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Project P3.

8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

ABSTRACT

Bending of beams is a frequently encountered loading situation in practice. A slender member


subject to traverse loads is termed as a beam under bending. At any cross-section, the traverse
loads generate shear and bending moment to maintain equilibrium. One of the common principles
used to determine the loading capacity of a structure is the first yield criterion which assumes that
the maximum load is reached when the stress in the extreme fabric reaches yield stress. However,
the design based on this rule is not economical for a beam carrying static load, and a substantial
reserve of the strength is disregarded. In order to make use of the material strength fully, we must
explore possibilities of loading the beam into the plastic region.

The objectives of the experiment are to verify the shape factor and the limit load for beam of
rectangular cross-section under pure bending, determine experimentally and theoretically the
shape factor and (plastic) limit load of a simply supported beam and study the mode of failure for
a thin-walled(1mm thickness) C-section and to propose and experimentally verify an appropriate
reinforcement scheme to prevent or reduce buckling.

This project focuses on the analysis of stresses in beam bending, and was carried out by loading
various beams of different cross-sections. It is observed that the experimental ultimate load is
lower than that of the theoretical load, for each of the cross-sections tested. One of the possible
reasons for this is that failure in each of these beams occurs by other modes rather than the pure
bending process stipulated.

The reinforcement of the thin-walled C-channel was carried out on the thin wall C channel was to
reinforce the sides of the C Channel using strips bent into s-shape and using adhesive bonding.

From the data collected, it was found that warpage of the sides will not occur when the side of the
C channel is thicker. Hence, part of the reinforcement strips will result in an increase in thickness
of the walls. The middle portion of the S-strip (part b) is used with the intention of increasing the
strength of the C-Channel, without a significant corresponding increase in weight
Project P3.8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

1. INTRODUCTION

Bending of beams is a frequently encountered loading situation in practice. A slender member


subject to traverse loads is termed as a beam under bending. At any cross-section, the traverse
loads generate shear and bending moment to maintain equilibrium. The bending causes a change
in curvature of the beam and induces tensile and compressive stresses in the cross-section of the
beam. Maximum stresses are achieved in layers furthest from the neutral axis, the layer at which
strain is zero.

1.1 Background

One of the common principles used to determine the loading capacity of a structure is the first
yield criterion which assumes that the maximum load is reached when the stress in the extreme
fabric reaches yield stress. While this criterion is easy to apply and safe to use, the design based
on this rule is not economical for a beam carrying static load. According to the elastic flexure
formula, the stress in a beam is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis. When a beam is
made to carry a moment causing the extreme fabric to yield, the material below this layer will still
be elastic and is capable to carrying further load. Therefore, if the first yield criterion is applied, a
substantial reserve of the strength is disregarded. In order to make use of the material strength
fully, we must explore possibilities of loading the beam into the plastic region.

1.2 Objectives

The objectives of the experiment are:


1. To verify the shape factor and the limit load for beam of rectangular cross-section under pure
bending.
2. To determine experimentally and theoretically the shape factor and (plastic) limit load of a
simply supported beam.
3. To study the mode of failure for a thin-walled(1mm thickness) C-section and to propose and
experimentally verify an appropriate reinforcement scheme to prevent or reduce buckling.

1.3 Scope

This project focuses on the analysis of stresses in beam bending, and was carried out by loading
various beams, namely 2 C-channels (thick and thin), a box beam and 2 rectangular cross-section
beams. Theoretical analysis and experiments were carried out to determine the strength and
stiffness of the beams, which were simply supported at 2 ends with a central load. A C-beam was
chosen and a reinforcement scheme was done to prevent buckling and to increase the strength of
the beam.
Project P3.8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

1.4 Equipment

a. ENERPAC hand-pump base loading system


b. Linear Voltage Displacement Transducer (LVDT)
c. YOKOGAWA 3025 X-Y Recorder

Figure 1. Experimental Setup.

Figure 2. YOKOGAWA 3025 X-Y Recorder.


Project P3.8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

2. THEORY

This project explains the theory of ultimate load applied to a simply supported beam based on the
concept of ultimate load for beam of rectangular cross-section under pure bending. Pure bending
refers to flexure of a beam under a constant bending moment. Therefore pure bending occurs only
in regions of a beam where the shear force is zero. In the simplified engineering theory of bending,
we make the following assumptions:

1. The beams are assumed to internally statically indeterminate.


2. The strains caused by the deformations have a relationship with stresses.
3. When Mp is reached, a plastic hinge is formed.
The shape factor gives a very good estimate as to how much the yield moment My, could be
exceeded before the ultimate plastic capacity is reached. Basically, shape factor can be calculated
by this simple equation:

Shape factor = M p/ M y

yI
My = = yS
c

where My = yield moment,


y = yielding stress
I = moment of inertia
c = distance from the neutral axis to load
S = modulus of the cross section

For a beam that experiences plastic yielding, the above equation will be altered to:

Mp= y Z

in which
A( y1 + y 2 )
Z=
2

A = area of cross section, y1 and y2 = distance of loads to neutral axis.


