ME 2027- PROCESS PLANNING AND COST ESTIMATION

UNIT I WORK STUDY AND ERGONOMICS

Method study Definition Objectives-Motion economy- Principles Tools andTechniques-

Applications Work measurements- purpose use procedure tools andtechniques- Standard time
Ergonomics principles applications.
PART-A

WORK STUDY
1. What is meant by work study?
The study of human work in all aspects in order to increase the effectiveness with the work is done.
Work study = Method study + Work measurement

2. Mention few applications of work study. NOV-2012

i. Scope of work study is not restricted to manufacturing industries only.
ii. It can effectively be used in service sector.
iii. It can be applied in offices, hospitals, and other service organisations.
3. What are the objectives of work study?
i. To find the most economical way of doing the work.
ii. To simplify and standardise the methods, materials, tools and equipments.
Method study Definition Objectives
4. What is meant by method study? (Or) Define method study? APR-2015, May-2014,
MAY 2012
i. Method study is the systematic recording and critical examination of existing ways of
doing work, as a means of developing and applying easier.
ii. More effective methods and reducing costs.
5. What are the objectives of method study? NOV-2013, NOV-2014, NOV 2011.
i. To improve the processes and procedures
ii. To improve the plant layout.
iii. To improve safety standards
iv. To improve the use of men, materials and machines
6. What is SIMO chart? Define SIMO chart? .May-2013, NOV-2012
SIMO-- stands for Simultaneous Motion cycle chart
SIMO chart is used to record simultaneously on a common time scale the activities of
two hands of workers body during the performance of a single cycle of operation.
7. What are therbligs? APR-2008
i. Therbligs are the symbols used to denote the various activities and movements done
for different purposes.
ii. Therbligs refer primarily to motions of the human body at the work place.
8. Define the term route sheet.APR-2008
i. The route sheet, also known as operation sheet, instruction sheet, planner, and
traveller lists the production operations
ii. The machine tools process for each component and subassembly of the product.
9. Name the important techniques used in method study.NOV-2009
i. Chart- (outline chart SIMO chart- flow chart two handed process chart etc.)
ii. Diagrams (flow Diagrams , string Diagrams, cycle graph Diagrams, chronocycle
graph Diagrams)

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 Motion economy- Principles
10. What are the benefits of motion study?
i. It eliminates unnecessary and wasteful motion.
ii. It makes the work faster and better.
iii. It increases productivity.
11. What are the principles of motion economy?
i. Use of the human body
ii. Arrangement of the work place
iii. Design of tools and equipment.

Tools and Techniques-Applications

12. Define standard data?
Standard data is a work measurement technique for building up the time for a job or
parts of the job at a defined level of performance by totalling element times obtained
previously from time studies on other jobs containing the elements.

13. What are the tools and techniques used in method study?
i. Outline chart SIMO chart- flow chart two handed process chart etc.
ii. Flow Diagrams - string Diagrams, cycle graph Diagrams, chronocycle graph
Diagrams.

14. What are the application used in tools and techniques?

Material handling, design, building construction, army, agriculture,
marketing,offices,banks.

Work measurements- purpose use procedure tools and techniques

15. What is work measurement? May 2012, NOV 2011

i. It is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified worker
to carry out a specified job at a defined level of performance.
ii. Work measurement is also known by the name time study
16. What are the objectives of Work measurement?
i. To determine time standards
ii. To estimate that cost of a product
iii. To eliminate or reduce ineffective time.
17. What are the general rules to be followed in breaking down a task in to elements?
NOV-2013
i. A new job, new component or a new operation.
ii. When new time standard is required.
iii. To check the correctness of the existing time standard.
iv. When the cost of operation is found to be high.
v. Before introducing an incentive scheme.
vi. When two methods are to be compared.
18. Define rating.May-2013
i. Rating is the assessment of the rate of working of the operator by the work study
man.
ii. The work study man does this rating based upon his idea of standard
performance.
iii. Standard performance is the rate of output which qualified worker will give on an
average.
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 19. Write down any two important applications of Work measurement.
i. It can be used the time standard.
ii. The effective use of people, plant and equipment.
iii. It can used in production, planning and scheduling.
20. What are techniques used in work measurement?
i. Stop watch time study
ii. Work sampling
iii. Pre-determined time standard
iv. Standard data
Standard time

21. Define standard time. Apr-2015

i. It is the time allowed to an operator to carry out the specified task under specified
conditions defined level of performance.
ii. Total time in which a job should be completed at standard performance.

