INDIAN HIGHWAYS

Volume : 45 Number : 7 JULY, 2017 ISSN 0376-2756 `20

Indian Roads Congress
Founded : On 10th December 1934

C O N T E N T S
FROM THE EDITORS DESK 4-5
NEWS BOX 6

TECHNICAL PAPERS
CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS IN MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN-CHALLENGES
AND TECHNICAL INTERVENTIONS 7
Abhai Sinha
karnataka road development corporation limited taking the
next leap 11
K.S.Krisnareddy, B.V. Vijayalakshmi and Devayan Dey
advantages of concrete road for generating more finance
compared to bitumen road 15
M.N. Dakate and Dr. P. S Pajgade
comparative case studies of two ppp bridges on river godavari
in southern and kosi in northern india 22
V. N. Heggade
effect of speed on road accidents 32
Gyanendra Singh, S.N. Sachdeva and Mahesh Pal
csir-crri training programmes for 2017-18 46
Tender notices 48-54

Publisher & Editor : S. K. Nirmal, Secretary General, IRC

Email: secygen.irc@gov.in/publicaiton.irc@gov.in
Headquarter: Secretary General, Indian Roads Congress, Kama Koti Marg, Sector-6, R K Puram,
New Delhi-110022.
Phone No. 
+91-11-26171548 (Admn.), 23387140 & 233384543 (Membership), 23387759 (Sale),
26185273 (Tech. Papers, Indian Highways and Tech. Committees)
No part of this publicaiton may be reproduced by any means without prior written permission from the Secretary General, IRC.
The responsibility of the contents and the opinoins expressed in Indian Highways is exclusively of the author(s) concerned. IRC and
the Editor disclaim responsiblity and liability for any statements or opinion, originality of contents and of any copyright violations
by the authors. The opinion expressed in the papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the
views of the Editor or IRC.
Printed at : I G Printers Pvt. Ltd., 104, DSIDC Complex, Okhla Industrial Area, Phase-I, New Delhi-110020

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 3

 FROM THE EDITORS DESK

Road Bridges Way forward

Recent news of inaugurations of India's longest bridge - the 9.15 km long Dhola-Sadiya (Bhupen
Hazarika) bridge over River Brahmaputra, on NH-52 in Assam and 1.4 km long Extradosed cable
stayed Bridge over river Narmada on NH-8 in Gujarat had caught widespread attention globally. These
bridges are helping in faster mode road connectivity and also reduced the distance and travel time of
commuters. These newly constructed bridges are at par with international practice having all facility
like lighting arrangement, footpath, flood alarm system, anti-corrosive steel, Road Safety measures and
painted with carbonation paint. Bridges help in economic and social development of that particular
region where it is built.
A bridge is a structure which provides passage over an obstacle such as water bodies, valley, or road
or railway line without closing the way beneath. The passage may be required for easy transportation
through road, a railway, a canal or a pipeline. The history of development of bridge construction is
linked with the history of human civilization. The first bridge was made by nature. The tree accidentally
falling across a stream was the earliest example of a beam type bridge. Similarly, the natural rock arch
formed by erosion of loose soil and the creepers hanging from the tree to tree allowing monkeys to
cross from one bank to the other was the earliest forms of arch and suspension bridges. Earlier days,
for human-being, construction of the bridge was very difficult task and posed numerous challenges.
But with the advancement in Science & Technology and enhancement of technical abilities, bridge
design & construction methodology has improved tremendously.
Planning & designing of road bridges according to standard specification became the norm in
the 20th century. Outline of Indian Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Road Bridges was
originally drafted in 1945-46 and subsequently after long deliberations first published by IRC in 1956
and successive revisions later on due to changes in philosophy, loading pattern, workmanship, newer
machinery and computerization over the years. A bridge design philosophy is a set of assumptions and
procedures which are used to meet the conditions of serviceability, safety, economy and functionality
of the structure. Several design philosophies have been introduced from different parts of the world.
The earliest one is working stress method, which was introduced in 20th century. This is based on linear
elastic theory. This working state method was used in IRC:18:2000 Pre-stressed Concrete Road Bridges
Code; IRC: 21:2000 Cement Concrete Road Bridge Code; IRC:22-1986: Composite Road Bridge Code &
IRC:24-2001 Steel Road Bridge Code which were widely accepted and adopted by highway fraternity
till IRC published Limit State Method (LMS) Codes viz, IRC:22:2008; IRC:24:2010 and IRC:112:2011.
The objective of bringing new LSM codes for the road bridge is to establish a common and economical
procedure for design and construction of road bridges in India and to make sure that bridge codes are
in tune with international codes.
Upto last decade majority of our bridge constructed were based on conventional technology which
is time consuming and weather dependent wherein onsite fixing of substructure and superstructure
forms, followed by reinforcing steel placement, concrete placement, and concrete curing, all typically
occurring in a sequential manner. All these onsite construction activities require long-term presence
of contractor/department related equipment, labour, and staging areas leads to disruptions of traffic
and safety problem.But, with advancement in skill and foresightedness of engineers new concept
emerged i.e. accelerated bridge construction (ABC) technology which uses innovative planning,
design, materials, and construction methods in a safe and cost-effective manner to reduce the
onsite construction time, traffic disturbance, environmental losses that occurs when building new
bridges or replacing and rehabilitating existing bridges. Such methods/technology also offer reduced
environmental impacts, better worker safety, higher construction quality and lower lifecycle costs. The
ABC technology is partially used in our country and there is need to disseminate/transfer technology
details amongst bridge professionals so that in future bridge project will be constructed in faster

4 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

 FROM THE EDITORS DESK

mode overcoming site constraints, less traffic disturbance. Since ABC requires large investment in
construction equipment, the same should also be factored in the contract conditions so that larger
equipment advance could be provided.
There is a need to go for advanced level of bridge technologies in our highway projects. In this regard use
of larger spans, innovative materials, aesthetic structure & precast construction may be considered. Use
of high performance concrete, corrosion resistant steel such as weathering steel, light weight materials
such as Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composite and High Damping Rubber bearings are some of the
new materials which can be used for medium-large span bridges. In bridges spans ranging from 75 m to
200 m, extra dosed bridges enhance the aesthetics without much additional cost. IRC has already
published guidelines on high performance concrete (IRC:SP:70) and initiated preparation of Codes
and Guidelines for cable-stayed and extradosed bridges. For small spans, there is a need to have the
standard designs of various components. MORTH has initiated the updation of standard designs and
drawings for all such bridges. Availability of standard design will also encourage pre-casting factories
for girders, box structures for culverts etc. which will not only speed up construction but also enable
proper quality control during their casting in factories.
Another important aspect for bridge is maintaining its serviceability and consequently retaining
their level of reliability during their design life time. This can be achieved through timely inspection &
maintenance of bridges and taking requisite remedial measures. Due to lack of regular inspection &
maintenance of some bridge, incidences of structural deterioration and collapse have been growing in
the recent past. Thus, attention is needed to focus on preservation and rational scientific management
of bridges built in recent past and to rehabilitate and strengthen the older bridges built which have
deteriorated due to inadequate maintenance. Now, Govt. of India is focusing on strengthening,
maintenance & preservation of road infrastructure asset. Last year, in October, 2016 MoRTH had
launched Indian Bridge Management System (IBMS) for carrying out inventory and condition
assessment of the existing bridges on National Highways. In first phase they carried out inventory for
more than 1, 35,000 bridges. Under this study structural condition assessment of all bridge structures
were carried out and they are rated on 0 to 100 scale based on their structural health condition and
socio-economic conditions etc. A bridge with rating point less than 75 is considered critical and specific
tests are conducted again to establish repair, rehabilitation and reconstruction requirements. This data
base is the largest of its kind and will also help in smoothening the movement of Over-Dimensioned
and Over-Weight consignments on National Highways.
Safety of vulnerable road user is now growing concern for everyone and prelude to this Honble
Prime Minster of India, Shri Narendra Modi had launched Setu Bharatam programme of MoRTH on
March, 2016 with aim of elimination of all railway level crossings on National Highways by 2019 in
order to prevent the frequent accidents and loss of lives at level crossings. Under this programme 208
Railway Over Bridges (ROB)/Railway Under Bridges (RUB) will be built at the level crossings at a cost
of Rs. 20,800 crore as part of the programme. In addition to this, about 1500 old bridges will also be
improved by replacement/widening/strengthening in a phased manner at a cost of about Rs. 30,000
crore.
Although Road owing agencies are focusing much more to strengthen the transport infrastructure
and last mile connectivity keeping balance with environment & safety of venerable road user, there
is a need to bring qualitative change and a comprehensive, integrated approach in developing
infrastructure in the country. As the construction cost of bridges is very high compared to cost of
comparable length of road pavement, there is an urgent need for the bridge engineering community
to come with innovative, techno-economic solutions, user-friendly design/structures to meet changing
public expectations of smooth, faster and safer construction.
(S.K. Nirmal)

