ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND PROPAGATION

Electromagnetic wave is electrical energy that has escaped into free space. Electromagnetic
waves can travel in a straight line at approximately the speed of light and are made up of magnetic and
electric fields that are at right angles to each other and at right angles to direction of propagation.

Essential properties of radio waves:

1. Frequency
2. Intensity
3. Direction of travel
4. Plane of polarization

Polarization of a plane electromagnetic wave is simply the orientation of the electric field vector
in respect to the surface of the Earth. If polarization remains constant, it is described as linear
polarization. Horizontal and vertical polarizations are two forms of linear polarization. If the electric
field is propagating parallel to the Earth's surface, the wave is said to be horizontally polarized. If the
electric field is propagating perpendicular to the Earth's surface, the wave is said to be vertically polarized.
If the polarization vector rotates 360 as the wave moves one wavelength through space and the field
strength is equal at all angles of polarization, the wave is described as having circular polarization.
When the field strength varies with changes in polarization, this is described as elliptical polarization.

A rotating wave can turn in either direction. If the vector rotates in clockwise direction, it is right
handed, and if the vector rotates in counter clock wise direction, it is considered left handed.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Radio waves are electromagnetic waves simply because they are made up of an electric and a
magnetic field. The magnetic field is and invisible force field produced by a magnet such as a conductor
when current is flowing through it. Magnetic fields are continuous; however, it is standard for performing
calculations and measurements to represent a magnetic field with individual lines of force. The strength of
a magnetic field (H) produced around a conductor (such as a wire or an antenna) is expressed
mathematically as
where H = magnetic field (ampere turns per meter) d =

1
H=
2nd
distance wire (meters)
 Electric fields are also invisible force fields produced by a difference in voltage potential
between two conductors. Electric field strength (E) is expressed mathematically as

4ned 2

where E = electric field strength (volts per meter) q = charge between conductors
(coulombs) e = permittivity (farads per meter) d = distance between
conductors (meters)

Permittivity is the dielectric constant of the material separating the two conductors. The
permittivity of air or free space is approximately 8.85x10-12 F/m.

POWER DENSITY AND FIELD STRENGTH

The rate at which energy passes through a given surface area in free space is called power
density. Therefore, power density is energy per unit time per unit of area and is usually given in watts per
square meter. Field intensity is the intensity of the electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic
wave propagating in free space. Electric field intensity is usually given in volts per meter and magnetic
field intensity in ampere turns per meter (At/m). Mathematically, power density is

P = $H W / m 2

where P = power density (watts per meter squared)

^ = rms electric field intensity (volts per meter)
H = rms magnetic field intensity (ampere turns per meter)

CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF FREE SPACE

The electric and magnetic field intensities of an electromagnetic wave in free space are related through the
characteristic impedance (resistance) of free space. The characteristic impedance of a lossless transmission
medium is equal to the square root of the ratio of its magnetic permeability to its electric permittivity.
Mathematically, the characteristic impedance of free space (Zs ) is

where Zs = characteristic impedance of free space (ohms)

go = magnetic permeability of free space (1.26 x 10-6 H/m) eo =
electric permittivity of free space (8.85 x 10-12 F/m)

Substituting the values of go and eo into the equation will yield Zs = 377ft
Using Ohm's law, we obtain
H = At/m 377

= 377H2 K/m2

OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF RADIO WAVES

Refraction
Refraction is the changing of direction of an electromagnetic ray as it passes obliquely from one
medium into another with different atmosphere; energy is transferred from one medium into another with
different velocities of propagation.