Ergonomics principles applications

22. What is Ergonomics? Or Define Ergonomics? May -2014, Nov -2014

Ergonomics also known as Human engineering and Human factors engineering Study
of relationship between man and his working environment

23. Write down any two important applications of Ergonomics.

i. Automobiles
ii. Production equipment.
iii. Housing
iv. Aircraft
v. Computers
vi. Transportation system
vii. Town and country planning
24. What are the objectives of Ergonomics?
i. To improve the efficiency (doing things right)and effectiveness(doing right things)
ii. To reduced errors
iii. To improve productivity and accuracy.

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 PART-B

Work study
1.With examples explain the objectives of work study (Apr-2015)

DEFINITION:
Work study is the study of human work with a view to increase the effectiveness with which the
work is done.
Work study = Method study + Work measurement

OBJECTIVES OF WORK STUDY:

The main objectives of work study are:
i. To find the most economical way of doing the work.
ii. To standardise the methods, materials, tools and equipment.
iii. To determine the time required to do a job by a qualified trained personworking at normal
pace.
iv. The training the workers for new methods.

WORK STUDY PROCEDURE

SELECT
(Process to be studied)

RECORD
(all the process details using
various recording techniques)

EXAMINE
(by asking question like
who,what,when,why)

DEVELOP
(most economical methods)

MEASURE
(the amount of work involved
and standard time to do that
job)

DEFINE
(new method and standard
time)

INSTALL
(the new methods and
standard practice)

MAINTAIN
(new agreed standard
practice by proper control
procedure)

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 Select the work to be studied.
Record all the relevant facts about the present method after observation
Examine these facts critically in the order of sequence using the questioning techniques.
Develop the most practical, economic and effective method considering all circumstances.
Define the new method (improved method) so that it can always be identified and specified
Install the method as standard practice.
Maintain that standard practice by proper supervision, regular and routine checks.

1. Select

While selecting a job for doing method study, the following factors are considered:
(a) Economical factors.
(b) Human factors.
(c) Technical factors.

(a) Economical Factors

The money saved as a result of method study should be sufficiently more. Based on the
economical factors as give below,
(a) Operations having a bottleneck (which holds up other production activities).
(b) Operations done repetitively.
(c) Operations having a great amount of manual work.
(d) Operations where materials are moved for a long distance.

(b) Human Factors

The method study will be successful only with the co-operation of all people are workers,
Supervisor, trade unions etc.
Workers may resist method study due to
1. The fear of unemployment.
2. The fear of reduction in wages.
3. The fear of increased work load.
4. The supervisors may resist because of the feeling that their prestige may be lost.
5. So, the workers and supervisors must be educated about the benefits of method study.
6. If they do not accept method study, the study should be postponed.

(c) Technical Factors

To improve the method of work all the technical details about the job should be
available.
Every machine tool will have its own capacity. Beyond this, it cannot be improved.
For example, a work study man feels that speed of the machine tool may be increased
and HSS tool may be used.
The capacity of the machine may not permit increased speed. In this case, the
suggestion of the work study man cannot be implemented.
2. Record

All the details about the existing method are recorded. This is done by directly observing the
work.
Symbols are used to represent the activities like operation, inspection, transport, storage and
delay.

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3. Examine

Critical examination is done by questioning technique. This step comes after the method is
recorded by suitable charts and diagrams.
The individual activity is examined by putting a number of questions.
The following factors are questioned
Purpose To eliminate the activity, if possible.
Place To combine or re-arrange the activities.
Sequence -do-
Person -do-
Means To simplify the activity.
The following sequence of questions is used:
1. Purpose What is actually done?
Why is it done?
What else could be done?
What should be done?
2. Place Where is it being done?
Why is it done there?
Where else could it be done?
Where should it be done?
3. Sequence When is it done?
Why is it done then?
When could it be done?
When should it be done?
Person Who is doing?

4. Develop

The answer to the questions given below will result in the development of a better method.

1. Purpose What should be done?

2. Place Where should it be done?
3. Sequence When should it be done?
4. Person Who should do it?
5. Means How should it be done?
EXAMPLE
Development of a better method is explained in the following example.
In sending letters to the customers it was found that the address of the customer was
typed twice. The address was typed in the letter and also over the cover. By the
questioning technique, typing on the cover was eliminated. A window cover was
devised and used.

5. Define

Once a complete study of a job has been made and a new method is developed, it is
necessary to obtain the approval of the management before installing it.
The work study man should prepare are port giving details of the existing and proposed
methods.
He should give his reasons for the changes suggested.

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The report should show
a) Brief description of the old method.
b) Brief description of the new method.
c) Reasons for change.
d) Advantages and limitations of the new method.
e) Savings expected in material, labour and overheads.
f) Tools and equipment required for the new method.
g) The cost of installing the new method including.

