ORGANIZATIONAL PATHOLOGY

Germán Sergio Monroy Alvarado

Paper accepted to be presented in 26th. International Conference of the Institute of

Management Sciences, Copenhagen, Denmark, June 1984.Conferences presented on
Conferences on Selected Topics of Organizational Behavior, Applied Mathematics and Systems
Research Institute (IIMAS), UNAM, Mexico City, October 1984. Conference of the Mexican
Institute of Systems, A.C. (IMSAC), Mexico City, September 1985. Conference of the
Mathematics Workshop of the School of Sciences, UNAM, Mexico City, 1985. Permanent
Education Course: Fundamentals, Applications and Workshop on Systems Engineering,
Permanent Education Division of the School of Engineering (DECFI), UNAM, Mexico City,
November 1986. Conferences on Decision Contexts and Systems Approaches organized by the
Mexican Academy of Engineering, Mexico City, June 1988.

ABSTRACT
An organization has frequently been likened to a human body with studies
focusing mainly on its anatomy and physiology. This paper will explore a
complementary emphasis: illnesses. This metaphor will be made explicit by
using situations providing a "re-creative" mood in an effort to understand
organizational behavior.

INTRODUCTION

The study of organizations has been of interest to a wide variety of disciplines,

interdisciplines and professions, each one using different perspectives.
Therefore the non-existence of an ordered collection of knowledge in this
respect should be of no surprise and perhaps it should not. Even worry us.
What should worry us all is the perceptible deterioration of most organizations
with which we interact and which act on our daily lives, organizations of every
kind: at the levels of world, nation, government, private industry producing
goods or services and agro pecuarian organizations.

The existence of an ordered collection of knowledge concerning

organizations could be necessary but perhaps might not be sufficient to stop
deterioration and improve these organizations.

The turbulent situations that we experience in our present day societies

demand a change as to how we see things, how we evaluate them, how we act:
change of paradigm.

Despite the inexistence of this ordered body of knowledge on

organizations, most theories developed at present pose certain similarities;
most of them implicitly use the metaphor:

“An organization is like a human body”

And their efforts are focused on the study of its anatomy and its
physiology.

A change of paradigm would allow us to understand what at present

seems inexplicable. .According to T.S. Kuhn (13), a paradigm change is not the
product of a process of accumulation of knowledge. A change of paradigm may
be produced by having a broader outlook, a broader way of evaluating, by
switching to wider frames of reference. Frameworks that integrate, in a new
way, both qualitative and quantitative approaches, frameworks within which the
ridiculous and inefficient aspects of each approach when taken separated, take
on a new meaning so that the things not understood before can now make
sense.

If the existing theories of organization seem insufficient to us, perhaps

this is because it is necessary to integrate them into wider frameworks by
considering aspects that are not very frequently mentioned in the literature:
organizational illnesses.

ORGANIZATIONAL PATHOLOGY

Along this path, searching for a new integration (a new paradigm), systematic
and systemic efforts to study such pathology should be made.

The interest in pursuing this path can only increase as we discover that
R.L. Ackoff, after analyzing the concept of health as defined by the World
Health Organization (WHO), gives a new systemic definition of it and then
remarks:

". ..this definition of health applies equally

to organizations and organisms". (1)

The concept of health as given by Ackoff defines a possible framework

for the study of organizational pathology.

S. Beer, another leader of the system's movement, in developing his

model of organizations as a viable system, establishes another framework and
remarks that an organization:

". ..may not be .in full good health; it might be really ill; its structural condition
might actually be pathological". (3)

Despite the relationship between Management Science, organizations,

and organizational theories, just on very few occasions has this reflected an
interest in analyzing the assumptions on which we act, the frameworks that we
use, the paradigms that we embrace.

Recently, however, work has begun on the subject by G. Burrel and G.

Morgan (5), G. Morgan (16), G. Morgan and G. Smircich (18), and K.
Mackenzie (15).