The velocity at which an electromagnetic wave propagates is inversely proportional to the

density of the medium in which it is propagating. Therefore, refraction occurs whenever a radio wave
passes from one medium to another medium of different density. Refraction of electromagnetic waves can
be expressed in terms of refractive index of the atmosphere it is passing through. Refractive index is the
square root of the dielectric constant and is expressed mathematically as

where n = the refractive index (unitless)

k = equivalent dielectric constant relative to free space (vacuum)

and

where N = number of electrons per cubic meter f =

frequency (kHz)

Whenever a ray passes from a less dense to a denser medium, it is effectively bent toward the
normal. Conversely when a ray passes from a more dense to a less dense medium, it is effectively bent
away from the normal. The angle of incidence is the angle formed between the incident wave and the
normal, and the angle of refraction is the angle formed between the refracted wave and the normal.

The amount of bending or refraction that occurs at the interface of two materials of different
densities is quite predictable and depends on the refractive index (also called index of refraction) of the
two materials. The refractive index is simply the ratio of the
velocity of propagation of a light ray in free space to the velocity of propagation of a light ray in a given
material. Mathematically, the refractive index is

c
n = v

where n = refractive index (unit less)

c = speed of light in free space (3 x 108 m/s) v = speed of light in a
given material (meters per second)

How an electromagnetic wave reacts when it meets the interface of two transmissive materials that
have different indexes of refraction can be explained with Snell's law, which simply states that

n]_ sin 6x = n2 sin 62

sin
sin

where m = refractive index of material 1 n2 =

refractive index of material 2
1 = angle of incidence (degrees)
2 = angle of refraction (degrees)

The refractive index of a material is equal to the square root of its dielectric constant,

sin
sin
where r1 = dielectric constant of medium 1 r2
= dielectric constant of medium 2

Reflection

Reflect means to cast or turn back and reflection is the act of reflecting. Electromagnetic
reflection occurs when an incident wave strikes a boundary of two media and some or all o the incident
power does not enter the second material.

Diffraction

Diffraction is defined as the modulation or redistribution of energy within a wavefront when it

passes near the edge of an opaque object. Diffraction is the phenomenon that allows light or radio waves to
propagate around corners. When a wavefront passes near an obstacle or discontinuity with dimensions
comparable in size to a wavelength,
simple geometric analysis cannot be used to explain the results and Huygen'sprinciple is necessary.

Huygen's principle states that every point on a given spherical wavefront can be considered as a
secondary point source of electromagnetic waves from which other secondary waves (wavelets) are
radiated outward.

Consequently, the wavefront spreads out, or scatters. This scattering effect is called diffraction.
Diffraction occurs around the edge of an obstacle, which allows secondary waves to sneak around the
corner of the obstacle into what is called the shadow zone.

Interference

Interfere means to come into opposition and interference is the act of interfering. Radio wave
interference occurs when two or more electromagnetic wave combine in such a way that system
performance is degraded. Interference is subjected to the principle of linear superposition of
electromagnetic waves and occurs whenever two or more waves simultaneously occupy the same point in
space. The principle of linear superposition states that the total voltage intensity at a given point in space is
the sum of the individual wave vectors.

TERRESTRIAL PROPAGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetic waves travelling within Earth's atmosphere are called terrestrial waves and
communications between two or more points on Earth is called terrestrial radio communications.
Terrestrial waves are influenced by the atmosphere and Earth itself. In terrestrial radio communications,
electromagnetic waves can be propagated in several ways, depending on the type of system and the
environment. Essentially there are three ways of propagating electromagnetic waves within Earth's
atmosphere: ground wave, space wave and sky wave propagation.

Surface Wave Propagation

A surface wave is an Earth-guided electromagnetic wave that travels over the surface of Earth.
As a surface wave moves over Earth's surface, it is accompanied by charges induced in the Earth. The
charges move with the wave, producing current. Since the Earth offers resistance to the flow of current,
energy is dissipated in a manner very similar to those in a transmission line. Earth's surface also has
dielectric losses. Therefore, surface waves are attenuated as they propagate.

Surface wave propagation is commonly used for ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore communications,
for radio navigation, and for maritime mobile communications. Surface waves are used at frequencies as
low as 15 kHz.
The disadvantages of surface waves:

Ground waves require a relatively high transmission power.