6. Install

This step is the most difficult stage in method study. Here the active support of both
management and trade union is required.
Skill work study man requires

Install stage consists of

a) Getting approval of management.

b) Gaining the acceptance of change by workers and trade unions.
c) Giving training to operators in the new method.
Rearrangement of layout:
The machines are rearranged as per the layout suggested in the new method.
New tools and devices are introduced as per the new method.
The working conditions like lighting, ventilation etc. are improved as required in the
new method.
Training of workers and rehearsal:
The workers are given training in the new method; i.e., in the new tools and devices.
The trial run (rehearsal) of the new method is done.
This is done to check the success of the new method. If there is any problem,
modifications are made. Meeting with the supervisor is held daily to discuss the
progress.

7. Maintain

The work study man must see that the new method introduced is followed.
The workers after sometime may slip back to the old methods. This should not be allowed.
The new method may have defects. There may be difficulties also. This should be rectified in
time by the work study man.
Periodical review is made. The reactions and suggestions from workers and supervisors are
noted. This may lead to further improvement.
The differences between the new written standard practice and the actual practice are found
out. Reasons for variations are analysed.
Changes due to valid reasons are accepted. The instructions are suitably modified.

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 Tools and Techniques-Applications Work measurements-

2. Discuss the various tools and techniques used for work measurement. (Apr-2015) (or)
Write a critical note on tools and techniques of motion study May-2014

Various tools and techniques used for work measurement:

The following charts and diagrams are used in Work measurement.

1. Operation process chart (or) Outline process chart.
2. Flow process chart.
(a) Material type
(b) Operator type
(c) Equipment type
3. Two-handed process chart. (or) Left hand-Right hand chart
4. Multiple activity charts.
5. Flow diagram.
6. String diagram.

Process Chart Symbols

1. Operation
A large circle indicates operation. An operation takes place when there is a change in physical
or chemical characteristics of an object. An assembly or disassembly is also an operation. When
information is given or received or when planning or calculating takes place it is also called operation.
Example
Reducing the diameter of an object in a lathe. Hardening the surface of an object by heat
treatment.
2. Inspection
A square indicates inspection. Inspection is checking an object for its quality, quantity or
identifications.
Example
Checking the diameter of a rod. Counting the number of products produced.
3. Transport
An arrow indicates transport. This refers to the movement of an object or operator or equipment from
one place to another. When the movement takes place during an operation, it is not called transport.
Example
Moving the material by a trolley Operator going to the stores to get some tool.

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4. Delay or temporary storage
A large capital letter D indicates delay. This is also called as temporary storage. Delay occurs
when an object or operator is waiting for the next activity.
Example
An operator waiting to get a tool in the stores. Work pieces stocked near the machine before
the next operation. An equilateral triangle standing on its vertex represents storage. Storage takes
place when an objects stored and protected against unauthorized removal.
Example
Raw material in the store room.
6. Combined activity
When two activities take place at the same time or done by the same operator or at the
someplace, the two symbols of activities are combined.
Example
Reading and recording a pressure gauge. Here a circle inside a square represents the combined
Activity of operation and inspection.

1. Operation Process Chart

An operation process chart is a graphic representation of the sequence of all

operations and inspections taking place in a process.
It is also known as outline process chart. It gives a birds-eye view of the overall
activities.
Entry points of all material are noted in the chart.
An example of operation process chart is shown in the figure 1.2. Here the process of
manufacture of electric motor is shown.

Operation Process Chart

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The followed in preparing the chart are

1. Write title at the top of the chart.

2. Begin the chart from the right hand side top corner.
3. Represent the main component at the right extreme.
4. Represent the sequence of operations and inspections by their symbols. Connect them
by vertical flow lines.
5. Record the brief description of the activity to the right side of the symbols.
6. Note down the time for each activity to the left of the symbol.
7. Number all operations in one serial order. Start from the right hand top
8. Similarly number all inspections in another serial order.
9. Continue numbering, till the entry of the second component.
10. Show the entry of purchased parts by horizontal lines.
2. Flow Process Chart
A flow process chart is a graphical representation of the sequence of all the
activities (operation, inspection, transport, delay and storage) taking place in a
process.
Process chart symbols are used here to represent the activities. There are three
types of flow process charts.
They are
1. Man type flow process chart
This flow process chart records what the worker does.
2. Material type flow process chart
This flow process chart records how the material is handled or treated.
3. Equipment type flow process chart
This flow process chart records how the equipment or machine is used.