This paper is an attempt to add to these efforts and an invitation to

management sciences researchers to join in the search for new paradigms and
new research strategies in the study of organizations.
 In this paper the concept of metaphor was chosen in order to explore
organizational pathology, due to the relevance of the relationship between
paradigms and metaphor established by G. Morgan (16); moreover, the
metaphor is a powerful concept which could begin a movement, a
transformation, so to speak (as metaphor contains in itself the concept of
transformation) capable of stirring and impelling people to follow this path (19).
On the other hand, the metaphor is an eminently rhetorical concept which is
poetic and aesthetic, an instrument of creation and re-creation, wherein humor
can also stimulate these processes. If aesthetic aspects are taken into
consideration; our pathway to the means of solving problems will be enriched as
we move towards progress, searching for a just balance in our pursuit of the
ideals of: truth, beauty, good and plenty.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HUMAN BODY

In the medical sciences, the historical evolution of the knowledge of the

anatomy and physiology of the human body has been developed from
macroscopic to microscopic aspects.

If we take the opposite approach, an expansionist, synthetic, rather than

reductionist, analytic, view, from micro to macro, and consider the cell as the
simplest biological unit with the capacity of semi-independent life and being,
semi-autonomous (since context is necessary) , we could define the anatomy of
a human body as the study of:

The description of the physical, structural and morphological

characteristics of cells, tissues, organs, apparatus and “systems”
of the human body; and of their distribution, the arrangement of
these with respect to teach, other and areas of the body.

The physiology of the human body could be defined as the study of:

The description and explanation of the functional characteristics of

the cells, tissues, organs, apparatus and “systems” of the human
body and of their interrelationships.

THE ORGANISMIC METAPHOR

The application of the metaphor:

"An organization is like a human body"

has given rise to theories about organizations called “organismic” which

emphasize the description of the components of organizations and try to explain
their functions, that is to say, they emphasize organizational physiology and
anatomy.

This perspective in the study of organizations has evolved along lines

similar to those of the historical development of anatomy and physiology, i.e.,
from macroscopic to microscopic aspects. We have gone from the search for
knowledge of the macro-organization to the incorporation of knowledge of the
individual in the organization, the mlcro-organizational. During the Renaissance,
Machiavelli (14), (11), (12), describes the principles of power and command in
organizations. Towards the end of last century and the beginning of this, the
first organizational theorists: Taylor, Fayol and Weber made advances in their
efforts to describe and explain the components, structure and functioning of
organizations by using such concepts as the division of labor, hierarchy,
authority and command units, span of control, centralization and
decentralization. These efforts, according to H.A. Simon (21), only produced
proverbs that have neither empirical validity nor universal application.

When social psychologists incorporated their efforts with the construction

of organizational theories following Kurt Lewin (9), (11), (12), a microscopic
focus centered on the behaviour of the individual began and the organization is
described and explained in terms of personality or personal characteristics and
environmental peculiarities or organizational climate.

PATHOLOGY OF THE HUMAN BODY

As considered in this article, pathology is the study of illnesses. The concept of

illness and its relationship to health will be established later on in this paper. We
must add here however, that the medical sciences define pathology as the
study of the “abnormal”, even though not all that is abnormal is illness.

Although we can consider .a person to be an integrated system of mind

and body, in this article we shall only refer to that which relates to the body, we
shall explore the somatic aspects. The psychic and psychosomatic aspects
shall remain objects of future studies. If we consider only the somatic aspects, it
will be easier to say what is normal and what has alterations, what is illness and
what is health. As shall be seen, to consider only these somatic aspects is to
present a broad and rich perspective. Somatic pathology, somatic illnesses, will
be explored in this paper. Fig. 1.

With reference to anatomy and physiology the medical sciences consider

that in spite of the differences and variations existing among groups of people,
standards for determining what is normal in the human body have been
established. Whether these standards are satisfied or not will determine on the
one hand, a healthy body and on the other, abnormalities, alterations,
deviations, morbid states or processes; in these cases, however, the
compensatory homeostatic and/or morphostatic mechanisms may or may not
be required in order to restore the meeting of standards. lf these compensatory
mechanisms are not necessary we have a state of health. This state of health
will also be had in cases which, having required the use of these compensatory
mechanisms, these standards have been restored. In the opposite case, when
standards can not be restored by means of the compensatory mechanisms,
signs and symptoms of illness will present themselves. Fig. 2

The resulting state of health will be, somatically speaking, the absence of
clinical signs and symptoms of illness. Fig. 3
 As can be observed with precision, morbid states or processes which are
not diseases can exist; our interest, however, lie with illnesses.