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 5

 NEWS BOX
Dhola-Sadiya: A Bridge of New Hope for the North East
The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi,
inaugurated India's longest bridge the
9.15 km long Dhola-Sadiya bridge over the River
Brahmaputra in Assam on 26.05.2017. The Union
Government has decided to name the Dhola-
Sadiya bridge after the great musician, lyricist
and poet, Bhupen Hazarika. This new, three
lane, 9.15 kilometre long bridge has been built
over river Lohit, a tributary of the Brahmaputra,
The Web Platform for Sale and Purchase of Construction Material and Service
The Union Minister of Road Transport &
Highways and Shipping, Shri Nitin Gadkari
launched INAM-Pro+ in New Delhi on
01.06.2017. INAM-Pro+ is an upgraded version
of INAM-Pro, the web portal designed by National
Highways and Infrastructure Development
Corporation Ltd (NHIDCL) and launched by the
Ministry two years back as a common platform to
bring cement buyers and sellers together.
Upgraded version INAM-Pro+ include the A
New Bridge Constructed in Record Time of 165 Days on Savitri River near Mahad in
Maharashtra on National Highway No. 66
Union Minister for Road Transport &
Highways and Shipping, Shri Nitin Gadkari
and Maharashtra Chief Minister, Shri Devendra
Fadnavis inaugurated the new road bridge over
the Savitri river near Mahad in Maharashtra on
05.06.2017. The Survey, design and detailed
estimate was prepared by the Maharashtra State
PWD in-house. The bridge was constructed in
a record time of 165 days after an old masonry
6 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017
linking Dhola to Sadiya in Assam. The total length
of the Dhola-Sadiya Bridge project, including
the approach roads on each side, is 28.50 km.
The length of the bridge itself is 9.15 km. It has
been constructed on BOT Annuity basis at a total
cost of Rs 2,056 crores, as part of the Arunachal
Package of Roads and Highways under the
Ministrys SPECIAL ACCELERATED ROAD
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME for NORTH
EAST (SARDP-NE).The bridge will also reduce
the distance from Rupai on NH-37 in Assam to
Meka/Roing on NH-52 in Arunachal Pradesh by
165 km. The travel time between the two places
will come down from the current six hours to just
one hour a total five hour reduction. This will
result in saving of petrol and diesel worth Rs 10
Lakh per day.
to Z of construction materials, equipments/
machinery and services like purchase/hiring/
lease of new/used products and services in the
domains of Construction Materials viz, cement,
steel, bitumen, stone aggregates, concrete, bricks,
wood, sanitary items, paint etc; Infrastructure
Machinery viz. HMP, Paver Finisher, Backhoe
Loaders etc; Intelligent Transport System
Equipment viz. VMS, CCTV, ECB, Boom
Barriers etc; Road Furniture viz. road signage,
road studs, etc; Haulage Vehicles Viz. Tippers,
Backhoe Loaders, Cranes; Road Safety and
Protection Works viz. Crash Barriers, Hazard
markers, Delineators etc and Services viz. Road
Marking, Ambulance, Route Patrolling, Tree
plantation/Transplantation.
This web Platform portal will help to reduce the
time and effort in preparation of proposals and
bid submissions, and helps in increase efficiency
in procurement of construction materials as one
could place orders, obtain price quotes and track
them in swift manner.
arch bridge on Savitri and Kal river, with width
of 5.90 m and length of 184 m, constructed
in 1928, collapsed on the night of August 2,
2016 following heavy rainfall.The New Bridge
is 16 m wide and 239 m long with lighting
arrangement, footpath, flood alarm system,
anti-corrosive steel, Road safety measures and
painted with carbonation paint.
 TECHNICAL PAPER
CONSTRUCTION OF ROADS IN MOUNTAINOUS TERRAIN
CHALLENGES AND TECHNICAL INTERVENTIONS
Abhai Sinha*
Background
The Central Public Works Department
has been entrusted with the construction
of high altitude roads in the Himalayan
region by the Ministry of Home Affairs. The
department has been successfully carrying
out various Border Infrastructure works
on the Indo-Pak, Indo-Bangladesh and
Indo-China borders. Our officers have
taken up the challenging task of Greenfield
road construction works at altitudes as
high as 17,500 feet. Such constructions
have their own unique problems which
impact the contractual setting essentially
through increased uncertainties.
1. 
Challenges in High Altitude
Hill Road Construction
Construction of new roads in high altitude
areas put forth a plethora of challenges,
from alignment fixation to reconnaissance
to estimation of time and cost, right upto
contracting and execution. I have tried to put
together some of the important issues that we
have faced and what actions are required to
surmount these problems. It is also important
to note that these challenges are not isolated
and have interdependencies which make the
situation more complex. Also, they come as
different cocktails in different locations.
2. Terrain, Connectivity and
Alignment
The topography of the higher reaches
*Director General, C.P.W.D.
of the Himalayas is steep mountainous
with fractured and unstable rocky strata.
Normally, the practice in these areas has
been to identify foot-tracks and animal
tracks and take the road alignment on them.
Sometimes, it is also a practice to follow a
major river, as the riverbanks have human
habitation. However, with the developments
in remote sensing survey methodologies,
like satellite imagery and photogrammetric
data drone mounted equipments and advent
of LIDAR cameras, along with the software
and personnel to handle such data, high
quality mapping of large tracts is now
possible. CPWD has used 0.3 m resolution
imagery purchased from National Remote
Sensing Centre, Hyderabad for creating
high quality digital terrain models. These are
then used to trace out alternative alignments
and after assimilating ground information, a
viable and economical alignment is worked
out. Concerns like reduction in height
of cut (which leads to increased volume
of earthwork, larger right of way, more
damage to environment, increased disposal
requirement of debris, denuding the green
cover leading to increased instability, etc.),
avoidance of cultivated/privately owned
land, avoidance of landslide prone areas, are
addressed while finalizing the alignment.
Although it cannot be said that such problems
can be entirely eradicated, however they are
certainly mitigated to a large extent.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 7
 TECHNICAL PAPER
Photo 1 : Glacial flows on to road alignment
Uttarakhand
In most of the cases, the new roads in
mountainous areas have connectivity from
nearby habitation to the start point of road.
In case of heavy rainfall in lower reaches, the
access to the site is hindered. The site itself
is overlain by snow cover for 4 to 8 months,
making is impossible to work during such
periods.
3. 
Contract management &
Logistics
The work sites are invariably very remote
and have hostile climatic conditions. The
contractors working in such areas have no
incentive for participating in such works, if
there is a sufficient supply of infrastructure
contracts in more convenient locations. It is
always difficult to rope in good contractors
in such cases. As such quality control at site
becomes more critical, which is also difficult
to acheve due to site conditions.
The remoteness of the work sites also
implies poor living conditions, inadequate
health amenities, poor transportation and
communication facilities, etc. to name a few.
These factors also entail unstable supply and
higher cost of labour, drop in efficiency and
increased cost of maintenance of machinery.
High altitudes often have deficiency of
oxygen in the air which has its added
8 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017
Photo 2 : Snowfall, poor visibility and falling rocks
make working conditions difficultNorth Sikkim
detrimental impact on the performance of
man and machine.
4. 
Natural Disasters and
environmental controls
The high altitude terrain in the Himalayas
remain a vulnerable area from the point of
view of natural disasters. These areas are
not only prone to earthquakes but also have
slope failures and rock fall locations which
are active for the past many years. The highly
fractured geology of the rock formations,
heavy snowfall in the higher reaches, glacial
movements, increasing human activities, etc.
are some of the primary reasons for instability
in these areas. As such it is necessary to bring
in latest technology for better drainage (both
surface and sub-surface), slope stabilization,
rock-fall protection and erosion control
measures as part of the road construction
methodologies.
It is pertinent to point out that the Ministry
of Finance has issued directives for taking
measures for prevention and mitigation of
disasters, both natural and man-made, in
projects involving creation/modification of
structural/engineering assets (OM No.37(4)/
PF-II/2003 dated 19.06.2009). All our road
and bridge constructions fall under this
criteria. A risk assessment is required to be
 TECHNICAL PAPER
conducted which includes : identification of
different types of risks to which the project
area is vulnerable, probable vulnerability of
the project components, description of the
risk; risk analysis based on likelihood and
consequences; and evaluation of risk for
prioritization. Risk treatments (engineering
and non-engineering options) based on an
objective criteria is required be identified and
prioritized and included within the budget for
the project.
5. 
New Technology Applications
Gaps in Engineering
Applications at field level
The MORTH Specifications (5th Revision)
as well the Indian Roads Congress
publications have lately provided a thrust
in the right direction by enlarging the scope
and applications of new technology in road
construction. The application of geotextiles,
geogrids, geocells and geocomposites
in hill road construction has immense
potential, especially in the drainage, slope
stabilization and erosion protection. CPWD
has incorporated some items in its Schedule
of Rates and is in the process of developing
specifications for these applications. Our
specifications usually find their way as tender
conditions and therefore have to address the
gaps in MORTH Specifications for specific
applications. For example, in the matter of
choice of geotextiles for separation-filtration
function, although options are available
for various types of geotextiles, there are
no guidelines available to facilitate the
engineers decision making as to the design
or survivability conditions for his specific
application. It is necessary that proper design
guidelines be available to facilitate the
adoption of gabions and revet mattresses,
geosynthetic products and various rock-fall
protection systems, so as to facilitate their
adoption. Random rubble masonry, concrete/
brick work, stone aggregate filters, etc. require
high degree of supervision and care at site.
These need to be replaced by factory made
products where quality control and assurance
is easier to monitor. In our recent DPRs, we
have gone for geocomposite fin drains behind
breast walls for vertical drainage and gabion
retaining walls, wherever possible.
6. 
Technical and Regulatory
Interventions Required
In the last few years, there has been a
discernible push for development of road
infrastructure in the country. As a result, new
technologies and processes have found a
foothold in the working space. The Ministry
of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH)
and TERI are working on a report for
Reducing Carbon Footprint and Enhancing
Climate Resilience of National Highways in
India. Although the GHG emissions emanate
more from the operations phase of the
roads, proper design and execution plays an
important part in reducing the same during
road use as well as by reduced maintenance
needs of the roads.
The following important interventions
are the need of the hour in this sector :
i. The quality of road construction largely
depends on the quality of DPRs prepared,
which in turn depends on the Terms of
Reference framed for DPR Consultancy
works. There is a need for updation of
IRC:SP:19-2001 (Manual for Survey,
Investigation and Preparation of Road
Projects). We in CPWD are using satellite
data for fixing alignment of our roads,
which by virtue of available expertise in
the market for analysis of such data, has
become a possibility. Similarly, use of
drone mounted cameras for even better
resolution is being adopted. Similarly,
considering the importance of drainage
in hill roads, our DPRs have replaced
aggregate filter behind retaining walls by
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 9
 TECHNICAL PAPER

geo-composite Fin- drains. Many other
such interventions are possible and will
be incorporated in the future as we gain
experience in the use of new products and
technologies.
ii. There is an urgent need for bringing out
guidelines for selection of technologies
for economical slope stabilization and
rock fall protection. It has to be a joint
initiative by engineers and geologists.
Today, many vendors are pushing
different technical solutions, without the
engineers having a grasp over the relative
merits of such systems. The Hill Road
Manual : 1998 brought out by the IRC
needs urgent updation to encompass all
recent developments.
iii. 
With the advent of new technologies,
comes the need for development of QA/
QC protocols for such systems. Manuals,
codes and guidelines need to address this
issue if the owners are to enforce quality
and consistency in execution which is a
huge push for increased adoption of new
technology. Similarly, development and
support for specialized testing agencies is
also required.
7. 
Green Construction in
the Road Sector
In the years ahead, there is an expected spurt
in the volume of road construction in the
country. Accordingly, the carbon footprint of
this sector will also increase. Therefore, there
is a need for developing green construction
technologies and adopting the eco-friendly
options in our construction. Such materials and
technologies that reduce our dependence on
sand and stone mining, reduce deforestation,
reduce maintenance needs and provide better
geometrics and riding quality to our roads
need to be promoted. Use of natural materials
like jute and coir geotextiles, vetiver grass
for erosion control and bamboo for soil
reinforcement are sustainable in the long run.
Finally, there is a long felt need for
development of a Green Rating System
for roads, on the same lines as GRIHA for
buildings. It will give a scientific basis for
deciding on which competing technologies
should be adopted, when more than one
such technology fulfill the engineering and
economy criteria. Green Road technologies
are all the more important in the ecologically
vulnerable mountainous regions where
road construction has strategic and security
implications, apart from developmental
objectives and are unavoidable interventions.
I believe some work has been done in this
domain by the International Road Federation.
I am sure that in the near future we will see
more adoption of new road construction
technologies in the hill roads sector, with
better disaster resilience and lower carbon
footprints, and will play an increasingly
bigger role in the economic development of
the remote hilly regions of the country.

