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Brush and Wasli Paper for Mughal
and Persian Miniature Painting
by Fatima Zahra Hassan
The earliest materials used for writing on in the
Islamic world were parchment (used throughout the
region), papyrus (mainly used in Egypt), and palm
leaf and cloth (mainly used in India). The Persians
and Arabs do not seem to have been aware of paper
until after their encounter with the civilization of
China. Paper-making was a Chinese craft that had
been developed over many centuries, with the paper
usually made from the fibres of mulberry trees, young
bamboo shoots and rags. This new medium was
readily accepted by the Muslims and quickly spread
throughout the Islamic world.
Biruni, in his Kitab al Hind states that in the 10th
century: Muslims, too, used in the early times of
Islam to write on hide The copies of the Koran
were written on the hides of gazelles The kirtas is
made in Egypt, being cut out of the papyrus stalk.
Written on this material, the orders of the Khalifs
went out into all the world until shortly before our
time. Papyrus has this advantage over vellum, that
you can neither rub out nor change anything on it,
because thereby it would be destroyed. It was in China
that paper was first manufactured. Chinese prisoners
introduced the fabrication of paper into Samarkand,
and thereupon it was made in various places, so as to
meet the existing want.1
As Biruni notes, it was only in ad 751, after the
Arab victory at the battle of Talas in Kangli, between
Samarkand and Tashkent, that the Arabs extracted the
method of paper-making from Chinese craftsmen
captured in battle. As a result of instructions from
05 Arts and Crafts 148-193 Part2.CS5.5.indd 184-185
a Chinese paper-maker in Kangli, the first paper
workshop in the Islamic world was established in
Samarkand, followed by another in Baghdad in ad
794. Samarkand maintained its reputation as the
source of the finest paper long after the technology
was available elsewhere.
Unlike Chinese paper, which mixed plant and
cloth fibres, Persian paper was invariably made from
fibres of flax in the form of linen bags, with hemp
fibres added on occasion. By the 16th century, several
qualities of paper made from rag, linen or silk refuse
were available. After sorting and unravelling the rags
and softening them by combing, the paper-maker
would soak them in lime water, knead the pulp and
bleach it in the sun. Having repeated the process
several times, he would wash the pulp in clean water.
Next he would pound it in a mortar or grind it
between millstones until it was smooth. To form the
pulp into paper, he would dip a mould consisting of
a wooden frame, encasing a flexible cover, into a vat
of liquid and fibres. As the mould was removed from
the vat, the water escaped, leaving the fibres massed
together like felt. In the commonly used laid mould,
the cover was made of reeds or, later, grass strips
woven together with horsehair. A typical feature of
this handmade paper was the faintly visible marks left
by the reed or grass strips, known as laid lines, or
those made by the horsehair stitching, known as chain
lines. Once the paper was dry, it was sized by being
soaked in albumen or a starchy solution to fill in and
even out the surface.
Materials and Preparation | Brush and Wasli Paper for Mughal and Persian Miniature Painting
While parchment was still used widely in the
Islamic world, particularly for Qurans, paper quickly
took over as the ground for writing and painting.
The flowering of the arts of the Islamic world,
and the subsequent growth in the importance of
paper, led to major improvements in techniques and
quality. The advantages of paper were not lost on the
Abbasid caliph Haru Al-Rashid (ad 786809): it was
during his reign that the first Arab school of painting
(the Baghdad School) was established, and the art
of illustrations for scientific manuscripts began to
develop. Although paper was not immediately adopted
everywhere, its use increased steadily during the
9th and 10th centuries. According to Biruni, paper
was sometimes in short supply and firmans (official
documents) were usually washed and the paper reused.
Previously, Arabs and Persians had used papyrus,
produced exclusively in Egypt, and parchments
for books and documents. By ad 1000, paper was
being produced in all the major Islamic cities, from
Above: A squirrel-hair Samarkand in the east to Fez and Valencia in the 3. Jafari: named after the vizir Jafar Barmaki. Above: A sheet of wasli
brush. west. Several types became associated with particular 4. Talhi: named after Talha b. Taher of the Taherid paper, made using
regions or people: Daulatabadi, from Daulatabad in dynasty (ad 822828). flour, water and copper
northwest India; Khitai, from Samarkand; Gauni, from 5. Taheri: named after Taher II (ad 844862) of sulphate.
Tabriz in modern-day Iran; and Qasimbegi, after ruler this same dynasty.
Qasim Beg. In India, Hindi paper was made from 6. Nuhi: named after Nuh b. Nasr, of the Samanid
bansaha (bamboo), tatha (jute) or tulat (cotton). dynasty (ad 942954).
