, , ,
are conj ugate to the geodesic lines so a constant S is the locus of the centers of , 2
geodesic curvature of the orthogonal trajectories of the geodesic lines it a con

stant on S I and conversely the centers of geodesic curvature of the orthogonal
, ,
trajectories of the geodesic lines corresponding to v a constant on S 2 lie on

S ; second that the di e re n c e between the princip al radii of curvature of the
,
involute surface S at any point P is equal to the r adius of geodesic curvature

at a corresponding point of the orthogonal trajectory of the curves on either
nappe which are the evolutes of the lines of curvature of the surface S thirdly , ,
that when n , denotes the arc length of a curve in the nappe S l which goes
,
through any point 19 corresponding to p and which is the evolute of a line of

curvature u a constant in the surface S an d when p denotes the radius of
geodesic curvature for the point p of a curve orthogon al to u , and going through
the point p the principal radii of curvature R 1 and R 2 of the surface S at P
,
are given by the equations

R1 = u
n
R2 = u
l + P
I
Beltrami s 6 direct contribution to the subject of pseudospherical surfaces at
2
this time consisted in the determination of their evolute an d involute surfaces .
He rst found the equation of relation connecting the principal radii of curva
ture R 1 and R 2 of any W surface dened by the equation -
R2
and the principal radii of curvature R ; of the surface of rotation on which is
developable one of the nappes of its evolute surface He wrote the equations for .
R ; and R ; in the usual form for the principal radii of curvature of the surface
of rotation ,
1
19; __
I
Rl _
d I
r
du l g
where the radius of a parallel circle and u , the arc of a meridian curve .
S ubstituti n g in these equations the expressions for r, and dr /du l,
2
05 7
(1 m
C 1
1 1
r
z
e

IMHO
,
l
(In
,
so
l
( du i (u 1
P . 47 .
f B e ltram i u ses c on trary sig n s fo r R1 an d u , in acco r an ce d i h his d e n i ti o n

w t of g e od e si c
c u rvatu re .
H I ST O R I CA L D EVE L O P M E NT O F P SEU D O S P H E RI CA L S U R FACES . 51
derived from Weingarten s form for the linear element of the surfac e of rota

tion he obtained the two equations

,

R IB 2
I ! [ u
l [ u
l
T
I
R;
du ; 1
du ;
To nd the evolute surface of a surface of constan t negative curvature K 2
he put in the equation s for R ; and R ;

R 1 122 u
1 (u 1) K2
and fou nd that they reduce to

R; R; 0
the equation of a minimal surface which shows that the nappes of the evolute
,
surface of a pseudospheri c al surface are applicable upon a catenoid To nd .
the involute surface of a surface of constant negative curvature K he made

2
,
in these same equation s o f relation the substitution R ;R ; K and obtained

2
the equation
1 16

l Re m K
/
R2 RI K R l/K
Ae Be K
R l/
where A and B are constants of integration .
When neithe r A nor B is zero he denoted their ratio by ,
i (m arb i trary co n s tan t )

so that
R2 R1 = K tan h m
R2 RI K c tn h m
according as the upper or lower S ign of is taken . When either A or B is

zero his equation reduces to
,
which shows that the surface of rotation has parallels with constant geodesi c
curvature and must be a pseudosphere Beltrami therefore announced the .
, ,
theorem that the evolute surfac e of surfac es which have at every point the dif
feren ce of their principal radii of curvature constant and equal to If is a su r
face o f constant negative curvature
This same theorem was proved in a more direct way by En n e pe r in 1 8 6 8
3 5
.
He used the subscripts ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) to denote the quantities on the rst and
second nappe respectively of an evolute surfac e and from the equations for the ,
c o erdin ate s of a point on each obtained all the coe fcients of their two funda
52 E M . . C O D DIN GI O N
'
.
mental for m s He then found for the measure of curvature of each X , and K3
.
, ,
the expressions
1 dB 2 1 d1?1
K1 E
R
,
d dR z

Z
( I Z)
As a particular case he put

R, RI a constant ,
which necessitates that the curvature of each nappe is constant and negative .
4 The correspondence between the lines of curvature and that of the a sym p
.
to tic curves on the two nappes of a surface of a W s u rface was demonstrated by

Rib au co u r 5"in a paper read before the French Academy in 1 8 72 He wrote .
the expression for the linear element of the initial surface referred to its lines
of curvature as co O rdin ate s in the form
( 18
2
= f zdu 2 g dv
z z
,
and dened its principal radii of curvature by the expressions
He O btained for the lines of curvature on the rst nappe the equation
(Z R; a du
( R, do
l af
he
t
f 6% 9 dv
and for those on the second nappe the equation
R,
(Z 6dr
( R, 1 g l af
(Z
n
7 a
g ?)
Therefore the condition that the lines on the nappes shall correspond is
,
dR ; dR ,
or that R , RI a constant and bo th nappes have constant negative curva
.
ture he wrote the equations for the asymptotic lines in the form
,
1 69 6B; l ad
d = 0
2 ; 2
dv 3F .
f an 60 9 592) an
and

dv i du = 0
f au a u g av Bu
so that the condition for their correspondence is

6 RI R, 8 13, 6 R,
0.
av a . 6n av
or R ; and R , are functions of each other .
B i an chi , 16 a64 , 12 7 , 1 2 8 .
HI STO R I CAL DE V EL OPM EN T OF PS E U D O S PH ER I CA L SU R F ACE S
Rib au co u r had at this time already communicated to the Academy a

5

series of propositions in regard to the class of surfaces which he called c yclic ,
and dened as a system of surfaces that have a family of circles for orthogonal
traje c tories By so doing b e virtually laid the foundation of the Transforma
.
tion Theory that is the theory of deriving an innite n umber of surfaces of

,
negative constant curvature from one that is known but the conne c tion between ,
this theory and a cyclic system was not seen until Biicklu n d pointed it o u t ten 6
years afterwards .
Rib au c o u r s proposition s were r st that if the family of circles are orthogonal

, ,
to three surfaces they will be orthogonal to an innity of them ; that these

,
surfaces form part of a triply orthogonal system whose other two families are
composed of the envelopes of spheres and that they are intimately connected
with the theory of deformation second that in order to n d all the trajectory ,
surfaces when one ( A ) is determined it is necessary to know a function Z on ,
( A ) which satises the partial di fferential equation ,
3
.
2
2 1 MI 62 1 6 HI 62
_
H H.