Call for Technical paper

The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) invites Technical Papers for publication in its periodicals i.e. Indian
Highways (monthly), IRC Journal (quarterly), HR Journal (half yearly) and Highway Research Record
(yearly).
The contents of papers should cover the additional knowledge, information and ideas so that highway
fraternity gets benefitted from them. The papers should be properly structured and should avoid
dwellings at lengths on facts broadly known to highway engineers. The papers may deal with important
case studies, new design concepts/principles, new construction techniques, modern quality control,
modern maintenance techniques applied in highway projects, besides traffic engineering, transport
planning etc including a paragraph on application of Paper to Highway Profession and updation of
IRC Codes.

10 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER

KARNATAKA ROAD DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION LIMITED

TAKING THE NEXT LEAP

K.S. Krisnareddy* B.V. Vijayalakshmi** Devayan Dey***

1. Introduction the only State Road Corporations to have

achieved so.
1.1. 
Karnataka Road Development Corporation Successful pilot for toll collection with focus
Limited (KRDCL) was established as an on community participation, which itself was
organization in 1999. Although establishment first of its kind concept
happened almost a decade and half ago, Successful pilot of borrowing instruments
KRDCL is gradually transforming into a using structured finance approach leading to
corporate organization. KRDCL embarked reduction in interest by 260 bps and zero risk
on a journey towards result-oriented spread another first of its kind story.
transformation in late 2013. Since then, the
Corporation has continuously evolved and has
been able to reposition itself with significant
success stories up its sleeves. KRDCL has
obtained ISO-14001/2004 for the Head office
and four project offices. The focus today is
well established on financial and operational
sustainability, coupled with responsible
business actions for Environment, Wild-life
and Communities. Earlier Cost of Currunt Cost of
borrowing borrowing
2. Result oriented trans-
formation 2.2. Operational Efficiency:
2.1. Towards Financial Sustenance: Towards
this goal, KRDCL spearheaded multiple
initiatives including revamping corporate
governance, developing financial guidelines,
creating innovative models like Co-financing
PPP as well as accessing cheaper borrowing
instruments with the assistance of Financial
Planning and Transaction Advisors (M/s
Price water house Coopers Ltd.). Over the
past 2 years, we have been able to deliver
Creating a Development Plan with 2028 Another important aspect which required
Vision transformation was the efficiency in development.
Creation of innovative Co-financing PPP Without increase in resources, KRDCL has
projects, first of its kind in India been able to double its delivery through simple
Successful transactions of 6 PPP projects reorganization initiatives and commitment
with completed financial closures, one of
*Managing Director, Karnataka Road Development Corporation Limited, Bangalore
**Assistant Executive Engineer, Karnataka Road Development Corporation Limited, Bangalore
***Associate Director, Pricewaterhouse Coopers India

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 11

 TECHNICAL PAPER

towards change. Ongoing initiatives will help
KRDCL to grow its output 8 folds by 2020.
3. 
The emphasis on safety,
environment and
community in the process
While KRDCL remains committed
on spearheading the transformation into the
finest road corporation in the Country; safety,
communities and environment are at the heart of
every effort. For example,
3.1 Environment:
We not only prepare EMPs for all road

projects, but measures to make it a part of
execution has been our foremost endeavour.
For example, all our projects include
environmental mitigation schedule in the
contracts to enable enforcement contractually.

Water scarcity is a key issue in Karnataka.

Rain water harvesting, therefore, has been
an invariable part of our contracts. In
addition, we have also committed ourselves
to enhance at least one water body in each
of the project road by increasing their
capacity through De-silting, strengthening
of bunds and pitching, planting of trees and
beautification works.

Over and above the regulatory afforestation,

we have taken up avenue plantations in Ox-
Bow bends of the roads without involving
land acquisition.

12 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Waste management plans have been prepared
for construction and debris waste of non-
hazardous nature, scarified bitumen of
hazardous nature, municipal solid waste etc.
We also believe in providing safe and healthy
working conditions for Engineers, workers
and laborers. These includes provision of
PPEs, healthy environment in labor quarters,
plant premises, base camps, periodic health
check-ups for workers, etc. This also includes
making such premises green.

3.2 Community focus:

Our initiatives in projects included noise

barriers at sensitive locations, silt trap
structure for the RCC drain discharging to 3.3 Caring for Wildlife:
natural water body, water harvesting structure
We focus on preserving wildlife on all our
for RCC drain not discharging to natural
project roads. In relevant projects we have
water body, oil interceptor at workshop
in base camp, restoration of borrow pits, carried out bio-diversity surveys and created
cooking fuel oil provisions for the worker to relevant mitigation plans to be included in
check the wood fuel use, etc. contracts.
Jute/Coir netting
In fact, wherever possible we have encouraged
local business to be part of our projects. Our
Sandur - Hospet toll collection contract is
currently being managed by local businesses.
We hope to engage local businesses in our
future endeavours as well to enable enhanced
job creation, etc.

Significant steps have been taken to help

reduce impact of dust on surrounding
communities through use of sprinklers in
crushers, base camps and plant premises.

Nocturnal survey

Initiatives included creation of animal


underpasses with naturalised flooring so
that small vegetation can grow and give the
underneath area a natural passage look for
animals and trenches with jute/coir sidings to
make it animal friendly.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 13

 TECHNICAL PAPER

4. 
Going forward, we need
to be more innovative
While, we have created numerous success stories
in the Phase I of transformation, we believe the
Phase II of transformation will further lead to a
number of Indias first stories. KRDCL believes
that Infrastructure development has to keep pace
with technological advancements, some of which
are listed below.
Solar Highway Technologies: Solar panels

can be installed on embankment on each side
of the road which often remain unutilized.
Preliminary analysis indicates that each km
of such solar highways is expected to support
electrification of 1-2 villages. In addition,
there is reduction in transmission losses.
Eco-friendly Construction Technologies:

The adoption of eco-friendly construction
technology shall also lead to leveraging
local strengths while boosting economy.
For example, we have explored use of eco-
friendly coir embankment which can boost
local employment. As mentioned previous,
we have already initiated use of the same for
trenches in wild-life areas.
Electronic Tolling Technologies: While

manual toll collection has been the primary
mode of toll collection in India, we are
looking at how gate-less systems can be used
to improve reduced congestion and travel
time. Of course, not to forget the substantial
land acquisition cost that will be saved due
to seamless flow of traffic. We have already
started studies and are in discussion with
national and international agencies including
Japan.
Roads for Future: It is necessary to assess

during DPR stages about how road-side
infrastructure can be planned that can suit the
needs of future. Government of Karnataka
is already looking at way-side amenities of
international standards that can be developed
along the roads.
The Corporation is committed to turn the concepts
into prototypes, and hopes that with Government
support the same can be achieved in next few
months, if not years.

CALL FOR PAPERS ON IBC SEMINAR ON HOUSING FOR

ALL IN URBAN AND RURAL AREAS
The Indian Building Congress is organizing its 22nd Annual Convention and National Seminar
on Housing for All in Urban & Rural Areas at New Delhi in October, 2017. Authors/Readers
are requested to contribute Papers on Concept, Design and Planning for Mass Housing, Slum
Development and Rehabilitation, Affordable Housing Technologies, Development of Land and
Infrastructure Services for Housing and Case Studies latest by July 15, 2017 Abstract & by
August 14, 2017 - full Paper.

For more details please contact Shri P.S. Chadha, Consultant, Indian Building Congress. Sec-
tor-VI, R.K. Puram, New Delhi 110 022, Ph: 011- 26169531, 26170197, Fax: 011 26196391,
Emails: info@ibc.org.in, indianbldgscongress@gmail.com