Project P3.8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

y2
z

y1

Load

y2

y1

Load

Figure 3. Theory of ultimate load.

3. PROCEDURE

The procedure below is used to investigate the ultimate load of a beam subjected to:
(i) pure bending (four point bending)
(ii) a simply supported beam

Pure Bending

1. Measure the required dimensions of the beam for the calculations of moment of first yield
and ultimate moment.

2. Place the beam on the roller supports of the test rig.


Project P3.8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

3. Place and centralize the upper rig onto the beam.

4. For C cross-section beams, insert the provided supports before placing the upper rig.

5. Bring the jet into position with the upper rig by using the hand-brake.

6. Set the Liner Voltage Displacement Transducer (LVDT) perpendicular to the stopper.

7. Use the resistor to calibrate the Y-axis by shorting from the amplifier. Note that one
deflection in the Y-axis is equivalent to 1 kN.

8. Calibrate the X-axis to ensure that the plot stays within the range.

9. Ensure that the chart is set to hold and the pen is set to down before proceeding with the
experiment.

10. Pump the hand-pump continuously to apply force onto the beam.

11. Stop the experiment once the graph plot maintains a horizontal straight line.

12. Release the control valve to reset the jet to its original position.

13. Remove the LVDT and the upper rig.

Simply supported beam

Fix a wedge to the jet to stimulate a point load on the beam. Bring the wedge within close
proximity before placing a piece of support between the And place a support between the wedge
and the beam. Repeat steps 6 to 13.

4. RESULTS

5. Rectangular Cross-sectional area

The parameters are: b=51mm h=13.1mm


Moment of Inertia,
bh 3
I= = 6.681 10 4 m 4
12
Given that the yield stress for aluminium is y = 300MPa Figure 4.
Project P3.8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

My
=
I
bh 3 2
M yd = yd = 437.6 Nm
12 h

To find Mult, we note that the distance between the resultant forces = h/2
bh h
M ult = yd = 656.4 Nm
2 2

M ult 656.4
Shape factor = = = 1.5
M yd 437.6

Mult = Pa/2
Hence, Pult = 6564N Figure 5.

6. Thin-walled C Channel

x = centriod of section = 35.9mm


y = centriod of section
= ( Ay )/A
= (2 25.3 0.8 25.3/2 + 76.2 1 24.8) / (2 25.3 0.8 +
76.2 1)
= 20.58 mm
Figure 6.
I total = (Io + Ad2)
0.8 25.33 2 76.2 13
= 2 + 25.3 0.8 (20.58 12.65) + + 76.2 1 4.22 2
12 12
= 6.068 10 m -9 4

max = yd at y = 20.58mm

Myd = yd I / y
= 300 106 6.068 10-9 / 20.58 10-3
= 88.5 Nm

For the ultimate moment, we have to locate the position of the neutral axis as the axis is not
symmetrical about the centroid.
Project P3.8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

2 24.3 0.8 + 77.8 (y-24.3) = (25.3 y) 77.8


y = 24.55mm

Consider the area below the neutral axis


T1 = (0.25 10-3) (77.8 10-3) (300 106)
= 5835N acting at 0.125mm from N.A
Figure 7.
T2 + T3 = 2 (24.3 10 ) (0.8 10 ) (300 10 )
-3 -3 6

= 11664 N acting at 12.4mm from N.A

Take Moments about C

Mult = 5835 (0.125 + 0.75/2) 10-3 + 11664 (12.4 + 0.75/2) 10-3


=151.9251 Nm

151.9251
Shape Factor = = 1.72
88.5
0.5 P = Mult / 0.2
P = (151.9251 / 0.2 ) 2
= 1519.251 N

7. Thick-walled C-Channel

x = centriod of section = 35.9mm


y = centriod of section = 19.12 mm

Myd = 297.91 Nm
Mult =533.66 Nm

533.66
Shape Factor = = 1.791 Figure 8.
297.91
P = 5336.6 N

4.4 Hollow Rectangular Cross-sectional area

The parameters are: b=76.0mm, h=25.2mm

yd I
M yd = = 631.43 Nm
h/ 2
Figure 9.
Project P3.8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

Mult = 743.7 Nm

743.7
Shape Factor = = 1.178
631.43
P = 7437 N
Figure 10.

On the graph plot, the experimental ultimate load is defined as the maximum point on the graph,
and the load of first yield is defined on the maximum point on the graph that lies on the tangent
line drawn from the origin. The Experimental Shape Factor is thus defined as the division of the 2
values.