5 P 5 P1 59 <3
9. 59
Where the linear element of the surface is denoted by

(Z
2
IId 2
R ;( lpf

and that this equation is integrable at once w hen the lines of curvature for (A)
are geodesic circles ; third that in the special case when the circles lie in the
, , ,
tangent plane of a given surface and have all the same con stant radius the ,
surfaces orthogon al to these circles are all applicable upon a surface (A) which is
itself applicable up on a pseudosphere ; fourth that if a system of curves are ,
normal to family of surfaces that form part of an orthogonal system the o sculat ,
ing circles of those curves will be normal to a family of surfac es that belongs
to a cyclic system .
33 ss
5 P roofs of these theorems were worked o u t ten years later by L Bianchi
. .
, .
89 90 9 3 9

in a series of elaborate treatises but during these ten years the transforma

,
tion theory itself was formally established by means of which all pseudospherical ,
surfaces may be obtained by quadrature alone when one is kno wn Bianchi .
gave the rst conception of the theory in 1 8 79 and p u blished a more concise
statement of his results in 1 8 8 0 He regarded a pseudospherical surfac e as on e .
of the nappes of the evolute of an unknown W s u rfac e and proved that the .

second nappe which he called the complementary surface may be one of an
,

,
innity of surfaces each corresponding to a family of geodesic lines on the rst

,
nappe .
From the theorems of Weingarten and Beltrami he knew that the tangents
Pa ge 59 .
. . .
common to the two nappes touch them along geodesic lines that both nappes ,
are developable into surfaces o f rotation and that either is the locus of the
centers of geodesic curvature of the orthogonal trajectories of the geodesic lines
o n the other to which the normals of the in volute surface are tangent C hoos .
ing then a family of geodesic lines on the rst nappe that became meridian
, ,
curves when the surface is deformed into one of rotation he obtained the second ,
nappe by the following rule : O n each tangent to the geodesics of a system on

the rst nappe S I cut O R a portion equal to the radius of geodesic curvature of
the trajectory orthogonal to the geodesic at that point The locus of the new .

extremes is the surface S , complementary to S 1 .
S ince every surface of constant n egative curvature possesses three di fferent

kinds of systems of geodesic lines those that go out from a real nite point
, ,
those that go out from a poin t at innity and those that go out from an im ag
in a ry point Bianchi discovered that the surface comple m entary to a pseudo
,
.
spheri c al surface is applicable upon a rotation surface of one of three different

forms depending upon which kind of geodesic lines are selected on the original
surfa c e .
He wrote down the equations of the relation between the radii of curvature
of the involute su rface of surfaces of curvature 1 /a 2 for the three cases as ,
they were given by Beltrami * ,
U C
Rl B, = a tam b
a
121

U/ C
R, R, = a c tn h
a
S ubstitutingthese values in Weingarten s formula for the linear element of
the second nappe ,

n
dS Z
dR : e
f R2 -
R1
dv 3
.
he found the three corresponding expressions for the linear element to be

R1 z
( ZS
?
tanh 4
dR f sech 2
ds

2
a

z
as ; dR ; d
-
e ,
( IS
2
c tn h 4
R?
(Z csch 2
do
.
In regard to the prole curve he found that although the equation of z is ,
always the same

z = a lo g tan
g + co s
ge
Pa 51 .
56 E . M C O DD I NGTO N
. .
published in the A r c h i v f o r M a t h e m a t i k u n d N a t u r v i d e n s k a b he
introduced a method for nding by means of a quadrature alone the geodesic
lines of the Surface of centers of a W su rface and especially for the case when ,
the surface of centers is composed of pse u do s phe re s This problem for deter .

mining the geodesic lines he observed is equivalent to determining the lines
, ,

of curvature on the W s u rfac e

.
He supposed the W s u rface to be referred to a system of curvilinear c o erdi

nates y ) and expressed one of its principal radii of curvature R at a point I
and the co o rdinates y z of a point on the corresponding nappe S of its evo

'
, , ; I
lute surface as function s of these parameters He w rote the expression for the .
linear element on the nappe S l referred to a family of geodesic lines and their
9
orthogonal trajectories as parameters and of curvature 1 /a in the usual form ,
gR lm z
as : d e -
dv .
From this he derived the eq u ation fo rthe geodesic lines

1/ l/ dx; dyi dz ; ( ZR ; R ll
d?) ( ds f d ) e
'

and observed that the quantity under the sign of the radical is of the form
X 0 . 30M
7
{ ( en
w ds: + 1 0 6
a ,
where X and ! are functions of a: and y only so that he could at once obtain ,
the integral of the equation containing an arbitrary co n stant Therefore if he .

,
had given a surface S I with cur vature l/a he could bring its linear element
z
,
in 00 1 ways in to the form

d8 ; (Z R; 6
23 16
060
2
referred to a family of geodesic lines going out from a point at innity and their
orthogonal trajectories and considering this surface as the rst nappe of a s u r
,
face o f centers he could derive an involute sur face corresponding to one of those
innite systems of geodesic lines From this involute surface he could obtain
.
a second n appe S , of a surface of centers an d by the method just given deter

mine o n it a family of geodesic lines an d write its linear element in the form
m m
( ls
: dR , du z

e .
A repetition with respect to S , of the operations performed on S I would then

enable him to obtain a new set of surfaces S 3 and by the successive application
of this same process he could derive oo surfaces all with the same constant
negative curvature 1 /a 2 In actual practice he remarked it is possible to

.
go di rectly fro m one nappe to a second without stopping to obtain the in volute

surface .
101
I t may here be remarked that several years later in 1 8 8 8 Wein garten
developed another method for nding the lines of curvature on a W su rface and
P ag e 12 .
H ISTO R I CA L DE V EL OPM EN T O F PS E U D O SPH ER I CAL SU R F ACE S .
consequently the corresponding geodesic lines on its surface of centers which , ,

according to is more precise but less direct than that of
L ie .
Afte r having developed this method for determining the geodesic lines of a
pseudospherical surface L ie next called attention to a method for transforming
one surface into another that had been discovered by Bonnet many years before .
Bonne t 1 7 had shown that every surface of constant mean curvature is