14 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER
Advantages of Concrete Road for Generating
More Finance Compared to Bitumen Road
M. N. Dakate*
1. INTRODUCTION
There has been a general impression that the
initial cost of Cement Concert Road is higher than
that of Bitumen Road. However on the back drop
that the price of bitumen depends on the dictates
of the oil producing countries, the concrete
roads could turn out to be a better alternative to
bituminous roads. The concerted efforts towards,
reduction in the cost of production of cement,
improvement in construction methodology and
technique would surely enhance the viability of
concrete pavements.
The bituminous roads are more prone to damages
due to vagaries of nature. A damaged bituminous
road would lead to a potholed riding surface,
slower movement of traffic, increase in traffic
jams, increase in fuel consumption, increase in
pollution and health related problems, making
the concrete road a preferred alternative.
In India, heavy transport vehicles are generally
overloaded by anything between 50 to 80 percent,
thus increasing their axle loads far beyond, what
the roads are designed to sustain. As a result,
bituminous roads, unravel and get damaged
early thereby requiring extensive repairs. Further
due to high ambient temperatures prevailing in
large parts of our country for several months
the bitumen roads surfaces get deformed due to
excessive load which leads to rutting and wavy
surface. Which causes damages to vehicles that
travel on these roads, as well as considerable
passenger discomfort.
*Chief Engineer, Public Works Department Govt. of Maharashtra.
**Professor in Civil Engineering, Prof. Ram Meghe Institute of Technology and Research, Badnera, Amravati, Maharashtra.
Dr. P. S. Pajgade**
Concrete roads on the other hand, provide a hard
riding surface, which not only reduces rolling
resistance leading to lower Fuel consumption, but
also do not suffer from potholes and ruts. Concrete
roads, in addition, have long maintenance-free
life.
2 
Concrete Pavement
Preferred Choice
The exercise of pothole feeling is a sheer
waste. During and after every monsoon, we
face the same problems of bad roads. This
is not only a case of village roads, but it is
also a case of state and national highways,
in some stretches. This results into multiple
problems, right from traffic congestion to
health of commuters and vehicle. This also
results into more accidents, some of them are
fatal. There is lack of pre-and-post monsoon
planning. The budget which is used like this
is tax payers money, which shall not be used
for such wasteful purposes.
The various losses due to bad roads can be
calculated by following the norms set by
Indian Roads Congress in this regard. If this
exercise is done, every citizen of India will
agree that there is a necessity of good roads.
Further the losses are aggravated on heavy
corridor roads. If we compare the total cost
of construction and repairs of weaker roads
with that of construction of strong roads as
per norms, the construction of good quality
roads as per norms would always stand out,
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 15
 TECHNICAL PAPER
though it requires a substantial amount for
construction for cement concrete roads.
One more technical aspect shall be considered
here. In so far as the sample for this in
particular, and even the total population in
general, all these projects are bituminous
roads. Due to untimely rains and such
problems, the maintenance cost of the same
is becoming very high. It seems that this has
not been forecasted initially. So the roads
are not maintained properly, which requires
timely repairs and periodical renewal within
3 to 5 years. It is now almost accepted as a
fact that cement concrete roads do not face
such problems.
Timely financial support for maintenance
and periodical repairs of bitumen roads is
not possible for any public sector which
causes harassment to the road users mentally
physically and financially. Ultimately
it reflects on the part of Government to
provide better road pavement at initial stages
only. Considering all the aspects socially,
economically concrete pavement is preferred
choice.
3. 
Data for Annuity Payout
(Bitumen Roads)
For the purpose of data analysis 54 sample PPP
projects selected from the state of Maharashtra
varying initial spending (project cost) from Rs.4
Crores to 1200 crores and Life Cycle Cost from
Rs.8 Crores to 2100 Crores and having length
from 5 km. to 150 km. with concession period
from 7 years to 30 years.
The quantitative study has covered 54 sample
projects of Road Infrastructure in Maharashtra
for each category of project based on concession
period, the details of initial spending, life cycle
cost, toll revenue, net cash flow is taken from
accepted cash flow of the contract between the
government and the concessionaire. Particularly,
following terms are elaborated for the purpose of
understanding.
3.1 Initial Spending
This amount is actual initial cost of the project.
16 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017
This is calculated by the concessionaire after
making the proper engineering survey estimation.
This survey and estimation by the concessionaire
is independent of the survey and estimation
carried out by the Government. Such cost is
approved tendered cost of the PPP Project.
3.2 Life Cycle Cost
This is a sum total of spending done by the
concessionaire within stipulated concession
period as per approved cash flow of the project.
It includes, project construction cost, the annual
operation and maintenance cost, the special
repairs and cost (renewal cost), toll collection
charges, administrative charges, interest and
installment of loan, income tax burden and a
reasonable amount of profit.
3.3 Concession Period
This is the period right from issue of work order
for implementation of project till handing over
the facility back to the government, as per the
contract terms and conditions.
3.4 User Fee/Toll
This is the amount fixed by the government as user
fee for different types of vehicles, such as, 2A
Car, Jeep, etc., 2B LCV (Light Commercial
Vehicle), 3 Buses, 2 Axle Trucks, etc., 4
3 axel Trucks, etc., and 5 Multi-axel Heavy
Vehicles.
3.5 
Assumptions of Terms and
Conditions of Contract
For the purpose of detailed calculations of each
project, the following assumptions, which are
based on the terms and conditions of the contract
made with the respective concessionaire of the
projects, are as follows:
a) 
The number of vehicles of each types
mentioned in 3.4 above for initial year are
considered on the basis of Accepted Cash
Flow of the contract. Thereafter, from 2nd
year till 5th year, vehicular traffic growth has
been assumed to be 5% per annum (p.a.)
from 6th to 10th Year it is assumed to be 4%
p.a., and from 11 year onwards, it is assumed
to be 3% p.a.
 TECHNICAL PAPER

b) 
The toll fees are revised upward by
considering 5% inflation per year (The
increase is effected even on 4th year for a
block period of 3 years.) Summing up on
each types of vehicles toll fees collected
during the year, we get the amount of toll
revenue for that year.
c) The Annual Operation and Maintenance cost
has been worked out as 1% of the initial
spending, with the inflation rate of 5% p.a.
g) The income tax has been calculated at 18%
p.a. on the net cash flow (added back with
the amount of annual installment of loan
repayment) up to first 10 years. (rebate
for infrastructure projects till 10 years
and minimum alternative tax at 18% is
considered) Thereafter, it is calculated at
30% p.a.
h) The Net Cash Flow has been calculated as (a)
x (b) [(c) + (d) + (e) + (f) + (g)] as above.

d) The Special Repairs and Maintenance cost i) 

has been worked out at 5% for every 6th year,
adjusted to inflation rate of 5% p.a.
e) The loan amount is assumed to be 70% of
the initial spending (project Cost), at the
interest rate as specified in the contract by
the concessionaire ranging from 12% to
17%. The loan period is dependent on the
concession period with a ceiling of 15 years
for return of loan. Accordingly, the annual
interest and installment has been calculated
for the project.
f) The toll collection charges are assumed to be
5% of the toll collected during the year.
Annuity payout per annum has been
calculated for two different rates i.e. 10% and
14%, this is based on the initial spending and
life cycle cost during the concession period,
by using a standardized annuity calculator.
j) Return on Investment has been calculated on
the basis of Initial Spending and Life Cycle
Cost of each project.
k) 
Annuity Payout worked out for 10% and
14% interest and Return on Investment (ROI)
is worked out on initial spending and Life
Cycle Cost, as shown in Table 1 for sample
Bitumen Road Projects combined at a glance.

Table 1 : All 54 Projects at a Glance (Bitumen Roads)

Project Concession Life Initial Toll Net Annuity Annuity ROI% ROI%
No. period Cycle Spending Revenue Cash Payout Payout (Initial (Life
(Year) Cost (Cr.) (Cr.) Inflow 10% 14% Spending) Cycle
(Cr.) (Cr.) (Cr.) (Cr.) Cost)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1 24 692.52 120.50 1085.41 401.89 509.65 716.56 21 4
2 27 1265.27 383.00 4852.34 3609.65 1699.72 2411.92 44 13
3 14 49.00 14.85 57.97 135.60 34.23 43.13 77 23
4 21 1733.18 227.00 4779.30 2651.32 831.24 1134.72 64 8
5 15 2150.80 1220.00 5721.71 1264.78 2950.59 3764.18 18 10
6 15 140.79 32.40 181.38 49.44 78.35 99.96 22 5
7 14 82.03 15.30 93.96 30.35 35.28 44.45 26 5
8 20 122.36 19.15 259.99 129.90 62.65 84.64 42 7
9 19 40.46 15.28 621.53 388.71 47.64 63.67 143 54
10 9 58.62 21.33 117.60 46.49 36.44 42.91 43 16
11 20 167.74 44.18 462.40 192.49 144.55 195.28 30 8
12 10 40.77 23.00 94.10 23.30 41.22 49.23 27 15
13 16 99.21 25.60 218.44 315.13 69.13 89.27 88 23

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 17

 TECHNICAL PAPER

14 19 495.89 162.50 1120.76 374.71 506.80 677.29 21 7

15 9 330.00 92.18 283.22 38.35 157.48 185.42 24 7
16 22 736.15 190.00 1809.85 727.09 729.99 1006.67 25 6
17 12 149.00 80.32 284.49 38.05 168.26 206.55 18 10
18 25 572.00 175.00 557.03 -113.97 776.63 1102.05 04 1
19 19 260.76 46.00 409.91 159.63 143.48 191.74 27 5
20 18 90.00 23.80 140.46 34.55 70.76 93.52 18 5
21 22 692.38 238.80 1733.74 525.54 917.49 1265.22 18 6
22 22 580.32 190.00 634.30 -87.11 729.99 1006.67 06 2
23 24 800.00 190.00 1519.17 498.60 803.63 1129.88 18 4
24 20 220.44 42.81 608.94 313.22 140.08 189.23 45 9
25 7 236.00 54.00 110.02 -23.51 83.84 95.84 18 4
26 28 1180.40 223.60 1828.17 562.97 1225.17 1784.24 15 3
27 27 2240.26 449.00 3170.41 871.65 2193.85 3168.32 13 3
28 27 1789.06 467.69 4250.40 1702.17 1787.43 2113.69 15 4
29 23 1088.46 320.46 2225.11 790.00 1010.45 1086.73 15 4
30 23 1066.26 308.80 2446.81 966.36 973.68 1047.18 18 5
31 27 2004.59 519.56 5642.86 2534.97 1985.67 2348.11 16 4
32 16 25.56 13.12 65.92 14.64 29.56 38.18 18 9
33 15 8.09 3.95 14.07 0.06 8.48 10.82 3 2
34 13 18.15 9.76 34.40 1.93 19.05 23.69 11 6
35 11 22.65 14.50 34.28 -5.10 25.72 31.14 14 7
36 7 7.26 5.41 13.89 0.11 7.92 9.06 10 5
37 12 8.05 4.37 21.58 5.74 8.13 9.98 8 4
38 12 19.10 11.63 26.28 -6.12 21.64 26.56 9 4
39 12 7.90 4.81 10.76 -2.61 8.95 10.99 4 2
40 13 7.99 4.21 17.88 2.94 8.22 10.22 6 3
41 13 18.88 10.15 35.89 2.10 19.81 24.64 11 6
42 16 25.56 12.00 69.54 18.18 27.04 34.92 18 9
43 12 8.64 5.26 24.24 6.47 9.79 12.01 10 5
44 12 17.80 10.25 43.63 9.12 19.07 23.41 17 9
45 12 9.55 5.50 20.00 2.34 10.23 12.56 7 4
46 10 12.35 8.00 26.38 3.39 13.52 16.15 13 7
47 13 7.79 4.19 19.45 4.27 8.18 10.17 7 3
48 14 21.30 11.11 100.06 45.44 22.75 28.66 35 18
49 10 19.60 12.50 41.77 5.47 21.13 25.24 20 10
50 10 12.50 8.10 21.85 -0.36 13.69 16.36 10 5
51 9 7.76 5.26 19.66 4.32 8.48 9.98 11 6
52 13 10.44 5.50 20.16 1.49 10.73 13.35 6 3
53 11 20.89 11.93 43.40 5.52 21.16 25.62 18 9
54 11 18.64 11.04 26.99 -4.35 19.58 23.71 10 5
Average 16.17 398.35 113.49 938.29 356.80 394.60 516.40 23 8