The somatic pathology referred to in this article, studies the causes of

diseases (etilogy), the mechanisms involved in the development of diseases
(pathogeny) and the mechanisms of disease spreading (epidemiology).

One classification of diseases used by Pathology refers to origin:

Hereditary: those diseases which are transmitted genetically and

can be manifested at birth or later on in life.

Acquired: those diseases which are transmitted through

environmental factors or habits and generally manifested after
birth even though the environment during the birth process can
produce this type of diseases (congenital).

Also mentioned within this classification by some authors are congenital

diseases, those with which one is born: Hereditary diseases which manifest
themselves at birth and those acquired; although transmitted by environmental
factors during the birth process are considered congenital.

Diseases are also classified as:

Inflammations
Degenerations
Neoplasias (tumors)

Before furthering the description of these it must be noted that they, in

combination with those of the previous category, form all the possible
combinations of diseases.

These diseases can be produced by different agents:

Physical
Chemical
Biological

and they are generally referred to as “noxa”.

Among the biological agents, aside from genetic agents, there are micro-
organisms which are classified as:

Viruses
Bacterias
Parasites

when these produce diseases the latter are know as infections.

 Inflammations (with the suffix “itis”) are the responses of tissues which
act as the armour surrounding the cells of an organ (conjunctive tissue), thus
protecting the organ itself, although, on occasion, they can be harmful.

There are three morphological characteristics of inflammations:

• Exudative-infiltrative changes.
Blood vessels dilate, the amount of blood flow increases but slows
down. There is vascular permeability and a greater outpour of
plasmatic liquid into the extra-vascular space, fomenting the possible
production of pus.

• Alterative changes.
Cells degenerate and necrosis (cell death) sets in.

• Proliferative changes.
The number of cells increases.

It is generally said that an inflammation is "stereotyped”, i.e.; it always

has the same appearance. It is also said to be non-specific, in other words, its
etiology can only be determined when the causal agent is found. Its causes can
not be deduced from its appearance. Fig. 4.

Inflammations may be chronic or acute. They are chronic if their duration

is relatively long and acute when it is short. Chronic inflammations are the most
harmful, as are those in which proliferative changes take place.

Degenerations (with the suffix “osis”) are the result of the interrelation
between the noxious agent and the cell. A non-specific function of the cell is
altered and abnormal intra or extra cellular substances are deposited.

It must be clarified that a specific cellular function can only be carried out
if the cell is complete. An example of this kind of function is that of reproduction.
These specific cellular functions could be called c “substantive” (basic). Non-
specific cellular function (adjectival, ancillary-support) are those that can be
carried out even when the cell is incomplete, for example, biochemical actions.
Fig. 5.

When the noxious agents affect a specific function, cellular diseases are
produced which can result in neoplasias or genetic diseases.

Neoplasias, or tumors (with the suffix “omas”) are characterized by an

alteration in cell reproduction and differentiation, when normal and progressive
growth is not followed. These are produced, according to one hypothesis, by a
deficiency in the immuno-competent system which is formed by cells whose
function is to identify foreign elements that act as antigens, substances which
provoke the formation of antibodies or cellular hypersensitivity. Certain noxious
agents inhibit the competent response of the immune system to cell change.
 There are malignant neoplasias such as cancer and benign neoplasias
such as the fibroma, osteoma and angioma. Fig. 6.

THE METAPHOR OF ORGANIZATIONAL PATHOLOGY

:.
When the organismic metaphor is expanded by incorporating pathological
aspects the following metaphor results:

“The Organization like a human body can become ill".

The merely saying that an organization is ill when we observe that its
capacities to solve problems are not sufficiently efficient (or to say that an
organization is pathological if after bettering these efficiencies, there is no
improvement) is a too general description, and saying so, would justify our
impotence for intervening adequately.

In this paper, following the pathological characteristics of the human body

described above, an attempt will be made to begin to establish a referential
framework which will be more specific and should generate motivation to
increase endeavors to restore health to organizations.