45 ~
applicable upon an innite number of surfaces of the same sort and that such
a surface is parallel to a surface of constant total curvature and obtainable
from it by dilatation L ie suggested therefore that if a parallel surface be
.
derived from a pseudospherical surface and transformed into an innity of new

surfaces with constant mean curvature and eac h of these in its turn be trans
formed back into a pseudospherical surface the result will be the same as if ,
Bianchi s operation had been perform ed upon the original surface of constant

negative curvature .
He S howed moreover that the asymptotic curves of a surface of con stant curva
ture may be found by a simple integration and that they correspond to the
minimal lines of a parallel surface a theorem which furnished the means of ,
obtaining the equation of transformation as it is given by D arb o u x
L ie used for the linear element of the surface referred to its lines of curvature
20
u a constant and v a con stant the expression due to Weingarten 1
'
d8 2 _ du 2
dv2
?
and for the asymptotic lines of the surface a

,
a constant and , a constant
the corresponding expression
t ) .10 2
K
t
2
a ; (t
4
f
,
: 0 .
This last equation he s aw is integrable if

<> I
f ,
The general integral of this equation is

(
t
2
Alf 2
LA Z
,
and the total curvature of the corresponding surface is constant for

13113, L A ( R1 2
, R2 = p rin c ipal radi i o f c u rvatu re ) .
while a singular integr al is

*
D ARB o o x , 59 7 75 .
TP age 4 9 .
58 E . M . C O D D IN GT O N .
l
<>
an d the mean curvature of the corresponding surface is constant for

1 1 "
0 ( R1 R2 2 d
p H BO !pal Ta 1 1 0 f C D IVBtu re

RI R2
He did not prove his theorem in detail nor give the equations of transformation
1 9 75
deduced from Bonnet s theorem but D arb o u x
5
, in his celebrated work con ,

cerning surfaces gives a simple proof for the correspondence between the asym p
,
to tic lines on the surface with con st an t curvature an d the minim al lines on the
surface with constant mean curvature and then denoting the linear element on, ,
the rst surface referred to its asymptotic lines as parameters by

( 33 do:
2 2
2 cos wda d
an d the line a
r element of a parallel minimal surface referred to its minimal lines
a s parameters by
ds 2
da dB,
where 2 w is the angle between the asy m ptotic lines and also the angle between the
minimal lines he pointed out that when either sur face is transformed in to a new
, ,
surfac e of the same kind the equations of transformation will be

,
a ,
where 2 0 is the an gle between the asymptotic lines of the new surface with con
stant curvature or the angle between the m inimal lines of the n e w surface with
constant mean cu rvature and a is a constant .
The next y e ar L ie 57 raised the question whether the surfaces obtainable from
one that is known by Bianchi s method of transformation are all distinct from

each other or whether a nite n u m b e r o f them are coincident or as he expressed ,
2
it whether those surfaces of constant curvature 1 /a which are derived by
,

,
the in nitely repeated successive application of Bian chi s operation from one

that is given must satisfy still other di e re n tial equations besi de the equation
,
2
7 3
7 8
He answered this question in the negative and his method of proving his answer
correct applies to surfaces of constant positive curvature as well as to those of
constant negative curvature .
He began his demonstration by writing down the equation s which represent

known characteristi c properties of the nappes of an evolute surface wi th c o n
stant negative curvature
HISTO R I CAL DE V EL OPM EN T OF PS EU D OSPH ER I CAL SU R F ACE S .
"+
( QC
(y in ) (z
PO O -
w. ) + a( r y. ) (z 0.
y ) 0.
p .0 6
.
p ly) + qlq + 1 0
where ( :c y z p q ) and
, , y;
, , determine an eleme n t o n the rst ,
and second n appes respectively .
The rst equation shows that the distance be twee n corresponding points o n
the nappes is constant the last three that tangent planes to the nappes at cor
, ,
responding points meet at right angles along a common tangential line I n this .
way he showed as B acklund 8 remarked that the surface on whose tangent

, ,
planes lie the circles with constant radius of a Ribau co u r cyclic system and the
family of surfaces normal to the circles are identical respectively with Bianchi s
initial surface and the innite number of its complementary surfaces for these ,
equations express analytically the fact tha t a system of surfaces ,
3 = f (x yl )
1 1
are orthogonal at the point ( cc 1 z ) to a family of circles with constant radius

,
a and with their centers lying on the lines of curvature of a surface
L ie called his initial system of equations the equations of transformation ,
and since he had four O f them from which to eliminate the ve variables he saw ,
that to every element ( a y z p 9 ) there corresponds an innity of elements

s
, , , ,
2
so that to the 00 elements that go to make up the original
y; ,p l,
3 3
surface there corresponds 00 new elements and he proved that these 00 new ,
elements can form 00 1 surfaces when the curvature is co n stan tf" By applying
hi s equations for transfor m ation he was th u s able to o btain 00 surfa c es (A
1
;
from
2
one su rface F and from these derived surfaces (p; 00 new surfaces F , among ,
.
which may be the rst surface F By repeating su c cessi vely this operation he .
nally obtained surfaces F and surfaces (t for the surfaces of the ,
one class are nitely distinct from those of the other but he had still to decide ,
whether he could deriv e all the p seudospherical surfa c es in this way or only a ,
limited number of them .
He considered two surfaces F and F , which di e r so little that the one may
, ,
be deformed into the other by an innitesimal transformation By carefully .
working out the equations for this innitesimal transformation he found three
different equations for 8p and 59 the increments of p and q for dete rmining , ,
the way in which an element x y z p 9 passes into i ts next adjacent position

, , , ,
.
He then assumed that this element could not go over into all the new elements
C f pag 6 5
. e .
. . .
but only into a certain nu mber of them which form a locus dened by the equation
y, za
p ,
0
He saw that this locus must be deformed into itself by the same operation s
which transform the elements in n ite sim ally and that therefore it must satisfy , ,
three equations of co ndition one corresponding to each of the three di e re n t

,
pairs of v alue of 5p and 89 But from these same equations of conditio n he

.
fo u nd that the partial derivatives of the rst order of f with respect to each of
the ve variables vanish independently that consequently the locus f cannot ,
exist but that each element passes over in all the new elements and the given
,
surface is deformed by the equations of transformation into 00 n e w surfaces