Flow Process Chart

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Guidelines for making a flow process chart

1. The details must be obtained by direct observationcharts must not be based on

memory.
2. All the facts must be correctly recorded.
3. No assumptions should be made.
4. Make it easy for future reference.
5. All charts must have the following details:
a. Name of the product, material or equipment that is observed.
b. Starting point and ending point.
c. The location where the activities take place.
d. The chart reference number, sheet number and number of total sheets.
e. Key to the symbols used must be stated
3. Two-Handed Process Chart (or) Right Hand, Left Hand Chart
It is the process chart in which the activities of two hands of the operator are recorded.
It shows whether the two hands of the operator are idle or moving in relation to one
another, in a timescale.
The chart what the two hands are doing at any given moment of time.
The two-handed process chart is generally used for repetitive operations.
Here one complete cycle of work activities is recorded.
Recording is done in more detail than ordinary flow process chart.
A single activity in a flow process chart is broken into small elemental activities and
recorded.
Two-handed process chart generally use the same symbols as other process charts. But
the definitions of symbols are slightly different.
This is because we record the activities of hands only.
Operation: Represents the activities grasp, position, use, release etc. of a tool,
component or material.
Transport: Represents the movement of the hand or limb to or from the work or
a tool or material.
Delay: Refers to the time when the hand or limb is idle
Storage (Hold):
The term hold is used here instead of storage. This refers to the time
when the work is held by hand.
The activity inspection by hand is considered as an operation. Hence,
the symbol for inspections not used in this chart.
Two-handed process chart can be used for assembly, machining and
clerical jobs.

General guidelines for preparing the chart

1. Provide all information about the job in the chart.
2. Study the operation cycle a few times before starting to record.
Example
Example of a two-handed process chart is shown in figure.
Here the assembly of a nut and washer over a bolt is recorded.
The work place layout is shown in the right hand corner.
The activities of left hand are recorded at left half of the chart.
The activities of the right hand are recorded at the right half of the chart.

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 Two-Handed Process Chart

3. What is the need for work measurement? With suitable example, describe the
procedure for work measurement. Briefly explain the various techniques for work
measurement. May-2014

WORK MEASUREMENT NEEDS

Work measurement is a technique to establish the time required for a qualified
worker to carry out specified job at a defined level of performance.
Work measurement is the application of techniques used to determine the time
taken by a qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a defined level of
performance.
Work measurement means measuring the work in terms of time content, (i.e.,
minutes or hours) required for completion ofjob.
Work measurement is concerned with investigating, reducing or eliminating
all ineffective time.
EXAMPLE:
1. Stop watch
2. Electronic devices
3. Motion picture camera
4. Time study board
5. Time study forms
6. Calculator, scale, tape, tachometer.

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 Basic procedure- Work measurement

SELECT
(the job to be studied)

OBTAIN &RECORD
(all the process details
about the job and
operator)

BREAK DOWN
(The job into suitable
elements)

MEASURE
(time duration for each
element and assess rating)

EXTEND
(observed time and
normal time)

DETERMINE
(allowances to be made)

COMPUTE
(standard time by adding
allowances to normal
time)

Various techniques for work measurement.

1. stop watch
2. work sampling
3. predetermined time standards (PTS)
4. standard data
1. Stop Watch Time Study
Stop watch time study is one of the techniques of work measurement commonly used. Here
we make use of a stop watch for measuring the time.
Procedure for conducting stop watch time study
The following procedure is followed in conducting stop watch time study:
1. Selecting the job.
2. Recording the specifications.
3. Breaking operation into elements.
4. Examining each element.
5. Measuring using stop watch.
6. Assessing the rating factor.
7. Calculating the basic time.
8. Determining the allowances.
9. Compiling the standard time.

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Selection of job
Time study is always done after method study. Under the following situations, a job is
selected for time study:
1. A new job, new component or a new operation.
2. When new time standard is required.
3. To check the correctness of the existing time standard.
4. When the cost of operation is found to be high.
5. Before introducing an incentive scheme.
6. When two methods are to be compared.
Record
The following information are recorded
1. about the product-name, product-number, specification.
2. about the machine, equipment and tools.
3. about the working condition-temperature-humidity-lighting etc. This
informations are used when deciding about the allowances.
4. About the operator name-experience-age etc. This is needed for rating the
operator.

Break down operation into elements

1. Each operation is divided into a number of elements. This is done for easy
observation and accurate measurement.
2. The elements are grouped as constant element, variable element, occasional element,
man element, machine element etc.
The following informations are recorded
1. About the product-name, product-number, specification.
2. About the machine, equipment and tools.
3. About the working condition-temperature-humidity-lighting etc.
4. About the operator name-experience-age etc. This is needed for rating the operator.

A= slide for stopping and starting the movement

B= winding knob, pressure on this knob returns both the hands too zero.
.