Same as with the human body, it seems necessary to establish a set of

standards for determining what is normal for organizations. An understanding of
organizational pathology could initiate efforts to establish these standards. Even
though such an endeavor would seem to be almost impossible to achieve, since
there are so many kinds of existing organizations, one should keep in mind that
there are also many kinds of human bodies. Moreover, two pioneering efforts
already exist which could serve as a guide in establishing these standards. The
first derives from the relationship between health as defined R.L. Ackoff and
illness:

“ ...health is the ability of a purposeful system to fill its needs and pursue
its objectives with at least a level of efficiency displayed by most other
systems of the same type under similar conditions, and the absence of
desire to decrease its own or other's ability to fill their needs and attain
their objectives" (1).

This definition proposes a set of alternatives to follow.

The second pioneering endeavor derives from the consideration of the

neurocybernetic model of an enterprise, conceived of as a viable system,
developed by S. Beer (2) and the principles of cybernetic administration which
arise there from. These principles facilitate the generalization of the model to
any kind of organization (3); from this, Beer establishes that:

“managerial cybernetics ought, in the first place, to be seen as a

diagnostic. By mapping both the organization and the developmental
process in which it is engaged onto the viable system model; it is
possible to understand strengths and weaknesses in terms of the
 axioms of viability. In the second place, it is almost possible to prescribe
for whatever t urns out to be pathological" (3).

Thus, in spite of the fact that the task of establishing standards for
determining the health or illness of an organization could seem monumental, we
feel that it is a possible one, and indeed one quite necessary to perform. Even
without. having these standards made explicit. Who has not felt infected by
some organizational illness and thereby been led to exclaim:

It makes me sick!

Following the classifications of human diseases we can distinguish

hereditary and acquired diseases.

Those most frequent in organizations are acquired illnesses, however

hereditary diseases are also to be found, more so in public organizations than in
private ones.

What generally happens in public organizations is that ideas are

generated concerning the creation of new organizations and these are
conceived through legal action expedited by corresponding laws, agreements
and ruling. These documents carry the genetic code of the new organization
and establish in general, its structure and functions.

With this, on many occasions, directors are designated and personnel is

hired, who have as their first tasks to plan and develop the most detailed design
based on the genetic code and to put this into practice. Often, from the very
beginning of these detailed designs, operational problems stemming from what
is established in the genetic code arise but nevertheless, the code must be
followed. Problems continue to appear during the lifespan of the organization,
thus hereditary inconsistencies and incongruencies arise.

It is extremely difficult to correct these ills in public organizations and the

modification of their genetic codes is virtually impossible.

ORGANIZATIONAL INFLAMMATIONS

Organizational inflammations can present themselves in some part or unit

(organ), of the organization, for example, in an office, department or division, or
they can be generalized throughout, the whole organization.

In these organizational illnesses, similar to inflammations in the human

body, changes are produced in the rhythm of the flow in the way in which
assigned tasks are carried out, the amount of flow is increased but it is slowed
down. This phenomenon is generally produced following Parkinson's Law (20):

“Work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion”.

Thus localized or generalized burocratitis is produced. Fig. 7, 8.

.
 Other inflammations can be produced when special groups or task forces
are assigned to solve some specific problem by means of administration
through projects, projectitis.

These morphological changes, on some occasions, bring about (cellular)

degenerations in the behavior of some individuals, some of whom change their
rhythm of work by reducing it or changing their interests; or they might increase
it if they participate in newly formed groups or decrease it if they are excluded
from these groups. This lowering of interest can degenerate to the point of
necrosis, death of their interest in work. Another morphological change which is
generally observed is produced by proliferative changes wherein the number of
individuals hired by the organization is increased.

The formation of some work teams to solve a problem or develop a

projectis similar to the increase in the work flow affected by the leucocytes
(white blood cells) in the human body, which attack some noxious intruder.
However, such activity, as happens in the human body, can be harmful when
pus is created; these states of putrefaction can also be produced in
organizations and require, special action to restore health, scalpel and profound
cleansing, among others.

When inflammations affect the totality of the organizations, what P. Davis

(8), calls the “supergrowth institutions” are produced. These are characterized
by severe hypertrophia (an increase in the size of an organ due to the increase
in the size of its constituent cells), and hyperplasia (an increase in size due to
an increase in the number of cells). In order to heal these organizations, the
scalpel must by wielded by establishing policies of decentralized functioning.