3
.
In like manner he found that the gi ven surfac e c an satisfy no partial differen
tial equation of the second or third order and accordin gly may be transformed
into 00 5 or 00 9 n ew surfaces but he could not arrive at any general result by
,
this method He next turned to the consideration of a strip on the given

.
166
surface formed by an aggregation of successive elements and therefore trans , ,
formable into 00 new strips He proved by the actual application of the

1
.
equations for a Bianchi t ra nsformation that if the c u rve 0 formed by the , ,
points of all the surface elements along a strip is an asymptotic curve it may be
deformed into 00 1 n e w asymptotic curves If that the arc length of each n e w ,
curve K is equal to the corresponding arc length of C and that the curvature
1 /R I of each new curve is related to the curvature 1 R of 0 by the equation
a a
_ 2 s 1n v
R Rl
.
where vis the angle that a line joining a _po in t on the one curve to a corre
s o n din
p g point on the other curve makes with the tangent to either curve at the
point where the curve is met by the lin e He derived no 2 n e w asymptotic .
curves 0 , from the curves K ; by a third repetition of the operation he obtained

00
4
new curves If and so on s o that the problem as in the case of surfaces
, ,
resol ves itself into the question is there any limit to the number of asymptotic
,
curves that are thus derived ? Reasoning in the same way as for the in n ite si
mal transformation of surfaces he found that the number of asymptotic curves
,
that can be derived from one that is known will be reduced only if these derived , ,
curves can satisfy an ordinary di fferential equation D enoting a R by v and .

'
aL R by 0 he wrote the equation connecting these v alues in the form

/ 1
'
2 sin u
and the equation for v in the form

H I STO R I CAL DE V EL OPM EN T OF PS E U D OSPH ER I CAL SU R F ACE S .
He then proved that s u ch an equation as
cannot exist so that an y asymptotic curve corresponding to v a con s tant can

,
be transformed into at least so 1 new asymptotic curves He proved that there .
is n o relation between 0 and its derivatives of the second or third order with
'
respect to 3 nor indeed between 1) and its derivatives of any order for on
, ,
account of the form of the equations for the increment of Sr and 8 2

v he could
"
write down by analogy the equation for 8r and then show that the one for
is exactly similar He thus showed that there is no limi t to the number
.
of asymptotic lines that can be obtained from a given one by the e quations of
transformation .
He then turned back to the case of the surfaces and by means of his new ,
results increased the number of surfac es that can be derived from a kno wn one
,
9
which passes through two intersecting asymptotic curves from 00 to oo thus
establishing his theorem * .
L ie proved that there is not only a correspondence between the asymptotic

lines on a transformed surface with those on the initial surface but also one
between their lines of curvature for S ince according to D ini s dis c overy the
, ,

asym ptotic lines of a surface divide it into loz enges a net work of lo zenges on ,
-
one surface S is transformable into a net work of loz enges on each of the deri ved
-
surfaces and the lines of curvature which are their diagonals pass over into
,
lines of curvature .
D uring these same years from 1 87 9 to 1 8 8 2 while Bianchi and L ie were

making their important in vestigations on the method of obtaining new surfaces ,
of con stant curvature from a given one B ackl u nd 70 7 was publishing the results
,
'
5
of his studies on the transformation of surfaces in successive volumes of the

M a t h e m a t i s c h e A n n a l e n a n d the discoveries of Bianchi and L ie were made
j ust at a time when Biicklu n d could use them as examples to illustrate his
theorems .
Among other proposition s B iic klu n d c onsidered the question whether two
70
surfaces may be transformed into eac h other when the relation between them is
of such a nature that it is dened by four arbitrary partial differential equation s
of the rst order .
He denoted the two surfaces by

and
and using I) q t to denote the partial deri vatives of the rst an d se co n d

s , , ,
' ' ' ' '
order of z with respect to a: and y as is customary and p q r s t to denote , , , , ,
B i an c hi ,
5 247 .
62 E . M C O DD I NGTO N
. .
'
the partial derivatives of the rst and second order of z with respect to x
'
and

y he wrote the four partial di fferential equations in the form

i
F 1 ( 33 9 y a
F2 <
F3 (
F4 (
He then proceeded to nd under what condition the surface whose equation is
may be transformed into the surface whose equation is

'
2
by means of these equation s he rst substituted in the equation s F l 0 and

,
F, 0 the values of z p 9 expressed as fun ctions of a: and y

, , He then solved .
the resulting equations for w and y expressing them in terms of the accented
variables only By means of these results he cou ld by m aking the proper
.
,
substitutions reduce the last two equations

,
F, 0 and F4 0
' ' '
to equations containing az , y , z , p , q only in which case he denoted them by
,
F;= 0 and F ;= 0 .
'
He could then obtain the function z by means of these equations provided that
they are compatible The equation of condition which must be satised by 2
.
'
when the two equations

0
are compatible may be O btained by rst taking the total derivatives of eachof
these equations which are also equal to z ero then solving the resulting equation s
, ,
for ( 119 and dq so that

' '
6F 6F aF ;+ 0F
; 6F
; ; ,
I (73
'
5 3/
dy
I
6E ;+ sF ; 6F ; 5E ;
aF ; ,
69 6p 5a 1) cs c
.
g
5F ; e
m ar
'
g
)
5F ; 6F ;
'
5p
'
Eq 822 5x
d9 _ dy
' '
ai
r
at air 4 ,
aF 1
aF 4 4
4 4
+p ' '
(32 629
' '
69 619
in the rst of these last equation s equal

'
and nally setting the co e ffic ient of dy
. . .
for in that case in stead of two partial di e re n tial equation s of the third order
, ,
for z there wi ll be one single partial di fferential equ ation of the second order ,
and if an integral of this eq u ation be substituted for z in the equation of trans

'
formation the quantities x y p 9 can be expressed in terms of x y 2 so that
, , , , , ,

the function 2 wi ll be determined by an equation of the form

The integral of this last equation will contain an arbitrary constan t which proves
'
the theorem that there are 00 1 surfaces 2 f x y ) corresponding to one sur
'
,
'
face z (Has ,
B acklund 75 s aw that a surface transformation of this nature occurs in Bianchi s