Decimal-minute stop watch

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4. What do you understand by Analytical estimating? Give the procedure for
conducting work measurement study by analytical estimating?.Nov-2014

Analytical Estimating

Setting the time standards for long and non-repetitive operations by stop watch method are
uneconomical.
Analytical estimating technique determines the time values for such jobs either by
using the synthetic data or on the basic of the past experience of the estimator when
no synthetic or standard data is available.

In order to produce accurate results the estimator must have sufficient experience of
estimating, motion study, time study and the use of synthesized time standards.

Procedure:

The various procedural steps involved in analytical estimating are:

1. Select the estimator.
2. Find out job details which include job dimensions, standard procedure and
especially the job conditions, i.e., poor illumination, high temperatures, hazardous
environments, availability of special jigs, fixtures or tooling, condition of materials,
etc.
3. Break the job into constituent elements.
4. Select the time values for as many elements possible from the data bank (i.e.,
synthetic data).
5. To the remaining elements for which no synthetic data is available, usually the
estimator gives suitable time values from his past knowledge and experience.
6. Add 4 and 5 and this is the total basic time at a 100% rating.
Add to 6 appropriate Blanket Relaxation allowance. In analytical estimating,
relaxation allowance is not added to individual elements, rather a blanket
R.A. depending upon the type of job and job conditions.

This is calculated as a percentage (10 to 20%) of the total basic time and is
added to the total basic time.
Any additional allowances if applicable may be added to 7 in order to arrive
standard time for the given job.
Advantages
1. It possesses almost the same advantages as enjoyed by synthesis from standard data.
2. It aids in planning and scheduling.
3. It provides a basis for rate fixing for non-repetitive works in industries.
4. It improves labour control.
Limitations
The estimate will not be accurate.
Application
Analytical estimating is used.
1. For non-repetitive jobs, jobs involved long cycle times and the jobs having
elements of variable nature.
2. In repair work,
Tool rooms.
Job production
Maintenance work.
Inspection work.
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 Erection work.
Engineering construction.
One time large projects, and
Office routines etc.

Collect full details of a job

( dimensions, tools method,
working conditions)

Analyse job into constituent

element( activity grouping to
enable individual elemental
time to applied)

Add individual element time

and estimate basic times for
the remaining elements

Estimate appropriate
allowances

Verify detail of elemental

analysis for job method and
conditions

Add allowances to total basic

time to establish the standard
time for the job

INSTALL
(the new methods and
standard practice)

MAINTAIN
(new agreed standard
practice by proper control
procedure)

Analytical Estimating Chart

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 Method study Definition Objectives

5. Write the recording techniques used in method study. Explain with a neat sketch of
material type flow process chart.NOV-2014f

RECORDING TECHNIQUES USED IN METHOD STUDY

A. Charts
Symbols used in charting: The following are the symbols used in the construction andinterpretation of the
chart

SYMBOL ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION

Operation It is main steps in a process, method

and procedure, usually the part
material or product modified during
operation.
Example:
Drilling a hole, filing,
grinding, facing, etc

Transport It indicates movement of the workers,

materials, equipment from place to
place
Example:
Gear, blank moving from
milling m/c to grinding m/c.
Operator moving from his
workplace to the store.

Inspection It indicates any type of inspection,

check, measurement for quality and
quantity.
Example:
measuring the thickness of
the plate,
Checking hardness of a bar.

Delay It indicates a delay (ie) temporary halt

in the sequence of events.
Example:
Power failure, machine
failure

Storage It indicates the materials come from

the storage in storeroom.
Example:
Drill bits kept in tools store,
Finished goods stored in a
stock room.

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Type flow process chart
(i) Outline process chart.
(ii) Flow process chart.
(iii) Two handed process chart.

(i) Outline Process Chart

The outline process chart gives an overall view of the process, from the
beginning to the end.
It is a graphic representation of the sequence of all the operations.
Inspections carried out in the entire process and the stage at which material is
introduced.
In outline process chart only operation and inspection symbols are used.
The nature of each operation or inspection is made alongside the symbol and
time allowed for it is also entered.
example of outline process chart

If the final product is assembled from several subsidiary components or materials

which join the major process during its progress,
The major process is shown starting from the right hand side of the page.
Subsidiary processes are joined to the major process at the place of entry of the
materials or subassemblies.
All the operations are sequentially numbered; similarly all the inspections are
sequentially numbered separately

(ii) Flow Process Chart

A flow process chart is a graphical representation of the sequence of all operations,
transportations, inspections, delays and storages occurring during a process or procedure, and
includes information considered desirable for analysis such as time required and distance
moved.

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Types of flow process chart:

Outline process chart for bolt and nut

(a) Man-type:
A flow process chart which records what the worker does and his movements.

