Engineering: Building with Nature MOOC

Ecological Design Principles

by Prof. dr. Jill H. Slinger, Graciela del Carmen Nava Guerrero and Michelle Marijt

What does nature-friendly design mean?

What are the principles upon which it is based?
How do you include ecosystem-based thinking in your hydraulic engineering design
practice?
Answering these questions enables a multi-disciplinary negotiation space to emerge
between ecology, environmental science and engineering design. This document attempts to
answer the questions by expounding a set of eleven Ecological Design Principles.
Remember, we are not discussing the potential impacts of the infrastructure on the
environment, nor are we evaluating the goods and services deriving to humans from an
ecosystem. Instead, we are learning how to make design choices that accord more fully with
the character and functional integrity of the ecosystem.
By applying the Ecological Design Principles fully across multiple time and scales, you can
ensure that the inherent character and functional integrity of the ecosystem is maintained.
Moreover, if you apply them along with the Engineering Design Principles, you connect your
hydraulic engineering design choices with choices to conserve, restore or provide
opportunities for the ecosystem. That is, you practice Building with Nature!

1. Continuity Continuity of water and sediment flows and

land-water interfaces in the ecosystem. An
ecosystem can be well connected or very
fragmented. A connected ecosystem allows
the exchange of both living and non-living
resources.

For instance, dams can interrupt the

continuum of a river, and alter the quantity of Vold and Buffett (2008)
water and sediments available in the Freeman (1987)
downstream river. This can also impair the Sheaves (2009)
migration of fish species such as salmon and Blisle (2005)
trout. Populations of salmon can only thrive
when they have access to both fresh and salt
water habitats.

In another example, coastal defences such as

closed groynes can interrupt the longshore
transport of sediments, whereas an open
groyne system continues to allow some
sediment transport.

2. No direct This aims to minimize or prevent direct human

human disturbance on the ecosystem. Vold and Buffett (2008)
disturbance Lotze et al. (2006)
Where direct disturbance occurs, the health of Hannah, Lohse,
the ecosystem may be affected. For instance, Hutchinson, Carr, &
when dunes are forming, it is important that Lankerani, 1994
colonizing pioneer plants are not stepped
upon and damaged.
 3. Endogeneity Level of invasion of an ecosystem by exotic
species, as reflected by the relative
abundance of indigenous and invasive
species. A high number of indigenous species,
that belong in the local environment, is
preferred above invasive colonisation.
Invasive species can limit the survival
opportunities of native species. Therefore, a Vold and Buffett (2008)
hydraulic structure or its associated activities Lotze et al. (2006)
should preferably not advantage invasive Alpert, Bone, and
species above indigenous species. Holzapfel (2000)
Suarez, Bolger, and Case
(1998)
For example, the Zebra mussel is an invasive Gordon (1998)
species in European and north-American D'Antonio and Meyerson
waters. (2002)
Stohlgren et al. (1999)
Also, in restoring mangroves areas indigenous
mangrove species are preferred above non-
indigenous species. This has two main
reasons; (1) the survival rates of non-
indigenous species might differ significantly,
and (2) the introduction of non-indigenous
species can lead to unwanted invasion of the
original ecosystems.

4. Population A population is a local, connected group of

viability individuals of the same species that inhabits a
specific area. A population is considered
viable when it has the ability to persist. The
viability of a population is determined by
reproduction, growth and death rates and
population size. The population size must Vold and Buffett (2008)
exceed a critical threshold to be viable. When Boyce (1992)
its size falls below the critical threshold, the Akakaya and Sjgren-
population may face extinction owing to a Gulve (2000)
lower reproduction rate (and slow growth rate)
in relation to the death rate.

An infrastructure should not threaten the ability

of populations to persist, but instead should
provide opportunities for endangered
populations.

5. Opportunity for Threatened species are species specifically

threatened identified (on the IUCN-red list, for example)
species as those whose ability to maintain viable
populations is compromised. This can be due Cullen, Fairburn, and
to habitat loss. Hydraulic infrastructures can Hughey (2001)
help threatened species by offering new Wearn, Reuman, and
Ewers (2012)
habitats, restoring connectivity and improving Possingham,
circulation, for instance. Lindenmayer, and Norton
(1993)
This criterion focuses specifically on species Foin et al. (1998)
whose survival is known to be threatened and
not on ensuring the viability of the population
of all species in a particular location i.e.
criterion 4.

6. Trophic web Ecosystems are complex networks in which
integrity matter, energy and living beings interact. A
fully representative trophic web (food web)
exhibits interactions between producers
(plants and phytoplankton), consumers (e.g.
birds, fish and clams) and decomposers Vold and Buffett (2008)
(microorganisms and insects) that maintain Mengak, Rutledge, and
McDonald (2009)
the energy flow within the system. Kay and Schneider (1992)
Karr (1981)
When critical species, also known as keystone Pusceddu, Gambi, Manini,
species, are missing the integrity of the trophic and Danovaro (2007)
web is harmed and the ecosystem is no longer
healthy. For example, when herbivores (plant
eating organisms) are missing from a coral
reef environment, algae take over and
smother the coral.