'
problem for deriving a surface complementary to a known surface of constant

negative curvature He considered the two surfaces dened by
.
=f (w a y
'
z ) y)
'
2
as the two n appes of the evolute surface whose radii of curvature are connecte d
by the relation
R, RI a
The two relations existing bet ween the two nappes that the distance between ,
corresponding points is a constant a and that their tangent planes at correspond

ing points must meet at a right angle along the common tangent gave him his ,
four equations of transformation

F1 = P (w = 0
' '

( z z
)
= 0
'

( z -
z
)
F3 = 1
2 a2 = 0
'
z
) .
and his equation of condition took the form

2 2
8
) 19 0,
since the expressions [ F1 all

'
be c ome equal to z ero He saw from this equation and from a similar o n e for z
.
,
sin c e the equation s of transformation are sy m metrical with respe c t to the

accented and unaccented variables that both surfaces are of constant negative ,
/a and that since 2 does not appear in the equation of condition

'
z
curvature l
'
that there correspond an innity of surfaces 2 y ) to every surface
2 d) ( x y)
5
In 1 8 8 4 B acklund w rote an important paper that deals exclusively with
pseudospherical surfaces . I n this paper published in the L u n d s U n i
,

HIST O R I CA L D E VE L O P M E NT O F P SE U D O S P HER I C A L S U R FAC ES . 65
ve rs i te t s Ar s s k
and entitled C oncerning S urfaces w i th C onstant N ega
r if t

tive C u rvature he rst revie wed the contributions made to the theory of the
,
transformation of the pseudospherical surfaces by Bianchi Rib au co u r a n d L ie , ,
pointing out the close connection between the theories of Bian c hi and those of
Rib au co u r he then extended Bian c hi s theorem to t a more general case namely

, , ,
when the given surfa c e and the derived surface are not the nappes of an evolute
surface but are s o related to each other that planes tangent to them at corre
s po n din g points cut ea c h other at a constant angle but not at right angles and , ,
the distance between two corresponding points is c onstant He expressed this .
conditi on by leaving the rst three equations of transformation unaltered and

writing F 0 in the form
4
where K is the cosine of the angle formed by the t ivo tangent plane s and is a
constant .
He then found that the equation for becomes
=
0 o c c
lt

S
'
, ( 1
a
and that a like one exists for z SO that in the general case also both surfac e s
'
have constant nega tive cur vature By putting for ( 1 K ) /at a c onstant .
3 2
1 /m and letting a and K vary he obtained an innity of equations of tran s fo r

2
,
2
mation for surfaces only whose cur vature is 1 /m an d in particular those for

Bianchi s complementary transformation when E 0 and m a : .
He made a com plete study of this general method of transformation First .
he remarked that the set of equation s

f ro r c >
z = f c t y WL
= P = t W% 9
Ac )
determine a curve on the surface together with the dire c tion of the tangent plane
to the s u rface along that curve for successive values of x that is they determine , ,
a strip of the surface Then recalling C auchy s theories he observed that if as y

.

,
and z are the c o O rdin ate s of an arbitrary point in the strip and :3 0 yo the co O rdi
'
, ,
nates of its initial point a su rface passing through this strip and satisfying a
,

known di fferential equation may be dened by a convergent Taylor s series in
terms of (a: mg) (g go) where the singular points of the surface are not con
,
s ide re d thus
,
z Z =
. P .(w a) y.) s x.
)
2
+ was y.) My 2 M}
1
3
3 100 ( x o
+
3 lu o ( m xo ) '
) (y
. .
Fo rthe surfaces under discussion he obtained the valu es of the coef cients 3,
etc from the equations

.
,
r dcc s cl
y, dq s dx tdy
1
= 2
rt + 22 you
~
so that t is determined by the equation
2
1
(3
? 2 2
9 q ) C 90Z
m

I n genera l only one s u rface can be found passing through the strip but when ,
the value of t is indeterminate that is when , ,
1
( Z
p dx (
q y 0 and d9 ?
+1 9
2 2
0333 0
B acklund saw that there are an innity of surfaces having contact of the rst
order along the lines dened by those equation s and that these lines are the
characteristic curves of the integral surface S ince the rst of these equations .
,
shows that each curve may have for its plane of osculation at every point the
tangent plane to the surface on which it lies at that point and the second equa
tion shows that the torsion of the curve is constant B iicklu n d thus proved that ,
the characteristic curves of surfaces of negative constant curvature are asymptotic

curves
He then demonstrated geometrically that the guiding curve of every strip a"
.
, , ,
derived from a strip r on the original surface S by m ean s of the set of equations ,
of tran sformation satises a partial differential equation of the Riocati type and
that consequently every strip 7"corresponds to a solution of su c h an equation
, , .
This nal result may then be stated as follows I f the surface S is known all ,
the surfaces S may be derived from it for every strip 7 on S passes over in to

,
'
an innity of strips on e on each surface S by means of the equations of '
transformation therefore each deri ved surface S corresponds to the solution of

,
a Ri o cati equation an d when o n e such surfa c e is determined all the others may ,
be found by quadrature alone since that is the only operation re quired to obtain
,
all the solution s of a Ri o cati equation when one is known B acklund has proved .
'
geometrically that the asymptotic c u rves on the n e w surfaces S are the deformed
asymptotic curves of the original surface S and that they also satisfy an equation
of the Ri o cati form .
In 1 8 83 and 1 8 8 4 Bianchi 83 39 90 93 9 9
published his in vestigations of Ribau
,
' ' '
2
cour s propositions concerning a system of surfaces which have a family of co

circles for their orthogonal trajectories B acklund had already observed that
56
.
,
HISTO R I CA L DE V EL OPM EN T O F PS E U D OSPH ER I CAL SU R F ACE S .
when the circles allhave the same constant radius and lie in the tangent planes of
a known surface this known surface and the surfaces orthogonal to the circles are
,
identical with a pseudosphere and the co 1 surfaces derived from it by means of

a complementary transformation with respect to a family of geodesic lines on it
that go out from a point at innity Bian chi gave an exact proof of the iden .
tity of the two families of surfac es by establishing the theorem that a surface
orthogonal to a family of 00 2 circles can be regarded as the nappe of the evolute ,
surface of a W s u rfac e provided that the line of intersection of the plane of