18 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER

According to last row on an average, for each
project requires an initial spending of Rs.113
crores and life cycle cost of Rs.398 crores, with
expected toll revenue of Rs.938 crores and Net
Cash Inflow of Rs.357 crores. The average
Return on initial Investments is 23% and 8%
on Life Cycle Cost and more than 10% Annuity
payments is essential to payout the total life cycle
cost (which includes profit margin).
4. 
Data Analysis for
concrete pavement
According to Government of India, Ministry of
Road Transport and Highways circular dated
April 13, 2015 as per present practice, the initial
cost of construction of cement concrete pavement
is estimated to be about 5 20 % more than the
bituminous pavement, depending upon the price
of the constituent materials and distance of
project site from the production centers.
Consequently, the Ministry (GOI Ministry
of Road Transport and Highways) has taken
the initiative of standardizing rates of cement
throughout the country with a view to achieve
reduction in the cost of construction of rigid
pavement and to maximize the use of cement on
National Highways.
Table 2 : All (54) Projects at a glance (Concrete Roads)
For the calculations of the sample projects, 20%
increase in Initial Spending for cement concrete
road is considered, which is on the higher side.
Considering the experiences of rigid pavement
projects, repairs and maintenance cost is about
3% of the initial spending for the whole life
of the project. These results into a decrease
of Life Cycle Cost by about 40% compared to
maintenance cost of bituminous road.
Thus, for same Bitumen Road 54 projects data
collected considered for cement concrete roads.
The whole data, as envisaged in earlier para 3,
analysis has been worked out once again for all
the projects for Cement Concrete pavements.
The Initial Spending of all the projects has
been increased by 20%.
The Life Cycle Cost of all the projects has
been decreased by 37%.
The results of the concrete road for Annuity
payout (A.P.) at different interest rate at 6%,
10%, 14% and return on investment (ROI) for
initial spending and life cycle cost is worked out
as shown in following Table 2.

Project Concession Life Initial Toll Net A.P at A.P. at A.P. at ROI% ROI%
No. period Cycle Spending Revenue Cash 6% 10% 14% (Based (Based
(Year) Cost (Cr.) (Cr.) Inflow (Cr.) (Cr.) (Cr.) on Initial on Life
(Cr.) (Cr.) Spending) Cycle
Cost)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 24 463.99 150.38 1085.41 433.70 336.93 509.65 716.56 18 6
2 27 847.73 477.98 4852.34 2263.34 1268.04 1945.84 2761.16 17 10
3 14 32.83 18.53 57.97 7.45 26.37 34.23 43.13 14 8
4 21 1161.23 283.30 4779.30 2697.66 574.32 831.24 1134.72 53 13
5 15 2150.80 1220.00 5721.71 1581.96 2236.59 2950.59 3764.18 20 11
6 15 94.33 40.44 181.38 49.49 59.39 78.35 99.96 19 8
7 14 54.96 19.09 93.96 30.16 27.17 35.28 44.45 22 8
8 20 81.98 23.90 259.99 132.40 43.94 62.65 84.64 35 10
9 19 27.11 19.07 621.53 390.44 33.93 47.64 63.67 116 82
10 9 39.28 26.62 117.60 44.14 30.49 36.44 42.91 36 24
11 20 112.39 55.14 462.40 198.27 101.39 144.55 195.28 26 13
12 10 27.32 28.70 94.10 21.06 33.91 41.22 49.23 23 24
13 16 66.47 31.95 218.44 91.97 51.58 69.13 89.27 28 13
14 19 332.25 202.80 1120.76 393.12 360.91 506.80 677.29 18 11

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 19

 TECHNICAL PAPER

15 9 221.10 115.04 283.22 28.18 131.76 157.48 185.42 20 10

16 22 493.22 237.12 1809.85 769.52 496.92 729.99 1006.67 22 11
17 12 99.83 100.24 284.49 35.02 133.89 168.26 206.55 16 16
18 25 383.24 218.40 557.03 -63.75 506.10 776.63 1102.05 5 3
19 19 174.71 57.41 409.91 164.84 102.17 143.48 191.74 23 8
20 18 60.30 29.70 140.46 36.85 51.17 70.76 93.52 16 8
21 22 463.89 298.02 1733.74 578.88 624.55 917.49 1265.22 16 10
22 22 388.81 237.12 634.30 -44.67 496.92 729.99 1006.67 6 4
23 24 536.00 237.12 1519.17 548.90 531.28 803.63 1129.88 16 7
24 20 147.69 53.43 608.94 316.68 98.25 140.08 189.23 37 14
25 7 158.12 67.39 110.02 -30.75 72.60 83.84 95.84 16 7
26 28 790.87 279.05 1828.17 657.16 765.43 1225.17 1784.24 14 5
27 27 1500.97 560.35 3170.41 990.52 1389.80 2193.85 3168.32 12 5
28 27 891.66 583.68 4250.40 1983.75 1132.33 1787.43 2581.38 13 9
29 23 569.67 399.93 2225.11 937.47 677.79 1010.45 1407.19 14 10
30 23 560.61 385.38 2446.81 1108.48 653.13 973.68 1355.98 16 11
31 27 1343.07 648.41 5642.86 2847.78 1257.92 1985.67 2867.67 19 12
32 16 16.90 15.28 65.92 15.18 22.06 29.56 38.18 16 15
33 15 5.45 4.93 14.07 0.00 6.43 8.48 10.82 10 10
34 13 13.47 12.18 34.40 1.53 14.91 19.05 23.69 13 14
35 11 20.01 18.10 34.28 -6.05 20.80 25.72 31.14 11 14
36 7 7.47 6.75 13.89 -0.66 6.86 7.92 9.06 21 28
37 12 6.03 5.45 21.58 5.51 6.47 8.13 9.98 21 22
38 12 16.05 14.51 26.28 -6.74 17.22 21.64 26.56 9 11
39 12 6.64 6.00 10.76 -2.87 7.12 8.95 10.99 9 11
40 13 5.81 5.25 17.88 2.77 6.43 8.22 10.22 16 16
41 13 14.01 12.67 35.89 1.68 15.51 19.81 24.64 13 14
42 16 16.56 14.98 69.54 18.68 20.17 27.04 34.92 18 17
43 12 7.26 6.56 24.24 6.19 7.79 9.79 12.01 21 24
44 12 14.15 12.79 43.63 8.57 15.17 19.07 23.41 19 21
45 12 7.59 6.86 20.00 2.05 8.14 10.23 12.56 15 17
46 10 11.04 9.98 26.38 2.54 11.13 13.52 16.15 18 22
47 13 5.78 5.23 19.45 4.10 6.40 8.18 10.17 18 19
48 14 15.33 13.87 100.06 45.13 17.52 22.75 28.66 34 35
49 10 17.25 15.60 41.77 4.15 17.39 21.13 25.24 18 21
50 10 11.18 10.11 21.85 -1.22 11.27 13.69 16.36 14 17
51 9 7.26 6.56 19.66 3.70 7.09 8.48 9.98 24 29
52 13 7.59 6.86 20.16 1.26 8.40 10.73 13.35 13 14
53 11 16.46 14.89 43.40 4.74 17.12 21.16 25.62 17 19
54 11 15.24 13.78 26.99 -5.07 15.84 19.58 23.71 11 12
Average 16.17 269.28 136.02 938.29 357.50 270.26 399.15 552.80 20 15

From the above table on an average, each project Return on initial Investments is 20% and 15% on
requires an initial spending of Rs.136 crores, Life Cycle Cost. At 6% Annuity payments, the
with expected toll revenue of Rs.938 crores and total life cycle cost (which includes profit margin)
Net Cash Inflow of Rs.357 crores. The average is being covered.

20 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER

5. 
Bitumen Road V/s. Cement 6. Conclusions
Concrete Road
From the above data analysis, Comparative In view of the data analysis and observations
statement for initial spending, Life Cycle Cost, of Bitumen and concrete road, it can be said
Annuity Payout and Return on investment is as that in case of high density traffic corridors,
follow. where concession period is more, cement
Table : 3 concrete roads are better alternative to the
bituminous roads.
Sr. Particulars Bitumen Concrete
No. Road Road As such for major PPP projects in the light
1 Initial Rs.113 Cr. Rs.136 Cr. of benefits accruing on life cycle cost, the
Spending concrete pavement could be a preferred
2 Life Cycle Cost Rs.398 Cr. Rs.269 Cr. choice to sustain the longer concession
3 Annuity Payout Rs.394 Rs.270 Cr. period and to generate finance from toll road.
required to pay Cr. (more (6%)
Life Cycle Cost than 10%) 7. References:-
4 ROI - Initial 23% 20%
Spending
1) Dr. Kadiyali and Associates in collaboration
with Central Road Research Institution
5 ROI - Life 8% 15%
Cycle Cost (CRRI), Research on Fuel Savings on Cement
Concrete Pavement; 2000
Observation for cement concrete road and
Bitumen road from above table 2) 
Government of India, Ministry of Road
Transport and Highways Circular, April 13,
i) In case of Concrete Road, Initial spending is 2015
more but life cycle cost is less.
3) 
Ph.D. Thesis on, Critical Review and
ii) In case of Concrete Road, Annuity Payout
Evaluation of Public Private Partnership
required to pay Life Cycle Cost of project is
(PPP) projects for social cause with
only 6% where as in case of Bitumen Road it
is more than 10%. special reference to Infrastructure in the
state of Maharashtra (India), submitted
iii) ROI on initial investment is less in case of to Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj, Nagpur
concrete road but ROI on Life Cycle cost is University, Nagpur (January, 2016) by Shri.
more than Bitumen Road. M.N. Dekate.