The complete lack of watermarks or other Porter goes on to indicate that it can be deduced
identification marks that could give clues to the from this list that most of the paper mentioned
origins of paper has meant that an analysis of the comes from the eastern regions of the Islamic world,
paper used for miniature painting has had to be and mainly from Khorasan.As we have seen, paper
conducted in terms of regional production. The is usually named after the place of its origin or its
art historian Yves Porter sets out a proposal for an manufacturer. However, some names were given to
identification of different types of paper that were designate a particular quality or characteristic of the
common in the first centuries of Islam:2 paper, or even a process by or material from which it
1. Farauni: this name apparently designates a variety was fabricated. Hariri paper is made of silk; guni-ye
of paper meant to compete with the papyrus of Egypt. Tabrizi is coloured paper from Tabriz; while habashi
2. Soleymani: named after Soleyman b. Rashid, paper is from Abyssinia. In general, decorated, dyed,
director of the finances of Khorasan under Harun gold-flecked and marbled papers all have their own
al Rashid. names.
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 Materials and Preparation | Brush and Wasli Paper for Mughal and Persian Miniature Painting
The brush
Qalam is the word that is traditionally used for the
brush in Indo-Persian miniature painting. It is an
Arabic term that literally means pen. The word is
mentioned in the Quran, where there is a whole
chapter entitled Al Qalam. This reference emphasizes
the importance of knowledge in Islam, and the
knowledge that God has taught man by the Pen.
The term also refers to the different styles and schools
of miniature painting and calligraphy, such as Shiraz
Qalam, Heart Qalam and Mughal Qalam. In the art
of calligraphy, master calligraphers are given various
titles, such as Zareen Qalam, meaning Golden Pen;
Umbareen Qalam, meaning Black Pen; and Shireen
Qalam, meaning Sweet Pen.
There are two kinds of qalam: the vegetable qalam,
which is usually made out of a reed, and the animal
qalam, which is made from animal hair. In his treatise
on calligraphers and painters, Qadi Ahmad describes
these two types of qalam as follows:
The qalam is an artist and a painter / God created
two kinds of qalam: / The one, ravishing the soul, is
from a plant /And has become a sugarcane for the
scribe; / The other type of qalam is from the animal,
/ and it has acquired its scattering of pearls from the
fountain of life.3
In the past, miniature painters used to make their
own brushes. Nowadays, artists can buy brushes of all
qualities and sizes. Even today, however, there are no
brushes that are readily available for the finest detail
work, so artists still have to make this type of brush
themselves. Traditionally, Indo-Persian miniature
painters of the past and present have noted that an
artist cannot call themselves a miniature painter if they
do not know how to make a brush for themselves.
Tradition also has it that an artist must never give their
brush to another painter to use. This is not only due
to the personal attachment that artists must have to
their tools; if a brush is used by another hand, then the
point of the brush is changed to suit that hand. It is
then said that the brush has gone astray.
05 Arts and Crafts 148-193 Part2.CS5.5.indd 186-187
Materials and Preparation | Brush and Wasli Paper for Mughal and Persian Miniature Painting
Materials and tools
Usually, a thick- or medium-sized brush is required
for filling in colours or laying out the ground in the
main areas of a painting. These brushes are generally
prepared from the hair to be found in the ear, tail or
any other part of a young foal, or in the ear of a cow
or calf, or on the tail of a mongoose.
Finer brushers that are used for the most detailed
work are always made from squirrels hair. In some
cases, particularly in Persia, the hair of Persian cats was
used, but generally squirrels hair is preferred for its
extreme fineness and flexibility.
The making of the squirrel-hair brush is the most
arduous task in the process of preparing the materials
required for miniature painting. Each step, from
catching the squirrel to tying the hair into the brush,
requires extreme care and patience.
Catching the squirrel is probably the most difficult
task, especially since a young animal is preferable. The
best time to catch grey squirrels is in the springtime,
when there are plenty of them. The best ways of
catching them are generally by trapping them in a
cage or with a cloth. If necessary, the squirrel should
be given a sedative to calm it down. The best way
of removing the hair from the tail is by putting it
in water, then rubbing it gently so that the hair falls
out. The best hair is obtained from the middle part
of the tail.
It is important to note that it is better to catch Young grey squirrels tail hair
squirrels in the countryside than in the city, since Glass sheet to work on
those from the city usually have damaged hair due to A4-size paper
the rough surfaces with which they have come into Long thin needle
contact. Furthermore, once the hair of a squirrel has Strong silk or cotton thread
been cut, any replacement hair that grows is of an Pigeon quills
inferior quality and lacking in fineness. Therefore, a Reed or a bamboo stick
squirrel should only be used once. It is preferable to Gum arabic solution
use the hair of a young squirrel since it is fine and
tender. The hair from older squirrels is usually thick
and blunt. The hair that is collected has to have a slight
curve to it, since it is difficult to execute fine work
with a brush that has absolutely straight hair.