Chronic and proliferative organizational inflammations are the most

harmful to organizations.

The organizational inflammations, meeting-itis, can be chronic (of long

durations), involving the organization in a permanent rarely productive activity of
meetings. There are organizations that suffer acute meeting-itis and in some
cases it is recurrent, the effects of these pathological manifestations should be
analyzed with regard to organizational efficiency.

ORGANIZATIONAL DEGENERATION

Similar to that which occurs in human bodies, one could say that organizational
degeneration presents itself when a unit of the organization is affected by
noxious agents resulting in an alteration in the non-substantive (adjectival)
function which is made manifest by the accumulation of abnormal elements.

When an organization considers planning to be a non-substantive activity

and yet considers it necessary and to this end establishes a planning unit for
the whole organization, or in each of its units specific groups or subunit of
“specialists” (usually economists or administrators) responsible for planning,
then the disease planning-osis results with its accompanying Increase in
personnel which is generally detached from the rest of the organization and
produces studies which, in the best of cases, only serve as presumption with no
operational effects or are used to fill drawers and filing cabinets previously
empty. Fig. 9.
.
Similar to the foregoing organizational disease, in epidemic proportions,
and due to the impact of electronic computation, the disease computerosis or
informatosis is rapidly spreading, plaguing organizations with specialized
personnel, with marvelous machines and producing millions of characters
printed on paper or displayed on video screens. Along with microcomputation,
the epidemic has passed through the boundaries of organizations and invaded
activities in the home.

ORGANIZATIONAL NEOPLASIAS (TUMORS)

These are alterations in the reproduction and differentiation of elements when

laws of normal and progressive growth are not followed due to the incompetent
functioning of the apparatus charged with identifying foreign agents.

Among these neoplasias, the most prominent are the dilemmas and
inefficiencies produced by the existence of three groups of personnel: the
direction or politicians, the technical personnel and the operative personnel.
Among these groups (in the majority of cases, but especially in public
organizations} there are significant differences in diverse aspects as, for
example, in the goals pursued. Moreover there is rarely good communication
among them.

These groups represent three organizational cultures in dilemma. To

these characteristics we may add abnormal and non-progressive growth which
produces this disease. Fig. 10,11.

Another common neoplasia in the human body is cancer, a malignant

tumor. Given its characteristics, we could consider as organizational cancer that
corruption which so destructively invades uncountable organizations. The
alarming proportion of organizations which suffer this disease require an all out
effort on the behalf of society in general in order to attack this neoplasia
because the development and survival of organizations and society itself are in
danger. Although this is one of the most critical organizational diseases,
relatively few systematic and systemic efforts have been dedicated to its study,

Only a few research groups who have been deeply involved and
committed to societal development have undertaken these endeavors so far.

In addition to all of the aforementioned alternatives for action towards the

study of these diseases, this last, corruption, represents an important challenge
which would open a wide panorama in the development of organizational
pathology.

CONCLUSIONS
In this article I have looked at the need to search for and find new paradigms to
generate knowledge and understanding, paradigms which would be a more
efficient tool for the analysis and development of organizations.

In order to explore one possible path in this search, the aesthetic concept
of metaphor was used since it could be considered an instrument with the
potential to motivate more efforts in this endeavor.

Due to the fact that a good part of organizational theory make implicit use
of the metaphor “the organization is like a human body" emphasizing only
physiological and anatomical aspects, and also considering that the medical
sciences have developed knowledge and understanding of one of the most
marvelous purposeful systems created by Nature, this article explored the
possibility of broadening this view by using the metaphor “the organization like a
human body can become ill”.

Even though this study set aside the psychic and psychosomatic
aspects, the sole consideration of the somatic aspects related to organizational
pathology unveil possible paths which could lead to advances in establishing
standards for determining what is normal in organizations, and some
organizational diseases were described.

Thus the first steps towards diagnosing possible organizational diseases

were taken. There is. still a much wider and longer way to go if, as in medical
sciences, after diagnosing a disease, efforts must be made to discover means
to restore, health to organization.