The results are summarized in Table 1 below:

Table 1. Summary of results obtained.

X-section Theoretical Experimental Experimental Theoretical Experimental


Ultimate Ultimate Load Load of First Shape Shape Factor
Load (N) (N) Yield (N) Factor
1 Solid 6564 4722 3888.9 1.5 1.21
cross-
section
2 Thin C- 1519.251 1379.7 1207.55 1.72 1.14
channel
3 Thick C- 5336.6 4216.9 2452.3 1.79 1.72
channel
4 Hollow 7437.045 2200 1764.7 1.178 1.25
rectangle
cross-
section
Project P3.8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

4.5 Thin-walled C-Channel Subjected to Point Loading

Diagram for simply supported beam


Diagram of a plastic hinge

Plastic hinge

Bending moment diagram for Aluminium Curvature diagram of Aluminium

Figure 11.

When a concentrated force P is applied at the middle of a simply supported prismatic beam, the
shape of the bending moment is the same regardless of the load magnitude. For any value of P,
the maximum moment M = PL/4, and is M Myp, the beam behaves elastically. When the
moment is at Myp, the force at yield , Pyp=4Myp/L.

When Myp is exceeded, contained yielding of the beam commences and continues until the plastic
moment Mp is reached. The curvature diagram prior to reaching Mp at the middle of the beam is
shown above. The curvature at the middle of the beam becomes very large as it rapidly
approaches Mp and continues to grow without bound.

By setting the plastic moment Mp equal to PL/4, we have:


Pult = 4Mp/L
Pult = (Mp/Myp) Pyp = kPyp,

where the difference between the 2 forces depends only on k, the shape factor.

Given that y = 300MPa ,


Project P3.8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

My
=
I
I 6.068 10 9
M yd = yd = 300 10 6 = 143.9 Nm
y 25.3 10 3 / 2

Pyp=4 Myp / L =4 143.9 / 0.73 = 788.52N

From the above calculations, the shape factor for the thin-walled C-channel is 1.72. Hence, Pult =
1356.3N.

The experimental result shows that Pult = 750N. The reason for such a discrepancy is because the
point load causes a hinge to be formed at the midpoint of the thin-walled C channel. As such, the
Linear Voltage Displacement Transducer (LVDT) is unable to register further increases in
displacement.

5 DISCUSSION

5.1 Analysis of Results

Table 1 shows the values of the theoretical shape factors, as well as the theoretical and
experimental ultimate loads experienced by beams of various cross-sections. It is observed that
the experimental ultimate load is lower than that of the theoretical load, for each of the cross-
sections tested.

One of the possible reasons for this is that failure in each of these beams occurs by other modes
rather than the pure bending process stipulated. In the case of the thin C-channel, buckling and
warpage of the channel occurred shortly after the application of the load force. This resulted in the
material failing, and hence the ultimate experimental load attained was lower than the theoretical
calculated value. In the case of the beam with the rectangular hollow cross-section, it was
observed that a region of bending occurs in the region where the roller support was placed. The
deformation in that region caused the material to fail.

5.2 Suggested Reinforcement

Various types of reinforcement schemes have been suggested. One of the suggestions is to use
riveting joints. Theoretically, when the distance between rivets is small, the resultant stress
concentration ratio is relatively small as the rivet can be taken to be over a large area. However,
introducing rivets will result in stress concentration at the riveting points and this may result in
material failure.
Project P3.8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

Thus the modification that was carried out on the thin wall C channel was to reinforce the sides of
the C Channel using strips bent into s-shape and using adhesive bonding.

From the data collected, it was found that warpage of the


sides will not occur when the side of the C channel is thicker.
Hence, part of the reinforcement strips will result in an
increase in thickness of the walls (see A and C). The middle
portion of the S-strip (part B) is used with the intention of
increasing the strength of the C-Channel, without a
significant corresponding increase in weight.
Figure 12. Schematic view of
suggested reinforcement.

Observations

The weights of the C channels are as follows:

Table 2. Comparison of the weights of various C-channels.