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 Materials and Preparation | Brush and Wasli Paper for Mughal and Persian Miniature Painting
Making the brush
Preparing the work surface
Place the paper underneath the glass sheet. The glass
must be clean to provide a smooth working surface;
the paper underneath simply gives a clear background
for the delicate work of preparing the squirrel hair.
Place a small bunch of the squirrel hair on the glass,
adding approximately two teaspoons of water to ease
the process of separating the tail hairs that will follow.
Selecting the squirrel hairs
Take a small bunch of hair that has been carefully
inspected for uniform length and curvature. The
bunch may be dipped into a glass of water. Hold the
hair down against the glass plate with the forefinger.
This will allow for the hair to be examined closely
and separated with a needle. Any unsuitable hair can
be removed at this stage.
Separating the squirrel hairs
Hold the hair down again on the glass and stroke it
gently with the needle. This will remove any damaged,
broken or unruly hair. By pressing the hair down on
the glass a fan shape will be formed, which is easier
to inspect. Wet the bunch of hair again and examine
it by rotating it over the thumbnail. Carefully pull
out and remove any loose hairs. During rotation, not
a single hair should go astray from the point, and the
point should never split. When the required point is
achieved, test it by dipping it in ink and drawing a few
lines.
05 Arts and Crafts 148-193 Part2.CS5.5.indd 188-189
Cutting the squirrels tail hair
Wetting the squirrel hairs
Removing any unwanted hairs
be so loose that the hairs will easily pull off the quill.5
Separating the squirrel hairs with a needle
Shaping the hairs into a point
Materials and Preparation | Brush and Wasli Paper for Mughal and Persian Miniature Painting | Making the brush
Tying the squirrel hairs
Tie the bunch of hair securely with a thread of
approximately 15 cm (6 in.) in length, which should
then be doubled up for strength. The first knot should
be looped and left open in order to insert the bunch
of hair into it. This knot is then tightened. After the
first knot is done, a second loop is made and the hair
is passed through it again and the thread is tightened.
A third knot is repeated in the same manner. The first
knot is kept a little loose, the second is a little tighter,
and the third is as tight as possible. At each stage of the
process it is important to take care to keep the bunch
of hairs in place. Sidiqi Bek describes this stage in the
following manner: Your first knot (aqd-i avval) is best
not made overly tight you do not want to strangle
the brush. At the same time, the third knot should not
Fastening the squirrel-hair bunch with thread
The first knot should be left a little loose so as not
to splay the point but also to allow the brush to hold
the paint better; the third knot should be the tightest,
giving stability to the qalam.
Testing the squirrel hair bunch
est for precision of the point and suitability for the
T
individual hand by trying out the brush with black
Chinese indelible ink. If you are not satisfied with the
brush, collect another bunch of hair and repeat the
process until a suitable brush is achieved. Tying the first knot Tying the second knot
Preparing the quill
Preparation of the pigeon quill is done by clearing
away any interior starch using a needle. After cleaning,
the quill is ready for the bunch of hair.
Tying the third knot Resting the squirrel-hair bunch
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 Materials and Preparation | Brush and Wasli Paper for Mughal and Persian Miniature Painting
Inserting the hair into the quill
Carefully insert the bunch of hair into the quill. Flick
in a rapid downward motion to move the hair to the
tip of the quill. The hair may need to be pushed a
little with a needle to make it stick out the necessary
length. If this proves difficult, it can be pulled out with
the fingers. Check that the hair has not been damaged
during insertion.
Preparing the reed or bamboo
Dip the end of your reed or bamboo stick into gum
arabic solution. Ensure that the solution covers the
area of the reed or bamboo that will be inserted into
the end of the quill.
Finishing the brush
Insert the reed into the quill, wiping off any excess
gum arabic solution. The brush should then be left
to dry until it is ready for use. A brush does not
usually work smoothly immediately. After it has been
prepared the artist must execute a series of exercises
to get their hand used to the particular qualities of the
brush. These start with drawing hundreds of circles
and then straight lines and curved lines. Initially artists
use their new brush for executing less delicate tasks
and peripheral objects in a painting, such as plants and
motifs, as well as outlining in gold. Finer work is done
with the brush after its point has become smooth
and properly set by regular use. There are few artists
who are capable of tying brushes that can start giving
good results immediately. Sadiqi Bek advises: When
now the budding brush is palmed, verdant hopes are
ripe for flowering. But remember in handling the
brush (gah-i qalamgiri) not to use a clenched fist (girih
... musht makun). The main hold for the brush (qalam
ra jaygah) is with two fingers (thumb and forefinger);
the other three must provide the support if the
brushstrokes (tahrir-i qalam) are to swerve freely about
(pichideh ayad). For your work wants a certain dash
(daliri), and the brush is to be taken easily in hand.6
05 Arts and Crafts 148-193 Part2.CS5.5.indd 190-191
| Making the brush
Inserting the hair into the quill
Dipping the reed into gum arabic solution
A tied bunch of hair ready to be assembled
paper. This process requires a lot of effort and needs to
A finished brush
Materials and Preparation | Brush and Wasli Paper for Mughal and Persian Miniature Painting
The wasli paper Materials and tools
Miniature painting, like calligraphy, requires the finest Empty container and container full of water
quality paper. The paper chosen should be solid, with White plain flour (approximately 250 g / 8.8 oz)
an extremely fine grain, and the artist should judge Ground copper sulphate (12 teaspoons)
its resistance to the brush and its absorption of water Muslin cloth
before commencing the painting. The term wasli, Steel pan
which is used for the paper for miniature painting in Stove
Persia and the Indo-Pak subcontinent, derives from Wooden stick
an Arabic term, meaning to join. This is significant Flat wooden board
because it literally describes the process of the making Paper tape
of this paper joining layers one on top of the other.