(b) Material type:

A flow process chart which records what happens to material and its movements.

(c) Equipment type:

A flow process chart which records how the equipment is used and its
movements.
It is essential that the activities of only a particular subject to which it refers,
either man, material or equipment are recorded on any single chart i.e., a chart
should represent flow of either man, material or machine at a time.
The flow process chart is constructed in the same way as outline process chart
but it uses all the five symbols for charting.

(iii) Two-handed Process Chart

Two-handed process chart is a specialised form of process chart and gives a
graphical representation of work and movement of the operators two hands in
relationship to one-another.
A two handed process chart is made up of two columns in which are recorded the
symbols representing the activities of the left and the right hand respectively.
Recording,
in this case, is made with ordinary symbols with the omission of the inspection
symbol since inspections will be shown as movement of hands.
Also the triangle symbol used for storage implies hold in two handed process
chart. .

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 Two-handed Process Chart

6. What steps are followed for doing method study of job processes?
Write procedure of time study. May-2013

METHOD STUDY
Method study is that part of work study which deals with systematic analysis and improvement of
work methods.

OBJECTIVES OF METHOD STUDY

The objectives of method study are:
i. To bring improvement in processes and procedures.
ii. To bring improvement in factory, shop and work-place layout.
iii. To find the ways for optimum utilisation of resources i.e., men, machines and materials.
iv. To increase the efficiency.
v. To develop suitable working conditions.

BASIC PROCEDURE FOR METHOD STUDY

The basic procedure involves seven stages in the application of methods study.
These stages are :

(i) Select the work to be studied.

(ii) Record all the relevant facts about the present method after observation.

(iii) Examine these facts critically in the order of sequence using the questioning
techniques.

(iv) Develop the most practical, economic and effective method considering all
circumstances.
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(v) Define the new method (improved method) so that it can always be identified
and specified.

(vi) Install the method as standard practice.

(vii) Maintain that standard practice by proper supervision, regular and routine
checks.

SELECT
(Process to be studied)

RECORD
(all the process details
using various recording
techniques)

EXAMINE
(by asking question like
who,what,when,why)

DEVELOP
(most economical
methods)

DEFINE
(new method and
standard time)

INSTALL
(the new methods and
standard practice)

MAINTAIN
(new agreed standard
practice by proper
control procedure)

Method study chart

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TIME STUDY EQUIPMENT
Stop Watch:
The following are the two types of stop watches used:
(a) Decimal minute stop watch with a dial calibrated into 100 divisions, each division
representing 0.01 minute. (1 full rotation of the needle corresponds to 1 minute).
(b) Decimal hour stop watch with a dial calibrated into 100 divisions and the needle
completes 100 revolutions in one hour, i.e., each division represents 0.0001 hour. The
decimal minute stop watch in industrial engineering work study practice is more common.

A= slide for stopping and starting the movement

B= winding knob, pressure on this knob returns both the hands too zero.

Procedure for conducting stopwatch time study

The following procedure is followed in conducting stopwatch time study:

1. Selecting the job.

2. Recording the specifications.
3. Breaking operation into elements.
4. Examining each element.
5. Measuring using stop watch.
6. Assessing the rating factor.
7. Calculating the basic time.
8. Determining the allowances.
9. Compiling the standard time.

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1. Selection of job
Time study is always done after method study. Under the following situations, a job is
selected for time study:
1. A new job, new component or a new operation.
2. When new time standard is required.
3. To check the correctness of the existing time standard.
4. When the cost of operation is found to be high.
5. Before introducing an incentive scheme.
6. When two methods are to be compared.
2. Record
The following information are recorded
1. About the product-name, product-number, specification.
2. About the machine, equipment and tools.
3. About the working condition-temperature-humidity-lighting etc. This informationis
used when deciding about the allowances.
4. About the operator name-experience-age etc. This is needed for rating the operator.
3. Break down operation into elements
i. Each operation is divided into a number of elements.
ii. This is done for easy observation and accurate Measurement.
iii. The elements are grouped as constant element, variable element, occasional
element, man element, machine element etc.

7. Write the basic procedure for method study. Explain briefly.

Method study
The detailed analysis of existing or proposed method of doing the work for the
purpose of effecting improvements.

Work measurement may be defined as the determination of time allowed for

the effective performance of a specified volume of work performed in a
specified manner.

OBJECTIVES OF METHOD STUDY

The main objectives of method study are:

(i) To find the most economical way of doing the work.

(ii) To standardise the methods, materials, tools and equipment.
(iii) To determine the time required to do a job by a qualified and properly
trained person working at normal pace.
(iv) To assist in training the workers for new methods.