Weight Wt as a Experimental Experimental Experimental


(g) percentage of Load of First Ultimate Load Shape Factor
thin wall C- Yield
channel
Thin wall C- 284.6 100 1207.55 1379.7 1.14
channel (pure
bending)
Thick-walled 790 278 2452.3 4216.9 1.72
C-Channel
(pure bending)
Thin wall C- 450.9 158 1148.5 1505 1.31
Channel with
reinforcement
(pure bending)
Thin wall C- 284.6 100 657.5 767.1 1.167
channel (3-
point bending)

The results show that the experimental ultimate load for the C-Channel with reinforcement is
1505N which is an increase over the 1379.7N obtaining a thin wall C-channel without
reinforcement. However, the load required for the thin-walled C Channel to reach first yield has
decreased, hence resulting in a higher shape factor.
Project P3.8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

From the experimental shape factor that is taken, it is observed that there is an increase in loading
and the C-Channel can withstand a much higher load before it yields.

As the introduction of force, a cracking sound was heard. This is the result of the failure of the
adhesive bond. As the applied force is concentrated at the mid-span, therefore the adhesive
bonding will fail at that point. The mode of failure is similar to that of a thin wall C-Channel under
a 3 pt loading, by buckling. One of the possible reason, is the reinforcement at the midpoint has
already been weakened substantially. Hence the warpage of the wall has been prevented at the
expense of the strength of the channel, which results in this mode of failure.

Comparing the experimental shape factors that are obtained (see Table 2), the inclusion of
reinforcements has resulted in an increase in the experimental shape factor of the thin-walled C
Channel. This is the result of an increase in the ultimate load that the C Channel can now take.
The mode of failure for this thin-walled C Channel with reinforcement has also been altered to that
of a 3-point bending, as evident in the hinge that was observed when the beam failed..

Figure 13. Formation of a hinge at failure.

One of the conclusions that can be drawn is that with reinforcement, the shape factor of the thin-
walled C Channel has been increased to 1.31, which is, in comparison, closest to that of a
rectangular channel. Although this value is slightly lower, it is actually more cost-effective to use
reinforcement like the one that was designed. This is because the material usage (and hence the
addition in weight) in a thin-walled C Channel with reinforcement is much lower as compared to
that for a beam with a rectangular cross-sectional are.

6 CONCLUSIONS

Bending of beams is a frequently encountered situation in practice. The objective of this


experiment is to study the ultimate load of a beam under bending. For the experiment, specimens
Project P3.8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

are made of aluminum, which is a nonferrous metal; its properties differ from ferrous metals,
which is iron based. As most high stressed structures are made of ferrous metals, we need to
correlate our experiment results and observations.

Judging from the results, the solid cross section beam is the strongest and the hollow cross section
beam is the weakest, which verifies the theoretical calculations. Since the proposed reinforced C
channel has no theory to support, we need to present two hypothesis to explain the results and
observations.

Hypothesis I:

The proposed reinforced C channel is assumed to be a thick wall beam. The warpage of the wall
has been prevented and the specimen failure was to expectation of the thick wall beam. However,
the strength of the beam did not increase much, which led to many arguments. One of the reasons
could be that adhesive bonding is not suitable for aluminum, as the joint strength is also
determined by the strength of attachment between adhesive and adherend. And most importantly,
based on the thickness ratio of the walls and the strength to weight ratio, the proposed reinforced
C channel did not perform too badly. Further improvements could be made.

Hypothesis II:

The proposed reinforced C channel is assumed to be a solid rectangular beam. As mention above,
the strength of the beam did not increase much. In addition, the mode of failure is not what
expected of a solid rectangular beam. The only argument we could put is that the strength to
weight ration between the proposed reinforced C channel is very big.

In considering the best structure we would have to take into account the respective strength of the
beams relative to that of their weights. The best combination would be to be a design that is able
to provide high strength and it should be lightweight which we had aimed to achieve.

7 RECOMMENDATIONS

In the process of the experiments, the following recommendations have been made to further
improve on the test results:

(i) It was found that loose connections at the ends of the transducer could result in
fluctuations, and hence inaccuracies, in the calibrations. Hence, as a precautionary
measure, the connections should be checked and tightened, whenever necessary.

(ii) Inclusion of proper supports to hold the adhesion in place. In the reinforcement of the
thin-walled C-channel, the adhesion formed between the channel and the S-strips may have
Project P3.8 Ultimate Load of a Beam Under Pure Bending

been stronger if proper supports can be given to secure the strips firmly to the walls of the
C-channel. The availability of such supports may give rise to a higher resultant strength.

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express their appreciation to their supervisor, Associate Professor Anand
Asundi, and Mr Tan of the Strength of Materials Lab for their assistance rendered in the project.

9 REFERENCES

1. E.P Popov, Engineering Mechanics of Solids, 2nd ed. Chapter 20, Prentice Hall (Singapore),
1999.

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