empanelment of Referees

C all of Expression of Interest from the experienced Road & Bridge Technocrats for
Formulating a Panel of Experts/Referees to Review the Technical Paper, voluntarly:
In order to align with the globally best practices and promote the excellence in road construction, the
Indian Roads Congress (IRC) is in the process of formulating a Panel of Experts/Referees who can
review the Technical Papers received in IRC from Authors. Road Technocrats who are already members
of the IRC and have experience and expertise in the field of Transport Planning, Traffic Engineering,
Flexible & Rigid Pavements, Rural Roads Development, Mechanization & Instrumentation, Road
Maintenance, Safety & Design, Bridge Design Features, Concrete Structure, Maintenance &
Rehabilitation of Bridges etc. are invited to show their interest for evaluation of Technical Papers.
The interested technocrats are requested to send their brief resume including their experience in related
field with their IRC Membership Number to IRC on Email: secygen.irc@gov.in

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 21

 TECHNICAL PAPER

COMPARATIVE CASE STUDIES OF TWO PPP BRIDGES ON RIVER

GODAVARI IN SOUTHERN AND KOSI IN NORTHERN INDIA

V.N. Heggade*

ABSTRACT
The new corridor between East and West Godavari district starts at km 81/349 of Eluru-
Gundugolanu on Kovvurside (West Godavari side) and ends at NH-5 at km 903/337
Rajahmundry side. The corridor has total length 14.488 km comprising of a completely
new alignment which consistsof twoparallel major bridges of 4.088 km long & 2 lane each.
The approach road to the bridge on west Godavari side(Kovvur Side) is about 1.968 km in
length, while that on east Godavari side(Rajahmundry side) is around 8.432 km in length.
For this 50.0 m long span bridge instead of using preferred well foundation for river bridges,
large size pile foundations were chosen and also initially conceived I beams were changed
to precast segmental box girders to reduce the time of construction.
On the other hand, Kosi River Bridge of 1.8879 km in the state of Bihar on the new alignment
of NH-57 between Darbhanga and Forbesganj is a single four lane box girder bridge with
the span of 48.15 m instead of two parallel two lane carriageway bridge. The approach road
to the bridge on Darbhanga sideis about 5.5525 km in length, while that on Forbesganj
sideis around 3.20425 km in length. For this 48.15 m long span bridge conventional well
foundations were chosen.
In the detailed paper while design and construction aspects are deliberated for these two
bridges on PPP model, the necessities and economics of having single four lane carriageway
bridge vis--vis two parallel two lane carriage way bridges is discussed at length.
Keywords: -Overhead launching system, Pile foundation, Pre-cast segmental bridges, River
Bridges, span by span segment erection, under slung Launching System, Well Foundations,

1. INTRODUCTION pile foundations for faster completion and also

In case of Godavari bridge 4.088 km
long superstructure from Abutment A1 to
(Rajahmundry side) to Abutment A2 (Kovvur
side) consists of 82 (in each bridge) simply
supported spans having length of each span
50m (refer Fig. 1 for Alignment of Bridge). The
initial proposal for foundationswere single well
foundations which subsequently was changed to
to avoid steel caissons which were required in
the water depth varying between 10 to 14 m for
around eight number of foundations. Thescour
depth has been calculated considering maximum
flood discharge with 50 years return cycle. The
pier consists of 2.5 m 2.5 m rectangular pier
with a 4.24 m 3.55 m aesthetically pleasant
pier cap. The initial proposal was precast post
tensioned I girders with in situ deck slab,

*Senior Vice President (Special Bridges) & Head- EDMS, Gammon India Ltd.

22 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER
which was changed to precast-post tensioned
single cell box girder for reducing the dead load
of the bridge. Initial proposal for erection of
super-structure was overhead launching girder
method but as the size of sub-structure was
increasing for launching girder load, the under
slung erection method was adopted for the
erection of spans. Erection of spans by under
slung in the perennial river was first in its kind.
As per the contract agreement and also as per
deck widths of 10.30 m each had to be provided
with a footpath of 1.5 m width on only one side
of the deck.
On the other hand, in case of Kosi Bridge1.8879
km long superstructure from Abutment A/L
to (Nirmali side) to Abutment A/R (Saraigarh
side) consists of 39 simply supported spans
having length of each span 48.15 m (refer Fig.
1 for Alignment of Bridge). The conventional
well foundations were chosen as there were no
requirements of caissons and also for four lanes
single deck width there was no need of having
the four laning manual, a special publication of
IRC ( Indian Roads Congress) it is mandatory to
have carriageways of two lanes each independent
being separated by a clear gap of 4.5 m equivalent
to the width of median in approaching roads.
This differentiation is also supposed to be
serving the purpose of one of the carriageways
being operational when the other is closed for
maintenance and repairs. Thus though the same
is not contractors preference two independent
two foundations. The piers were 2,25 m thick
platetype with a width of 4.0 .m on top of well
cap flaring up to the width of 6.5 m at top to
accommodate pier cap of size 6.5 m 3.75 m
1.5 m. The initial proposal was single cellular
box section, which was changed later to twin
cell box by introduction of a web in between.
The erection of super-structure was by using
both overhead as well as under slung launching
systems in combination.
As there was no restriction in contract agreement
as per the four laning manual of IRC to have
carriageways of two lanes each independent
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 23
 TECHNICAL PAPER