Traditional miniature painters in the Indo-Pak
subcontinent have always used handmade paper as
the basis of the ground or painting support. This
was possible because these painters were part of a
workshop or the royal court and usually had paper
specially made, treated and sized for them. However,
good quality handmade paper is now hard to find in
this region; most of the handmade paper that is used
today was either inherited by the artist or comes
from old manuscripts that are being reused. Modern
production techniques have made machine-made
paper cheaper and easier to find, and therefore it has
become the most commonly used type of paper. Most
miniature painters today use normal cartridge paper,
which is then treated in the traditional manner.
Traditionally the materials used to construct the
ground or painting support are a combination of
handmade paper and glue-size. The first step is to get
the right amount and size of paper. Then comes the
preparation of the glue that is used for treating the
be done on a solid work surface or on a clean floor.
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 Materials and Preparation | Brush and Wasli Paper for Mughal and Persian Miniature Painting
Making the wasli paper
Mixing the flour and water
Mix the white flour with water in a container.
The mixture should not be too thick; it should
be pourable.
Straining the mixture
Strain the mixture through a piece of muslin.
Adding the copper sulphate
Add copper sulphate until the mixture turns a deep
jade colour. The copper sulphate is added into the
mixture to act as a preservative.
Heating the mixture
Place the mixture in a pan on a hot stove. Keep on
a low heat for 45 minutes to 1 hour. As the mixture
is being heated, it should be constantly stirred with
a wooden stick until it thickens and bubbles. Keep
heating until the required thickness and effect are
achieved. Check the consistency with the wooden
stick. If the mixture is sticky, then it is ready to use.
If it is too thick, however, the paper surfaces to
which it is applied will get hard; if is too thin, the
papers will not stick properly to one another.
Cooling the mixture
When ready, cover the mixture and store it in a cool
place for a couple of hours until it gets cold. Then
take some of the glue and mix it with water to make
a thin paste.
05 ArtsView
andpublication
Crafts stats
148-193 Part2.CS5.5.indd 192-193
Mixing the flour and water
Straining the flour mixture
Stirring the glue mixture
Adding the copper sulphate
Adding water to make a thin paste
Materials and Preparation | Brush and Wasli Paper for Mughal and Persian Miniature Painting | Making the wasli paper
Gluing the first sheet of paper
Place the first layer of paper on a strong table or
smooth floor. With a clean piece of wet cotton cloth,
wet the paper. Apply glue paste to the paper by hand.
Gluing the second sheet of paper
Place the second sheet of paper loosely on top of
the first. Wet the second sheet and apply the glue in
the same way as with the first. Carefully remove the Positioning the first sheet of paper Wetting the sheet
second sheet, turn it over and place it firmly on top
of the first sheet. Stick the two sheets together by
pressing down and rubbing with the sides of the fists.
Press further to get rid of any air bubbles or extra glue
by rubbing firmly using the palms or sides of the fists.
Repeating the process
Build the painting surface as a series of layers of paper,
up to three or four sheets thick. Repeat the gluing
process to achieve the required number of layers. Positioning the second sheet of paper Pressing the sheets
Preparing the last sheet of paper
The last sheet must be rubbed and pressed very
carefully because this top layer will be the surface used
for painting. It should not have any air bubbles or
extra glue, and should be finished off by being wiped
clean with a wet cotton cloth. Tape the paper down
onto a flat surface. It is important that small gaps in
the tape are left at the edges to allow air to pass.
Adding another layer of paper Taping the layers down
Drying the paper
When the paper dries out, it will detach itself from
the flat surface. Remove the tape and tidy up the
edges of the paper.
Burnishing the surface
The final stage is the burnishing of the painting
surface. This is done by rubbing with a seashell, agate
or piece of marble.The painting surface, or ground, is
now ready for use. It can be left in its natural finish or
it can be stained with tea for a sepia effect. Burnishing the surface Finished wasli paper
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