METHOD STUDY
Method study is that part of work study which deals with systematic analysis
and improvement of work methods and systems through the application of innovative
techniques to achieve better utilization of resources.

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OBJECTIVES OF METHOD STUDY
The objectives of method study are:
1. To bring improvement in processes and procedures.
2. To bring improvement in factory, shop and work-place layout.
3. To find the ways for optimum utilisation of resources i.e., men, machines and
materials.
4. To bring economy in human effort by reducing the unnecessary fatigue and thereby
increase the efficiency.
5. To develop suitable working conditions.

WORK STUDY PROCEDURE

1. Select the work to be studied.

2. Record all the relevant facts about the present method after observation
3. Examine these facts critically in the order of sequence using the
questioning techniques.
4. Develop the most practical, economic and effective method considering all
circumstances.
5. Define the new method (improved method) so that it can always be
identified and specified
6. Install the method as standard practice.
7. Maintain that standard practice by proper supervision, regular and routine
checks.
SELECT
(Process to be studied)

RECORD
(all the process details using
various recording techniques)

EXAMINE
(by asking question like
who,what,when,why)

DEVELOP
(most economical methods)

DEFINE
(new method and standard
time)

INSTALL
(the new methods and
standard practice)

MAINTAIN
(new agreed standard
practice by proper control
procedure)

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1. Select

While selecting a job for doing method study, the following factors are considered:
(a) Economical factors.
(b) Human factors.
(c) Technical factors.

(a) Economical Factors

The money saved as a result of method study should be sufficiently more. Then only
the study will be worthwhile. Based on the economical factors, generally the following jobs
are selected.
(a) Operations having bottlenecks (which hold up other production activities).
(b) Operations done repetitively.
(c) Operations having a great amount of manual work.
(d) Operations where materials are moved for a long distance.

(b) Human Factors

The method study will be successful only with the co-operation of all people
concerned viz., workers, supervisor, trade unions etc.

Workers may resist method study due to

1. The fear of unemployment.
2. The fear of reduction in wages.
3. The fear of increased work load.

The supervisors may resist because of the feeling that their prestige
may be lost.
So, the workers and supervisors must be educated about the benefits of
method study.
Even then if they do not accept method study, the study should be
postponed.

(c) Technical Factors

To improve the method of work all the technical details about the job should
be available.
Every machine tool will have its own capacity. Beyond this, it cannot be
improved.
For example, a work study man feels that speed of the machine tool may be
increased and HSS tool may be used.
But the capacity of the machine may not permit increased speed. In this case,
the suggestion of the work study man cannot be implemented.
These types of technical factors should be considered.

2. Record

All the details about the existing method are recorded.

This is done by directly observing the work. Symbols are used to represent the
activities like operation, inspection, transport, storage and delay.

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3. Examine

Critical examination is done by questioning technique.

This step comes after the method is recorded by suitable charts and diagrams.
The individual activity is examined by putting a number of questions.
The following factors are questioned
1. Purpose To eliminate the activity, if possible.
2. Place To combine or re-arrange the activities.
3. Sequence -do-
4. Person -do-
5. Means To simplify the activity.

The following sequence of questions is used:

1. Purpose What is actually done?

Why is it done?
What else could be done?
What should be done?
2. Place Where is it being done?
Why is it done there?
Where else could it be done?
Where should it be done?
3. Sequence When is it done?
Why is it done then?
When could it be done?
When should it be done?
4. Person Who is doing?

4. Develop

The answer to the questions given below will result in the development of a better
method.
1. Purpose What should be done?
2. Place Where should it be done?
3. Sequence When should it be done?
4. Person Who should do it?
5. Means How should it be done?

Development of a better method is explained in the following

example.
In sending letters to the customers it was found that the address
of the customer was typed twice.
The address was typed in the letter and also over the cover.
By the questioning technique, typing on the cover was
eliminated. A window cover was devised and used.

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5. Define

Once a complete study of a job has been made and a new method is
developed, it is necessary to obtain the approval of the management before
installing it.
The work study man should prepare are port giving details of the existing and
proposed methods.
He should give his reasons for the changes suggested. The report should show

(a) Brief description of the old method.

(b) Brief description of the new method.
(c) Reasons for change.
(d) Advantages and limitations of the new method.
(e) Savings expected in material, labour and overheads.
(f) Tools and equipment required for the new method.
(g) The cost of installing the new method including.

. 6. Install

This step is the most difficult stage in method study.

Here the active support of both management and trade union is required.
Here the work study man requires skill in getting along with other people and
winning their trust.
Install stage consists of
(a) Gaining acceptance of the change by supervisor.
(b) Getting approval of management.
(c) Gaining the acceptance of change by workers and trade unions.
(d) Giving training to operators in the new method.
(e) To be in close contact with the progress of the job until it is
satisfactorily executed.