24 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER
being separated by a clear gap of 4.5 m equivalent
to the width of median in approaching roads, the
single deck width of 20.70 m accommodating
four lanes was provided with footpaths of 1.5 m
width on either side of the deck (Fig 2).
2. FOUNDATION
The foundation of Godavari Bridge consisted
of pile foundation having a group of 4 piles of
diameter 1500mm and depth varying from 45
m to 55 m. The scour depth has been calculated
with maximum flood discharge with 50 years.
return cycle. The scour level for foundation was
-5.5 m. Each Pile has been socketed in the soft
rock; hence founding level of each pile group was
different as per level of rock. In general rock has
been found at a level of 28 m.The pile cap is
6.1 m 6.1m 2.25 m deep. Initial pile load test
has been carried out for working load of 900 t
at four different locations and routine pile load
test has been carried as per the requirement of the
IS & IRC codes.. Reaction method was used for
pile load testing with the eight numbers of tensile
reaction piles of 600 mm dia each as shown in
the Fig 4.
Initial proposal for foundations were conventional
well foundations. However, mandatory
requirement of two parallel bridges warranted
two well foundations as the carriageways were
separated by 4.5 m median width and also at
depths of water varying from 10 m to 14 m near
Kovvur side abutment necessitated steel caissons.
Considering enormous quantum of work it was
decided to avoid well foundations and adopt
pile foundations.Adopting pile foundation has
decreased the time for construction by almost
1.5 yrs. Main problem for carrying out pile
foundation was water depth, which was 5 to 8 m
on average level and at some part of river near
Kovvur side it was 10 to 14 m. It was decided
that artificial peninsulas would be created in river
for carrying out piling as the spudded barge or
end on gantry methods of piling would have been
very expensive and time consuming though the
creation of artificial peninsulas in such a deep
water would have posed many challenges and
perhaps for the first time in the perennial river
of such depths the same was tried out. The piling
were carried out using six numbers of hydraulic
rigs and properly designed bentonite slurry to
avoid side collapse during boring while 6mm
thick steel liners were driven up to refusal through
vibrohammers.
The Kosi Bridge could afford conventional well
foundations (Fig 5) as the four lane carriage ways
along with the footpaths can be accommodated
in a single deck width of 20.70 m instead of
two parallel decks separated by 4.5 m median
warranting two independent foundations as in
the case of Godavari bridge.Well foundations
of diameter 8 m (2 abutment wells and 38 pier
wells totaling to 40 no.s) are constructed by
conventional method. For land based wells
curbswere cast directly at the location while for
the wells in shallow water depths sand islands
were made. The wells were as deep as 45 m
below the well caps and at around scour depth
the steining thickness was tapered down to 1.2
m from 1.8m as allowed in IRC: 78. Though
the tapering of steining thickness at scour level
reduces the frictional resistance for sinking of
wells, adequate precautions should be taken
during sinking as there is always possibility of
the annular space being filled up non uniformly
resulting in tilts and shifts.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 25
 TECHNICAL PAPER
3. SUB STRUCTURE
Godavari Bridge has been designed for the load of
the superstructure and load of massive launching
girder used for erection of superstructure. In the
beginning the wind load onoverhead launching
girder during erection was not considered for
design of pier due to which size of some initial
piers were 1.8 m 1.8 m. But for catering to
wind loadon overhead launching girder during
erection, the size of pier was increased to 2.4
m 2.4 m.Generally the pier height was 5.5 m.
Pier cap was in shape of inverted frustum having
bottom size 2.4 m 2.4 m and top size 3.55 m
4.24 m to accommodate pedestals for POT-PTFE
fixed and guided bearings.
Normally for long multi-span river or creek
bridges overhead launching system is adopted
as the conventional under slung system cant be
used in the water portion. However, in this case
as the artificial peninsulas (Fig 6) were already
created for enabling piling works, the same could
be used for supporting under slung system. The
advantage was that the pier dimensions could
be restricted to 1.8 m 1.8 m size as the wind
loading on overhead launching system could be
avoided during construction.
Reinforcement in the pier cap was designed and
26 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017
detailed in such a way that the prefabrication of
cage could be done at the ground level, lifted and
fixed in to position. Special shuttering has been
designed for casting pier and pier cap in one pour.
(Fig 6 shows casting ofpier and pier cap)
As the Kosi Bridge had to accommodate single
box girder for four carriageways, a single 2.25 m
thick plate type pier (Fig 7) with a width of 4m at
bottom flaring up to 6.5 m at top to accommodate
pier cap large enough to house pedestals and
POT-PTFE bearings supporting the box girder.
The pier heights were kept constant 5.86 m from
the top of well cap with the uniform pier cap
thickness of 1.5 m. To support the under slung
launching girder spanning from one foundation
to another for 50 m, two specially designed
brackets cantilevering from pier on top of well
cap on either side were provided as shown in the
Fig 7. The conventional shuttering system was
designed for concreting pier and pier cap and the
pier was cast in one pour.
4. SUPERSTRUCTURE
Godavari super structure consists of pre-cast post
tensioned simply supported span (Fig 8) having
length of 50 m each. A well-equipped casting
yard has been set up on both ends of the bridge
as it was proposed to start construction from both
ends. Since all the spans were straight spans short
line method was adopted for casting the segments.
For erection of pre-cast segments under slung
erection method and overhead launching girder
was adopted for different spans
Casting yard of about 390 m by 140 m, was located
about 2 km from A1 abutment at Rajahmundry
 TECHNICAL PAPER
side. Short line match casting technique was
adopted for pre-casting. Total 10 no.s of casting
bed were casted, out of which 8 no.s were for
intermediate segment and 2 no.s were for end
diaphragm segment. Moulds used for pre-casting
the segments were supported by pile foundation.
Three gantries of about 28 m span were used in
the casting bed, one gantry was 15 ton capacity
for handling the shuttering and reinforcement
cage and remaining two were 60 ton capacity for
handling the pre-cast segments. A batching plat
of 30 cumec capacity was established in casting
yard for providing concrete for casting segments.
Concrete was placed with help of Morgan placer,
and concrete pump. The yard also houses a
reinforcement bay for cutting steel, storage space
for the precast segments, fabrication yard and the
site office.
Short line casting method was adopted for casting
the segments. In this method a mechanized and
specialized casting mould is prepared for casting
the segments. This consists of a mould operated
by hydraulic jacks for casting segments, and a
platform for the match cast segments which help
for matching two adjusting segments (refer Fig
9 for details). In this method soffit formwork
is aligned as per required geometry which is
preceded by adjusting the fixing the external
form. After this reinforcement cage is kept in the
mould and the internal shuttering is fixed. The
mould is closed with stop end form. After casting
the segment, it is shifted to match cast platform
with help of hydraulically operated trolley. Then
this segment will be used as match cast segment
for casting next segment. After casting next
segment, this segment is shifted in to the stacking
yard.
Two different methods were deployed for erection
of pre-cast segments. First is known as under-
slung erection method. This is ground supported
trestle based system. Another method is known
as overhead launching system. It consists of two
massive steel plate girders which are supported
on pier cap. The segments to be erected are
hanged to these steel plate girders with help of
tension bars.
The alignment of bridge consisted natural island
portion in between river in addition to artificial
peninsulas already created for the purpose of
piling. It was decided to take advantage of
natural condition and artificial peninsulas; hence
additional erection system under-slung erection
was introduced in later stage of planning. This
system consist trestles (supporting towers)
which takes support from ground. Segments
were supported on screw jack trolleys which
were placed on longitudinal beams and were
able to slide over longitudinal beams which help
for positioning the segments in exact location.
Longitudinal beams took supports from two
adjacent trestles. Knuckles were provided over
screw jack trolleys for catering the super elevation
in span. (refer Fig 10 for erection systems)
Overhead launching girder consisted of two
massive plate girders which are supported on pier
cap. Segments are hanged on these plate girders
with help of tension bars. For handling of pre-
cast segments an electrically operated crane had
been placed on top of plate girders. Segments
were brought on trailers, after this crane lifted
these segments and moved them to their required
position. These segments were then hanged to the
launching girder with proper alignment. After all
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 27
 TECHNICAL PAPER
the segments were hanged to the launching girder,
they were joined with each other by applying
epoxy in between two segments. Finally stressing
cables were passed through all the segments and
post tensioning was carried out. Span was released
from launching girder with help of four 300 ton
jacks placed two at each end of span. Span was
released from launching girder and then bearing
were fitted below spans.
Unlike in Godavari where two independent
single cellular boxes were warranted by virtue
of two independent carriageways in Kosi bridge
superstructure consists of double cell simply
supported box girder having span 48.15 m (Fig
11). The superstructure is constructed by precast
segmental technique with epoxy bonded joints.
Cast in situ stitch segments of length 70 mm are
provided in front of diaphragm (i.e. pier) segment
to account for any sort of construction error.
Each intermediate segment is 2.94 m long and
pier segments are 1.930 m long with deck width
20.7 m. There are total 663 segments for the
project, 585 being normal intermediate segments.
The segments are transversely prestressed.
For temporary prestressing, RCC corbels are
provided in the soffit and steel brackets are used
at the deck level.
Casting yard of about 460 m by 200 m with all
necessary equipmentwas established at about
1.5 Km from the bridge site. As there was no
curvature in superstructure alignment Short Line
Match Casting was adopted for precasting of
segments. Short line machine was supported by
pile foundations to avoid any sort of settlement.
Two gantries of span 28 m were used in the casting
bed, one of 100 ton capacity for handling the
precast segments and other 15 Ton for handling
reinforcement cage and shutters. The precasting
28 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017
yard also included stacking beds, batching plant,
fabrication yard and other related items. Principle
of Short Line Match Casting is similar to that of
explained for Godavari Bridge above. Readers
are recommended to read IRC paper no 636
for detailed deliberations on precast segmental
technology including casting yard, match casting
and erection.
In Kosi Bridge, for short line method of casting,
five numbers of casting machines for intermediate
segments and two numbers of machines for
diaphragm segments were deployed. Diaphragm
segment was cast independently and intermediate
segments were cast by match casting.
Unlike in Godavari Bridge, for Kosi Bridge a
special combination of under slung and overhead
system (Fig12) was to be designed for span by
span method of erection. The precast segments
were erected by means of 150 m long under slung
type fabricated erection girder. The erection girder
consisted of two structural steel box girders,
which were supported over RCC; bracket one
on either side of bridge decking projecting from
pier. Specially designed erection gantry (named
CAMEL Gantry) was used to feed the segments
to Launching girder. 100 Ton capacity trailers
were used which travel over already erected
deck to bring precast segments below Camel
Gantry. Segment carriages with hydraulic jacks
(for final alignment purpose) were placed on
the Launching girder over which Camel Gantry
placed the precast segment. After placement of
all the 17 segments and aligning them to proper
geometry epoxy gluing followed by temporary
prestresswas carried out. Two nos. of in situ
 TECHNICAL PAPER
joints between pier segment and the next segment
were then concreted. After assembly of all the
segments, permanent prestressingwas carried out
to make the span self-supporting. The Launching
girder was then auto launched to the next span by
means of winches and Camel gantry was brought
to the next feeding location.
5. 
LOAD TESTING OF SUPER-
STRUCTURE
Load testing in Bridge superstructure is carried
out for establishing SLS (Serviceability Limit
State) of deflection. The code IRC:112 isvery
clear that deflections/deformations of a member
or structure shall not be such that it adversely
affects its proper functioning or appearance. In
some cases, expected deflections may need to
be adjusted in the structural geometry by pre-
cambering, so as to attain the requisite profile at
the time of placing expansion joints and wearing
course. Thus there is no restriction on the
deflection due to DL and SIDL by way of span
to depth ratio etc. as long as it is not adversely
affecting its proper functioning or appearance.
However, IRC:112 specifies that limiting values
of deflection taking into account the nature of the
structure, bridge deck furniture and functional
needs of the bridge should be established. In the
absence of other criteria, the deflection limits
under Live Load for concrete bridges specified are:
Vehicular : Span/800,
Vehicular and pedestrian or pedestrian alone
: Span/1000,
Vehicular on cantilever : Cantilever Span/300,
and
Vehicular & pedestrian and pedestrian only
On cantilever arms : Cantilever Span/375
Perhaps for the first time, the deflections were
calculated for load testing and also the acceptance
criteria as per IRC:112 were adopted in Godavari
Bridge. One of the issues was about number of
load testing to be carried out as there were two
independent bridges having 81 no.s of 50 m
spans, one 38.4 m span and a 20.65 m RCC span.
Earlier Special publication of IRC:SP: 51-1999
on load testing categorically specified that up
to 15 no.s of spans one load testing is adequate
while for more than 15 no.s of spans load testing
should not be more than 2. It made sense as testing
the structure to extreme load on more number
of spans are unnecessary and even may not be
advisable. However, latest IRC:SP:51-2015
is silent on number of spans to be tested as
such the department insisted for a test for each
type of span. Still the question of whether two
independent carriageways have to be considered
as two bridges or one remained unanswered for
the purpose of deciding number of load testing.
In the simply supported RCC span of 20.65 m,
there was a visible deflection of around 100mm
at mid span. After casting of the span one year
had elapsed as such by 70 % of moment of Inertia
for cracked section and long term creep and
shrinkage effects as per IRC:112, it was observed
that theoretical deflection was nearly matched
with actual deflection.
Load testing scheme was prepared on the basis
of IRC:SP:51-2015. For the maximum moments
at the midspan, the loading was simulated by 4
numbers of 30t test-vehicles (Fig 13 )each having
3 axles, front one being of 8t and 2nd and 3rd
being 10t and 12t respectively. The maximum
deflection at the midspan for the simulated live
loading after temperature correction was 9.35
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 29
 TECHNICAL PAPER

mm vis--vis theoretical value of 21mm. The
recovery in deflection after 24 hours of removal
of test loadings was 97.64% while the measured
crack widths were less than 0.3 mm theoretical
value.
In case of Kosi Bridge as the testing had to be
done for 4 carriageways together, the maximum
moments at the midspan were simulated by 8
numbers of 25t vehicles and footpath load was
simulated by filled up sand bags. The total load(
Fig 14 ) was 220.10t. The maximum deflection
at the midspan for the simulated live loading
after temperature correction was 7.35 which
was less than theoretical value. The recovery
in deflection after 24 hours of removal of test
loadings was 91.03% while the measured crack
widths were less than 0.3 mm theoretical value.
railway and road traffic on common foundations.
From the same logic, whenever 4 lane highway
bridges is envisaged, it is quite logical to have
a single deck like in Kosi bridge instead of two
independent bridges of two lane carriageway
each.
One of the disadvantages of having a single
deck cross section similar to KosiBridge, the
weight of the segment could be as high as 94.5t
which warrants elaborate arrangements for
transportation, handling (Fig 16) and erection. In
case of Godavari Bridge due to two parallel bridges,
the maximum weight of the segment to be handled
was 50 t. For under slung erection system, if the
land is available say similar to artificial peninsulas
created for the construction of the foundations
like in case of Godavari bridge, the erection for
even heavy segments becomes easier as high
capacity overhead launching can be avoided.

The twin cellular box section being very delicate

had cantilever arms of more than 5 m on either
side which were cross prestressed at casting yard
itself. As the cantilever lengthwas on higher
side, just to be on the safer side load tested to be
accepted for erection (Fig 15 ).