7. Opportunities Ecological succession is the natural change in

for ecological the species composition of an ecosystem over
succession time. Succession occurs when organisms alter
the environment in such a way that they create Vold and Buffett (2008)
habitats for other species. For instance, Sousa (1979)
pioneer plant species that grow on a newly Sklar, Costanza, and Day
forming dune facilitate habitat formation for (1985)
Ashkannejhad and Horton
secondary vegetation as the dune becomes (2006)
more stable. The ecosystem achieves its Doing (1985)
climax state when tertiary vegetation such as Mitsch, Zhang, Anderson,
woodland is fully established. Altor, and Hernndez
(2005)
According to this principle, opportunities for
the process of dynamic change should be
ongoing and need to be offered for each and
every stage from pioneer to climax.

8. Zone integrity Zone integrity aims to ensure that the natural

mosaic of the ecosystem is fully represented.
The presence of the full range of zonal
diversity is a condition for ecosystem health.
When one or more zones are missing, the
integrity of the ecosystem is compromised.
Doing (1985)
For instance, an estuarine salt marsh is
characterized by a continuum from submerged
mud flat to the upland zone that is only
occasionally inundated. A missing or under-
represented zone signals an imbalance in the
ecosystem, possibly in response to atypical
abiotic forcing or habitat disturbance.

9. Characteristic This principle relates to the integrity of the

(in)organic throughputs of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous
cycles and silicon in an ecosystem. Inorganic and Lotze et al. (2006)
organic cycles that are fully representative and Karr and Dudley (1981)
that function at all levels within their natural Mengak et al. (2009)
ranges, act to support and enable ecosystem Rabouille, Mackenzie, and
character and functioning. Ver (2001)

When the throughputs are disrupted or pushed

outside their natural ranges, the character and
 functioning of the ecosystem can alter.

For instance, when dunes receive an

excessive supply of nitrogen via air pollution,
tertiary dune vegetation growth is over-
stimulated and the natural dynamic movement
of sand is limited.

10. Characteristic Water quality parameters such as

physical- temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen
chemical water strongly influence aquatic ecosystem
quality functioning. This principle aims to maintain the
water quality states within their natural range
of variability over time and space. When water
quality parameters are within their dynamic
natural ranges, ecosystem functions are
Lotze et al. (2006)
supported. Otherwise, harmful atypical events Karr and Dudley (1981)
can be triggered.

For example, when water exchange is limited,

hypoxic (low levels of dissolved oxygen) or
anoxic (no dissolved oxygen) areas can
develop. In the ocean, areas in which the
dissolved oxygen levels are not sufficient for
the crabs, clams and fish to survive are
termed dead zones.
Vold and Buffett (2008)
11. Resilience Resilience is the capacity of the ecosystem to Holling (1973)
recover and maintain its integrity after Peterson, Allen, and
disturbance(s). Therefore, an ecosystem is Holling (1998)
Gunderson (2000)
resilient when it is able to withstand and even
benefit from reasonable, foreseeable
disturbances.
The effects of disturbances depend on their
duration, magnitude and frequency of
occurrence. An ecosystem is considered
vulnerable when its character and functional
integrity will already alter after small
disturbances. Vulnerable ecosystems have a
low resilience.

As ecosystems are networks in which matter, energy and living beings interact, the 11
Ecological Design Principles can never be fully independent of one another. For instance,
limiting human disturbance (principle 2) can improve opportunities for ecological succession
(principle 7), and improving the population viability (principle 4) of a keystone species can
have effects on the trophic web integrity (principle 6). In a similar vein, ensuring that
characteristic (in)organic cycles (principle 9) are maintained can assist in ensuring that
dissolved oxygen levels remain within their naturally occurring ranges, and so ensure
characteristic physical-chemical water quality (principle 10).

By applying the 11 Ecological Design Principles fully across multiple time and scales,
however, you can connect your hydraulic engineering design choices with choices to
conserve, restore or provide opportunities for the ecosystem.
References and Further Reading

Akakaya, H. R., & Sjgren-Gulve, P. (2000). Population viability analyses in conservation

planning: an overview. Ecological Bulletins, 9-21.
Alpert, P., Bone, E., & Holzapfel, C. (2000). Invasiveness, invasibility and the role of
environmental stress in the spread of non-native plants. Perspectives in Plant
Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 3(1), 52-66. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1078/1433-
8319-00004
Ashkannejhad, S., & Horton, T. R. (2006). Ectomycorrhizal ecology under primary
succession on coastal sand dunes: interactions involving Pinus contorta, suilloid
fungi and deer. New Phytologist, 169(2), 345-354.
Blisle, M. (2005). Measuring landscape connectivity: the challenge of behavioral landscape
ecology. Ecology, 86(8), 1988-1995.
Boyce, M. S. (1992). Population viability analysis. Annual review of Ecology and
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Cullen, R., Fairburn, G. A., & Hughey, K. F. (2001). Measuring the productivity of threatened-
species programs. Ecological Economics, 39(1), 53-66.
D'Antonio, C., & Meyerson, L. A. (2002). Exotic plant species as problems and solutions in
ecological restoration: a synthesis. Restoration Ecology, 10(4), 703-713.
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plants: implications for conservation and restoration. Annual Review of Ecology,
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