Therefore, a wide gamut of alternatives could be explored to learn about

and contribute to organizational improvement.
 ECOSOCIAL
ENVIRONMENT

PERSON

PERSON

MIND BODY

BODY

ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY

PATHOLOGY

PSYCHIC SOMATIC

PSYCHOSAMATIC

Figure 1
 HUMAN BODY
ANATOMICAL
AND
PHYSIOLOGICAL
STANDARS
ARE STANDARDS SATISFIELD?

NO YS

ABNORMALITIES
ALTERATIONS
DEVIATIONS:
MORBID
STATES OR
PROCESSES

IS IT NECESARY TO
RESTORE STANDARDS BY
MEANS OF
COMPENSATORY
HOMEOSTATIC AND
MORPHOSTATIC
MECHANICS?

YS NO

ARE STANDARDS
RESTORED?

NO YS

PRESENCE OF
STATE STATE
CLINICAL SIGNS
OF OF
ADN SYNTOMS OF
ILLNESS HEALTH
ILLNESS

Figure 2
 STATE OF ILLNESS

PRESENCE OF CLINICAL SIGNS

AND SYNTOMS

STATE OF HEALTH

ABSENCE OF CLINICAL SIGNS

AND SYNTOMS

Figure 3
NORMAL
HEALTHY

ILL
INFLAMMATED

Figure 4
 NORMAL
HEALTHY

ILL
MIOCARDIOS NECROSIS
HEART STROCKE

Figure 5
 NORMAL
HEALTHY

ILL

Figure 6
BEFORE

AFTER

LOCALICED BUROCRATITIS

Figure 7
GENERALICED BUROCRATITIS

Figure 8
BEFORE

PLAN

AFTER
PLAN

Figure 9
 DIRECTION

TECHNICAL

OPERATIVE

DIRECTION

TECHNICAL

OPERATIVE

DIRECTION

T E C H N I C A L

OPERATIVE

Figure 10
Figure 11
BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) Ackoff, R.L. Redesiqning the Future –A Systems Approach to Societal

Problems. Wiley. N.Y. 1974.

(2) Beer, S. Brain of the Firm, Wiley. N.Y., 1972.

(3) Beer. S. The Heart of Enterprise, Wiley, N.Y. , 1979.

(4) Barrett J. T. Text-Book of Immunology. Mosby Co. Saint Louis. 1974.

(5) Burrell G. And G Morgan, Socioloqical Paradigms and Orqanisational

Analysis-Elements of the Sociology of Corporate Life. Heinemann. London,
1979.

(6) Bykov K.M. (ed) Text-Book of Physiology, Peace Pub. Moscow.

(7) Costero I. Manual Didáctico de Anatomía Patológica. Instituto Nal. de

Cardiología. México. 1974.

(8) Davis P. “Planning and The Supergrowth Institutions-A Mexican Case

Study", Busch Center, ORSA/TIMS, 1976.

(9) Dessler G. Organization and Management -A Contingency Approach,

Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1976.

(10) Dienharth Ch. M. Elementos de Anatomía y Fisiología Humanas, Ateneo,

México, 1969.

(11) George C.S. The History of Management Thought., 2nd Ed Prentice Hall.
N.J. 1972.

(12) Hodgetts R.M. Manaqement Theory, Process and Practice, Saunders Co.
Philadelphia, 1975.

(13) Kuhn T,S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago U. Press,

Chicago. 1962.

(14) Machiaveli, The Prince, Encyclopaedia. Britannica, 1971.

.
(15) Mackenzie K.D. and R. House "Paradigm Development in the Social
Sciences: A proposed research strategy”, Acad. Mgmt .Rev. 3(1), 7-23t Jan.
1978.

(16) Morgan G. “Paradigms. Metaphors, and Puzzle Solving in Organization

Theory", Admve. Sci. Q. 25(4), 605-622. Dec. 1980.

(17) Morgan G, (ed) Beyond Method. Sage Calif. 1983.

(18) Morgan G. , and L. Smircich, "The Case for Qualitative Research". Acad.
Mgmt. Rev., 5(4), 491-500t Oct, 1980,

(19) Ortony A, (ed.), Metaphor and Thought, U. of Cambridge Press,

Cambridge, 1973.

(20) Parkinson C.N. Parkinsons Law - And Other Studies in Administration,

Ballantine Books, 1964.

(21) Simon H.A. Administrative Behavior, Free Press, N.Y. 1957.