Ground waves are limited to very low, low and medium frequencies requiring large antennas.
Ground losses vary considerably with surface material and composition.

The advantages of ground wave propagation are as follows:

 Given enough transmit power; ground waves can be used to communicate between any two
locations in the world.
Ground waves are relatively unaffected by changing atmospheric conditions.

Space Wave Propagation

Space wave propagation of electromagnetic energy includes radiated energy that travels in the
lower few miles of Earth's atmosphere. Space waves include both direct and ground reflected waves.
Direct waves travel essentially in a straight line between the transmit and receive antennas. Space wave
propagation with direct waves is commonly called line-of-sight transmission. Therefore, direct space
wave propagation is limited by the curvature of the Earth. Ground-reflected waves are waves reflected by
Earth's surface as they propagate between transmit and receive antennas.

The curvature of Earth presents a horizon to space wave propagation commonly called the radio
horizon. Because of the atmospheric refraction, the radio horizon extends beyond optical horizon for the
common standard atmosphere.

The line-of-sight radio horizon for a single antenna at sea level is given as

d = V2/i

where d = distance of radio horizon (miles)

h = antenna height above sea level (feet)

The distance between the two antennas at sea level is

d = df + dr
d = ^2 Zit + ^2 Zir

where d = total distance (miles)

dt = radio horizon for transmit antenna (miles) dr =
radio horizon for receive antenna (miles) ht = transmit
antenna height (feet) hr = receive antenna height (feet)
The maximum distance between a transmitter and a receiver over average terrain can be
approximated in metric units by the following equation:

d = J 17ht + J 17hr

where d = total distance (kilometers)

ht = transmit antenna height (meters) hr =
receive antenna height (meters)
Sky Wave Propagation

PROPAGATION TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Critical Frequency and Critical Angle

Frequencies above the UHF range are virtually unaffected by the ionosphere because of their
extremely short wavelengths. At these frequencies, the distances between ions are appreciable large and
consequently, the electromagnetic waves pass through them with little noticeable effect. Therefore, it
stands to reason that there must be an upper frequency limit for sky wave propagation. Critical frequency
(f) is the highest frequency that can be propagated directly upward and still be returned to Earth by the
ionosphere. The critical frequency depends on the ionization density and therefore, varies with the time of
day and season.

Critical angle is the maximum vertical angle at which at which a given frequency can be
propagated and still refracted by the ionosphere.

Virtual Height

Virtual height is the height above Earth's surface from which a refracted wave appears to have
been reflected.

Maximum Usable Frequency

The maximum usable frequency (MUF) is the highest frequency that can be used for sky wave
propagation between two specific points on Earth's surface. MUF, as with the critical frequency, is a
limiting frequency for sky wave propagation. However, the maximum usable frequency is for a specific
angle of incidence. Mathematically, MUF is

critical frequency
MUF = ------------------------------ ---- ------- -------------- ---

cos

where 0i is the angle of incidence.

Because of the general instability of the ionosphere, the highest frequency used between two
points is often selected lower than the MUF. It has been proven that operating at a frequency 85% of the
MUF provides more reliable communications. This frequency is sometimes called the optimum working
frequency (OWF)

Skip distance and Skip Zone

Skip distance is defined as the minimum distance from transmit antenna that a sky wave at a
given frequency will be returned to Earth. The frequency must be less than the maximum usable frequency
and propagated at its critical angle.

At distances greater than the skip distance, two rays can take different paths and still be returned
to the same point on Earth. The two rays are called the lower rayand the upperor Pedersen ray. The
Pedersen ray is usually of little significance, as it tend to be much weaker than the lower ray because it
spreads over a much larger area than the lower ray.

The area between where the surface waves are completely dissipated and the point where the first
sky wave returns to Earth is called the quiet or skip zone because in this area there is no reception.