,
e very circle with the planes tangent to the orthogonal surface at its point of con
tact withthat circle envelopes geodesic lines on the surface and by showing that
those enveloped curves are geodesic lines when the radius of the circles is always

the same Bianchi s construction of a cyclic system of surfaces is as follows :
.
Let be a surface orthogonal to a family of circles L e t these circles lie .
on the tangent planes of a second surface S and let the points of tangency of ,,
those planes with the surface S , be the centers of the circles L e t u a con .
stant an d v a constant denote the lines of curvature of the surface S , and let
6 be the angle that a radius of the circle m n drawn to meet an orthogon al , ,
surface S I at 777 makes at its center 11 with the line of curvature v

. a constant .
passing throu gh that point The radius of the circle m n being tangent to the
.
orthogonal surface S l must lie in the tangent plan e at m and is the line of inter
section of the plane of the circle with the corresponding tangent plane of the
orthogonal surface S L e t u and c be the lines of curvature of S , Le t
'
. .
,
be the angle which this line of intersection m ake s with the tangent to the line
of curvature of S 0 a constant at the point of contact m
I

'
When the sur ,
.
face S , is regarded as known each orthogonal sur face S l corresponds to a value

,
of 6 When an orthogonal surface S I is regarded as known each circle is

.
,
determined by its radius and the value of 4) to which it corresponds .
Bian chi 83 denoted by (I) a constant the curves on the orthogonal surface S ; ,
which are the orthogonal trajectories of the curves on that surface that are
enveloped by the lines of intersection of the planes of the circles with the corre
spo n din
g tangent planes of the surface S , When the linear element of this .
surface S I referred to its lines of curvature as parameters assu m es the form

2 2
d E di/ . 0 660
he showed that (I
) must be a solution of the di fferential equation
1 al/ E 1 / G 6 CD
(Bl
em f an 6n 6 1) 6n an
1/ Z
7
which if log Z is written in place of

,
cI
)
,
reduces to an equation for Z identic al
with that given by Ribau co u r .
Q 8 04 ; B I ANC H I
15 9
{3 1 79
* 16
D AR B O U X , , ,
.
68 E M C O DD IN G TO N
. . .
H
_ e also proved Rib au co u r s statement that it is necessary to be able to

integrate this equation in order to nd all the cyclical systems of which the sur
face S , fo rm s a part for he deri ved for R and (I) the functions by which a
, ,
circle is determined the following expressions

,
1 1 1
te
a
co m p R a
which can be found when the surface S , and a value of d) are known .
From his equations for expressing the condition that the circles are orthogona l
to a surface S , Bianchi was able to Sho w t hat when the circles have all the
,
same constant radius R the surface S as well as the surface S , on whose

,
, ,
tangent planes the circles lie wi ll both have constant negati ve cur vat ure
,
1 /R 2
.I n that case he s aw that
A, (I) a constant ,
or that (I) a constant are geodesic parallel circles and that the curves enveloped
by the lines of intersection of the planes of the circles with the correspon ding
tangent planes of the orthogonal surface S , and whi c h are the orthogonal tra
j e c to rie s of (I
) a constant wi ll be geodesic lines M oreover he found that .
,
the geodesic cur vat u re 1 /p of the curves (I)

, a constant is equal to 1 R so
,
that when R is constant they are the deformed ho ricycle s of the pseudosphere
o n which the surface S
,
of cur vat u re l/R is applicable The fact that the
2
.
curves on the surface S , that are en veloped by the lines of intersection of the
planes of the circles with the corresponding tangent planes to the surface S , are
geodesic lines was the only condition Beltra m i required i n order to prove that
the surfaces S and S , form the nappes of an e volute surface for these lines of
, ,
intersection being tangent to the su rface S , along geodesic lines may be regarded
, ,
as the rays of a normal congruence of which the surfa ces S , and S , are the
focal surfaces .
I t is not necessary to give in detail the equation s and theorems by means of

which Bianchi proved Rib au co u r s propositions that if a system of co 2 circles

1
are orthogonal to three surfaces they will be orthogonal to co surfaces and the
theorems relating to the triply orthogonal systems to whi c h these surfaces
80
belong but it is important to consider a proof given by D arb o u x in 1 8 8 3 for
,
the establishment of the theorem regarding the existence of this triply ortho
gon al system for in that connection
,
developed for the rst
time the now well known set of equations for performing a complementary trans
formation He regarded as known the surface S , o f curvature
. 1 on whose
tangent planes lie the circles of the system He chose the lines of curvature .
9 9
8 4 1 atb
a
s
( ) av E
B IANC HI, 1 60 35 , 8 6
HISTO R I CA L DE V EL OPM EN T OF PSE U D OSPH ER I CAL SU R F ACE S .
of this surface for its lines of reference and wrote the linear element in the form
'
2 2 2
( 13 cos da 2 z
co s in wdn ,
where a) s atises the characteristic equation

2
6 m
= s in w co s w
72
6 av ,
and is half the an gle between the asymptotic curves to v an d u c f He ,
referred to both Rib au co u r and Bianchi and using the notation of the latter ,
denoted by 6 the angle that the line 0

, a con stant makes with the radius m a '
of a circle in a plan e tangent to S , at m He saw that the co o rdinates of n

'
relative to the tetrahedron at m are

co s 6, sin 6, O
and expressing the condition that this line 77m whose direction cosines with
respect to the te trahedron s axes are
6 6
sin 6d6 cos wdu
5 sin a,
6 6
co s 6d6 sin a dv da co s 6 .
cos a) sin 6 dr sin (n cos 6 da
should be perpendicular to the tangent to the circle at n , w hose direction

cosines are
sin 6 cos 6 0 , ,
he obtained the equation

6 6
de da 3 do sin 9 cos wda sin a) cos 6 dr
6 1) 6 26
and consequently the equation s

66 6 a) 66 6 a)
+ = sm 6 cos ca -
cos 6
an E av 8
which are consistent when the equation for a) is satised .
He further observed that each solution for 6 contains an arbitrary constant a

so that there may be an innity of surfaces S , He con sidered 6 as a function .
of u v and a an d wrote for d6