7. Maintain

The work study man must see that the new method introduced is
followed.
The workers after sometime may slip back to the old methods.
. The new method may have defects. There may be difficulties also.
This should be rectified in time by the work study man. Periodical
review is made.
The reactions and suggestions from workers and supervisors are noted.
This may lead to further improvement.
The differences between the new written standard practice and the
actual practice are found out. Reasons for variations are analysed.
Changes due to valid reasons are accepted. The instructions are
suitably modified.

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 Ergonomics principles applications.

8. Discuss the importance of ergonomics by mentioning various areas of application. OR

Define ergonomics? What is the purpose of the study of ergonomics? Explain the
applications of ergonomics?

ERGONOMICS

Ergonomics also known as Human engineering and Human factors engineering

Study of relationship between man and his working environment.

Objectives
The objectives of the study of ergonomics is to optimize the integration of
man and machine in order to increase work rate and accuracy.
It involves
i. The design of a work place befitting the needs and
requirements of the worker.
ii. The design of equipment, machinery and controls in such a
manner so as to minimize mental and physical strain on the
worker thereby increasing the efficiency.
iii. The design of a conductive environment for executing the task
most effectively.
Both work study and Ergonomics are complementary
and try to fit the job to the workers.
However Ergonomics adequately takes care of factors
governing physical and mental strains
Ergonomics is also closely related to the topic Human
Factors Engineering.

Ergonomics is the link between the Engineering Sciences and the Human Sciences

Applications
Ergonomics has been applied to a number of areas as discussed below

1. Working environments
2. The work place
3. Other areas.

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1. Working environments

The environment aspect includes considerations regarding light, climatic

conditions (i.e., temperature, humidity and fresh air circulation), noise, bad odour,
smokes, fumes, etc., which affect the health and efficiency of a worker.
Day light should be reinforced with artificial lights, depending upon the nature
of work.
The environment should be well-ventilated and comfortable.
Dust and fume collectors should preferably be attached with the equipments
giving rise to them.
Glares and reflections coming from glazed and polished surfaces should be
avoided.
For better perception, different parts or sub-systems of equipment should be
coloured suitably. Colours also add to the sense of pleasure.
Excessive contrast, owing of colour or badly located windows, etc., should be
eluded.
Noise, no doubt distracts the attention (thoughts, mind) but if it is slow and
continuous, workers become habituated to it.
When the noise is high pitched, intermittent or sudden, it is more dangerous
and needs to be dampened by isolating the place of noise and through the use of
sound absorbing materials.
2. Work place layout
Design considerations
a) Materials and tools should be available at their predetermined places and close
to the worker.
b) Tools and materials should preferably be located in the order in which they will
be used.
c) The supply of materials or parts, if similar work is to be done by each hand,
should be duplicated.
d) That is materials or parts to be assembled by right hand should be kept on right-
hand side and those to be assembled by the left hand should be kept on left hand
side.
e) Gravity should be employed, wherever possible, to make raw materials reach
the operator and to deliver material at its destination (e.g., dropping material
through a chute).
f) Height of the chair and work bench should be arranged in a way that permits
comfortable work posture.
g) To ensure this
Height of the chair should be such that top of the work table is about
50 mm below the elbow level of the operator.
Height of the table should be such that worker can work in both
standing and sitting positions.
Flat foot rests should be provided for sitting workers.
The situation with respect to bench heights and seat heights.
The height and back of the chair should be adjustable.
Display panel should be at right angles to the line or sight of the
operator.

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h) An instrument with a pointer should be employed for check readings
whereas for quantitative readings, digital type of instrument should be
preferred.
i) Hand tools should be possible to be picked up with least disturbance or
rhythm and symmetry of movements.
j) Foot pedals should be used, wherever possible, for clamping decamping
and for disposal of finished work.
k) Handles, levers and foot pedals should be possible to be operated without
changing body position.
l) Work place must be properly illuminated and should be free from glare to
avoid eye strain.
m) Work place should be free from the presence of disagreeable elements like
heat, smoke, dust, noise, excess humidity, vibrations etc.

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Normal working area
It is within the easy reach of the operator.

Maximum working area

It is accessible with full arm stretch.

Work place layout for assembling small component parts.
A-1 is the actual working area and the place of assembly (POA) where four
component partsP-1, P-2, P-3, and P-4 are assembled together.
Bins containing P-1, P-2, P-3, and P-4 and commonly employed tools (CET) (like
screw driver, plier, etc.) lie in the normal working area A-2.

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