, , ,
66 66 66
dd
a
P . 28 .
. .
in the expression s for the displacement of m and brought them to the form
66
cos 6 ( cos a) co s 6da s in a) S in sin 6 da ,
E
66
sin 6 ( co s w co s 6da s in co sin 6dr ) 00 8 6 6101 ,
37
c o s a) s in 6dr sin (0 co s 6 da ,
which gi ve for the displacements of n in space

66
2 2 2 2 2
d3 co s 6du s in 6dr
~
da ,
aa
a form u la which demon strates the existen ce of the triply orthogonal system .
Bianchi 99 obtained a like s e t of equations for representing a Biicklu n d trans

formation E mploying the same expression for the linear element of the initial
.
su rface referred to its lines of curvature as D arb o u x had used ,
2
d3 cos 2
co du 2
sin 2
m dv
z
,
and denoting by a the complement of the angle bet ween the tangent p lanes at
correspondin g points of this surface and a deri ved surface he rst wrote these ,
equations in the form

66 6 a) s in 6 co s w + S in a co s 6 siu m
6n 6 2) R co s a
'
66 6 a) co s 6 s in w + s in o
~
s in 6 co s w
6n 6 25 R cos 0 '
and by using asymptotic lines on the initial surface for parameters instead of
,
lines of curvature reduced them to the simpler form

,
1 + s in 0
'
6 21 , B OO S O
'
( u, =u v,
'
v1 = u + v)
a) 1 sm o
w
6 2) 1 R 00 3 6
)
He saw that these equation s are compatible if the curvature of the initial surface
is constant and negative an d that they form a Ri o cati equation for tan 6 2 such
,
as B acklund had obtained previously

'
B ianchi represented a B acklund transformation by B and his own or the , ,
complementary transformation when 0 O by L ater he denoted a L ie

,
'
transformation in which retaining the previous notation

, ,
a
*
P age SB .
. . .
s u rface S , there belongs a single inn ity of pseudospherical con gruences for
which S , is the common focal surface .
I n order to answer his original question and demonstrate that two focal sur
faces o f a pseudospheric al con gruence are developable into each other by a
B acklund transformation he regarded one of these surfaces S , as known and
,
dened by the equation

6 2 2 0)
cos 2 a) ,
am ,
where 2 a) the a n gle between its asymptotic curves u a c onstant and v a ,

'
constant an d denoted by 6 the an gle which a ray touching this surface at any
, ,
point P and going out in the direction of the other focal surface S , which is to
be determined makes with a lin e of curvature of S 1 passing through P
, He .
then proved that S I and S are connected by the operations for a B acklun d
,
transformation so that the one surface S may be transformed into the other l
surface S by this method that the angle 6 has the s ame signi cance for S I as
, ,
w has for S , and that the linear element of S , m ay be written
d3 2
sin 2
6du 2
cos2 6612 9 ,
when referred to its l ines of curvature .
This theorem enabled him to construct a geometrical method of performing

B acklu n d s tran sformation analogous to his own early method for deriving a

complementary surface from one arbitrarily chosen for he had only to select on , ,
a pseudospherical surface of any curvature 1 /R a fam ily of curves whose 2
principal normals make a constant angle ( 7r 2 with the tangen t planes to

the surface and cut o f f on the tange n ts to these curves a constant length equal
to R cos then the locus of the extremes will be the required surface * .
As a special illustration of a B zicklu n d tran sformation he investigated the case

'
when the surface derived by that m ethod from a known surface degenerates into
a straight line Represen tin g the linear element on the derived surface referred
.
to its lines of curvature by

2 2 2 2 z
( 13 sin 6clu co s 6do
,
he expressed the condition for a straight line by putting

sin 6 0 or cos 6 0,
and using the rst expression reduced his former equations of tran sformation to
,
6 m s in w 6w tan s in a)
'
an R co s o
" 6 2) R
whose common solution is

P ag e 47 .
HISTO RI CAL DE V ELOPM ENT O F PS E U D OSPH ER I CAL SU R F ACE S . 73
v s in u
w a -
+6
tan 6
2
I f the second expression is used this expression becomes

u s in a v
tan e
R o us e
z a
but in either case as Bianchi said The initial pseudospherical surface corre
, ,

s po n din g to this value of w is D ini s screw surface

that is the surface derived , ,
from a pseudospherical helicoidal surface by a Bi c klu n d transformation is a

straigh t line
From the study of individual pseudospherical surfaces Bianchi 39 9 "
.
turned to ,
'
the investigation of triply orthogonal systems that contain a family of surfaces

38
with constant negative c rvatu re He then proceeded to the consideration of
u -
.
such a system as a unit and the transformation of one system into another by a
complementary or B acklund transformation so that if the pseudospherical sur ,
faces undergo either transformation they still belong to a triply orthogon al s ys

tem He divided these systems of surfaces into two classes according to whether
.
the pseudospherical surfaces of the one family have each a di fferent radiu s of
curvature or each the same radius of curvature .
Bianchi did not devote much time to the study of surfaces of the rst class ,
but wrote several papers on those of the second class which he called a Wein ,
garten system after their discoverer for immediately after Bianchi had pub
,
lis he d his proofs of Rib au c o u r s theorems on th e cyclic system in 1 88 4 Wein

garten wrote to him suggesting the possibility of deriving from an initial surface
of constant curvature a whole family of surfaces each with the same constant
curvature and each lying at an innitely short dista n ce from the one next to it ,
While the family to which they belong form part of a triply orthogonal system .
In this w ay the transformation theory was rapi dly but continuously developed
without an y o ve rlappin g of results or coincidence of discoveries E ach mathe
'
m atic ian added his completed proposition to the theory and then stood aside
while the next one took it up and developed it farther .
Bianchi s conception of the deformation of one pseudospherical surface into

others of the same kind was at the beginning purely geometrical He derived .
a complementary surface by cutting 0 E equal leng ths on the tangents of a family

of geodesic lin es going out from a point at innity on the ori ginal surface and
his analytic work simply interpreted this geometrical notion N ext L ie showed .
that the geodesics consequently the new surfaces are obtainable by quadratu re
, ,
alone derived oo surfaces instead of so 1 from the given one and wrot e down

the initial equations of transformation in a form that made it e vident they

dened equally Rib au co u r s cyclic system and Bianchi s complementary trans

formation Bianchi proved completely the identity of these two theorems and
.
. . .
in demonstrating Rib au co u r s propositions in troduced the angle 6 that a radius

,
of a circle makes with a line of curvature of an orthogonal surface B arboux

made u s e of this angle in developing a new set of equ ations that are more prac
tical for actual transformation than L ie s ; B acklund introduced a new trans

formation a generaliz ation of Bianchi in which the tangent planes at corre

,
s po n din g points of the two surfaces meet at a con stant angle but not at a right
angle Bianchi gave a geometrical method for performing B acklu n d s tran sfo r
.

mation and practically completed the subject .

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A B RIEF AC C O U NT

S U B M I TT E D IN P AR T IAL F U LFIL M ENT O F T H E R EQ U I R EM EN T S FO R T H E D EG R EE 0 F

THE A P PL I C A T I O N O F ONE P S E U D O S P HER I C AL SU R F A CE U P O N

T he de n itio n of pseudospherical surfaces .

T he de n itio n of t otal cur v ature accordi n g t o Gaus s .

T he applic atio n of s urfaces w ith co n stant cu rvat ure upo n o n e a n o t her .

T h e pseudospherical s urface s of rotatio n an d the helicoid al s u rfa ce .

Asymptoti c li n es o n a pseudospherical sur face .

T h e ide n ti catio n of the n o n E uclidea n g eome t ry w ith p s eudosp herical geome t ry

T he proj ectio n s of a pseudos p herical surface upo n a pla n e analogou s t o t he ce ntral

T h e ide n ti catio n of p s eudospherical geome try w i t h t he me trical geomet ry of

1 The theorem of tran sforma t io n .

2 . K ummer s theory of co n grue n ce s

R ib au c o u r s cyclic system of su rfaces

B ian chi s compleme n tary trans formatio n

G eodesic li n e s o n the surface of ce nt ers .

Lie s tran sform atio n

B a cklu n d s t ran sformat io n

D arb o u x s equatio n s for B ian chi s a n d B acklu n d s t rans form a tio n

T he t riply orthogo n al system of surfaces .

1 . Du p i n , C D v eloppement s d e g om trie Pari s 18 2 1

2 . Gauss J D is qu isitio n e s ge n erale s circa s u rp e r c ie s cur v as 1 8 2 7 T ran sl ated

i n to E n gl ish by M es s r s M orehead a n d H il t ebei t el . .

3 . M in din g E F A B emerku n g fiber di e Ab w ickelu n g krummer Li n ie n v o n

F l a che n J fur M ath VI 1 830

ei n er vo lls ta n dige n T heorie der Parallele n K asan 1 8 361 8 36 T ran slat ed .

Wie sich e nt scheide n l a sst ob z w ei gegebe n e kr u mme F l a che n au f ei n ,

an der ab w icke lb a r si n d oder n ich t ; n ebst B emerk u n g e n iib e r di e F l a che n

Z ur T heorie der kii rze s te n Li n ie n au f krumme n F l a che n J fur M ath . . .

10 L i ouvi lle J IV No t e to Applica t io n de

12 . J elle t J H O n the Properties o f theI n e x te n sible S urfaces Tr ans actio n s of t he

13 Rie man n B Ueber die H y p othese n w elche der G eometrie z u G ru n de liege n

G O tt Ab h 1 8 67 w ritte n in 1 8 5 4 tra n slate d i nt o E n glish by W K C lif

ford N ature V ol VII

14 C ay le y A S i x th M emoir upo n Q uan tics Philosoph T ran sa ctio n s B an d 1 49

di cur v atura A nn al i di T o rto lin i T V III 1 8 5 7 .

16 Kummer Allgemei n e T heorie der geradli n ige n S trahle n syst eme Jo u r n al v o n

17 W e i n gart en J U eber ei n e K la ss e auf ei nan der ab wic ke lb are r F l a che n J i r

19 Bour , T h orie de l a d efo rm atio n des su rfaces . J de . 1 Ec . Pol . cah .

20 W e in g art e n J U eber die O b e r ac he n fiir w elch e ei n er der beide n Ha u p tk riim

m u u gs h a lbm e s s e r ei n e F u n ctio n des an dere n is t J fur M ath L X II 1 8 63 . . .

21 Be l tram i I n tor n o ad alcu n e p roprie t a delle s u p e r cie di rivol uz io n e Ann ali

22 Dini U S ulla t eoria della su p e r c ie

23 . S ulla s u p e r c ie g obbe c he p osso n o etc B att G III 1 8 6 5 ,

S ulle s u p e r c ie di cur v atura costa nt e B att G III 1 8 65 ,

25 . D es sur faces a courbure costan te C R L X 18 6 5 . . .

26 Bel tram i Ricerche di a n alisi a pp licata alla g eometria B att G III 1 8 65

27 . D imost ra io n e di due formole del si g n or B o nn et B att G IV 1 8 66 z . . .

28 . Risolu zio n e del problema Ri p ortare i pu n ti di u n a s u p e r c ie sopra u n pia n o

29 D ini U S opra alcu n i p unt i della teoria delle s u p e r c ie applicabili

30 H el m hol tz U eber die tha tsac hlic he n G ru n dlage n der G e o m e tric

Be l tram i IL S aggio d in te rpre tazio n e della g eometria n o n e u clid e a B att G

VI 1 8 68 T ra n slated i n to F re n ch by J Ho u el Ann ales de l Eco le

33 . Ch ris to e l E B Allgemei n e T heorie der ge o datis c he n D reiecke B erl Ab h

34 . D ini, U S opr a al cu n i p u n ti della t eoria delle su p e rc ie M em della societ a

35 . En n e p e r A A n alytisch geometri s che U n tersuchu n ge n

38 . D i n i U Ricerche sopra la teoria delle su p e r c ie

39 . S ulle s u p e r c ie che ha nn o u m sis t ema di li n ee di cur v atura pi an e A nn ,

En n e p e r A U eber ei n e E r w eiteru n g des B e gri s v o n Parallel ac he n

42 . U nt er s uchu n ge n iib e r ei n ige Pu n kt e aus d e r allgemei n e n T heorie der

43 . Rib au co ur A S ur la d efo rm atio n des surfaces

44 . Din i U S ull e su p e r c ie c he h ann o n u sistema di li n ee di cur va tura sferi ch e

M em della societ a italian a . II 18 70 .