6. DISCUSSIONS & CONCLUSIONS

In Multiplan long bridges in rivers and creeks,
it is always advisable to reduce the number of
foundations as the foundations are normally deeper
in water resulting in more time consumption and
expenditure. This is one of the reasons where
long span railway bridges are envisaged, we see
double decker superstructure catering for both
Though the quantity in superstructure almost
remains same for the single deck as well as
for two parallel decks per span as can be
seen from the comparison in Table 1, there
can be considerable reduction in substructure

30 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER
and foundation quantities. The reduction in
quantities in foundations and substructure is not
properly reflected in comparative table as Kosi
had well foundations vis--vis pile foundations
of Godavari. As a thumb rule the cost of 1t of
reinforcement steel is equal to 10 m3 of concrete.
From the Table 1, even if there is a comparison
of well foundation to that of piles which is
not appropriate, the rein forcement steel in all
components are almost double in Godavari
bridge per span to that of Kosi bridge. Thus if we
apply the thumb rule quoted earlier, the increase
in concrete quantities in well foundations of
Kosi bridge is compensated by increase in
steel of Godavari bridge. However, the most
significant aspect is that the number of operations
in driving the piles, casting piers and pier caps,
casting and erecting superstructure segments are
reduced almost tohalf by having single deck for 4
carriageways enabling the project to be completed
much earlier and reducing the indirect expenses
to a large extent.
irc technical committee meetings schedule for july, 2017
DATE DAY TIME VENUE
15-07-17 Sat 11.00 AM IRC, R.K.P
21-07-17 Fri 3.00 PM IRC, R.K.P
10.30 AM
28-07-17 Fri IRC, R.K.P
11.00 AM
29-07-17 Sat 11.00 AM IRC, R.K.P
REFERENCES
1. 
Rakesh.K.Mehta, Chetan Patil, U.M
Kulkarni, T.N.V.S RatnaJi, Second Godavari
bridge the new link bridging east-west
Godavari district, The Fourth International
fib Congress 2014,Mumbai,India,10-14 Feb.
2014
2. 
R. Prakash, Vikas Rane, Crossing Mighty
Kosi :Design and Construction Challenges in
Kosi Bridge, Nirmali The Fourth International
fib Congress 2014, Mumbai,India,10-14 Feb.
2014
3. 
V. N. Heggade, Evolution of Precast
segmental technology for bridges in India,
Paper No.636, Journal of Indian Roads
Congress, April-June 2015, pp. 83-103.
4. IRC: 112, Code of practice for concrete road
bridges.
5. IRC:SP:51-2015, Guidelines on load testing
of bridges.
NAME OF COMMITTEE MEETING
Bearings, Joints and Appurtenances Committee (B-6)
Rigid Pavement Committee (H-3)
Committee on Reduction of Carbon Footprint in Road
Construction and Environment (G-3)
Maintenances and Rehabilitation Committee (B-8)
Urban Roads, Streets and Transport Committee (H-8)
Road Safety and Design Committee (H-7)
Foundation, Sub-structure, Protective Works and
Masonry Structures Committee (B-3)
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 31
 TECHNICAL PAPER

EFFECT OF SPEED ON ROAD ACCIDENTS

Gyanendra Singh* S. N. Sachdeva** Mahesh Pal***

Abstract :
The widening and improvement of highways in India has not resulted in safe travel. The
speeds on highways are going up resulting in increased fatal and severe crashes. Many
researchers have developed predictive models for road accidents but in most of the models
speed was not chosen as an explanatory variable. This may be a case in developed countries
where speed distributions on the road are comparatively uniform but in mix traffic
condition like in India, the effect of speed related variables on accidents need to be studied.
The present work was designed to study the impact of various speed related variables on
road accidents. The speed data was collected on 11 sections of highways. The accident data
on these sections for three years was collected from police records and for analysis the
accident rate (accidents/km/year) was plotted against various speed related variables.
Accident prediction model including average speed, standard deviation of speed and
percentage of vehicles travelling at modal speed as explanatory variables, was found most
significant. The results indicated that accidents increase rapidly with increase in speed and
speed dispersion. Number of accidents fall sharply as percentage of drivers travelling at
modal speed increases but increase with increasing proportion of slow or fast moving traffic.
Keywords: Accident Rate, Accident Prediction Model, Driving Speed, Speed Variance,
Road Safety.
1. INTRODUCTION mixed traffic conditions results in more number
of overtaking manoeuvres, resulting in more
Speed is an important factor affecting human rear end and side swipe accidents on divided
safety on the road. Speed not only affects severity highways. Keeping all these issues in mind, it is
of road accident but it is also associated with very difficult to quantify the effect of speed on
the risk of an individual being involved in a accident risk.
road accident (Elvik et al., 2004). The outcome
The widening and improvement of highways in
of an accident is directly related to the kinetic
India has not resulted in safe travel. Out of total
energy of vehicles involved in accidents which
road accidents, 28.4 per cent and 24.0 per cent of
is proportional to the square of speed (E=mv2/2).
road accidents took place on National Highways
However, the relationship between speed and the
and State Highways respectively in the country
risk of an accident is very complex. At high speeds
in 2015. Road accidents on National Highways
the time to react to the change in environment is
have gone up by 3.2 per cent from 1,37,903
shorter, the stopping sight distance is larger, and
in 2014 to 1,42,268 in 2015. Persons killed
maneuverability is reduced (Aarts and Schagen,
on National Highways have also gone up by
2006). It also becomes difficult for a pedestrian/
7.5 percent from 47,649 in 2014 to 51,204 in 2015.
driver crossing the road to judge the safe gap
Studies suggest that conversion of highways
at high speeds. Large variance of speed under
*Asst. Prof., CED, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science and Tech., Murthal, Sonepat, Haryana; E-mail: singhgyan27@yahoo.in
**Prof., Civil Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, Haryana, E-mail: snsachdeva@yahoo.co.in
***Prof., CED, NIT, Kurukshetra, Haryana, E-mail: mahesh1965@gmail.com Corresponding author- E-mail: singhgyan27@yahoo.in

32 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER
from two to four lanes resulted in an increase of
about 10% (from 41% to 51%) in fatality rate on
the high-crash-rate sections (Shaheem and Das
Gupta 2005; Shaheem et al. 2006). On 4-lane
divided roads, head-on collisions comprised 19%
of the crashes showing the presence of significant
amount of wrong side traffic (MOST, 2000).
The speeds on improved highways are going up
and this may be one of the potential causes of
fatal and severe crashes on these highways. Many
researchers have developed predictive models
of road accidents on highways and considered
speed as an explanatory variable along with other
factors (Landge et al, 2006; Robert et al., 2007;
Rokade et al., 2010; Landge, 2013; Sharma et
al., 2013, 2014; Vayalamkuzi and Amrithlingam,
2016; Singh et al., 2016) but none of the studies
has explored relative significance/contribution of
various speed related variables on accidents: 98th,
85th, 50th, 15th percentile speeds, modal speed,
average speed, percentages of vehicles travelling
below 15th percentile speed, above 85th percentile
speed and at modal speed, and standard deviation
of speed. In mix traffic condition like that in India;
selection of a target variable out of various speed
related variables becomes equally important, due
to heterogeneity of traffic conditions.
The aim of present study is an attempt to
understand the speed-accident relationship and
to determine the key factors related to the speed
those are associated with accident rate, which is
defined as accidents/km/year. The present study
is a cross sectional study in which spot speed data
collected at a number of road sections of different
highways was correlated with the average
accident rate on these road sections to develop
a relationship which quantifies the relative effect
of speed related variables on occurrence of
accidents. This relationship may be used to design
safety measures and to indicate how accidents
could best be reduced/avoided.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
In the road safety literature, speed related studies
can broadly be divided in three types: studies
correlating absolute speed of individual vehicle
involved in accident with accident rate (Maycock
et al. 1998; Quimby et al. 1999; Kloeden et al.
2001,2002), studies correlating average speed
measured at a road cross section with accident
rate (Finch et al. 1994; Baruya 1998; Nilsson
1982, 2004: Elvik et al 2004) and the studies
correlating speed dispersion with accident rate
(Garbar and Gadiraju 1989; Taylor et al. 2000).
Maycock et al. (1998) and Quimby et al. (1999)
applied self reporting method to link number
of accidents by driver to the measured speed
of vehicle in UK. They observed that accidents
are related to the speed of individual vehicle
by a power function: A= (/) where v and
are observed and average speeds of the vehicles
and , are constants. Maycock et al. (1998)
found that at an average speed of 52 mph every
1% increase in speed results in 13.1% increase
in accidents. Similar results were found by
Quimby et al. (1999) also but the average speed
in their study was 42 mph. They concluded that
at 42 mph average speed, every 1% increase
in speed results in 7.8% increase in accidents.
The studies conducted by Kloeden et al. (2001,
2002) in Australia were case control studies. In
these studies the estimated pre-accident speeds
of vehicles involved in accidents were linked
to the speeds of vehicles driving safe in similar
conditions. On urban roads with a speed limit
of 60 kmph, Kloeden et al. (2002) observed
following exponential relation between speed
and the risk of injury accidents:
Ir=exp (0.1133374v+0.0028272v2) (1)
where v is average speed and v is change in
average speed. In a similar study, Kloeden et
al. (2001) suggested a relationship for injury
accidents on rural roads with speed limit between
80-120 kmph:
Ir=exp(0.07039v+0.0008617v2) (2)
The results from these studies clearly indicate
that with increase in speed accidents increase
more on urban roads as compared to rural roads.
Flinch et al (1994) performed a meta analysis of
before and after accident studies conducted in
Finland, Denmark, Switzerland and US and fitted
linear, power and asymptotic functions to the data.
The linear function, they fitted, between accident
and speed was A =4.92 vmph. Their study also
suggested that a reduction of 1 kmph in speed
corresponds to 3% decrease in accident rate. The
asymptotic function fitted to the data suggested
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 33
 TECHNICAL PAPER
a 28% increase in accidents with increase in
speed. Baruya (1998) performed a cross sectional
study on Dutch, British and Swedish rural single
carriageway roads with speed limit between 70-
110 kmph and concluded that (1) higher accident
frequency corresponds to a higher speed limit
(2) a rise in proportion of speed limit offenders
increases accident frequency and (3) the accident
frequency increases more with lower average
speed. The last finding was contradictory to
other studies related to speed accident analysis.
A possible reason for this may be because of the
fact that Baruya (1998) examined the effect of
speed not in isolation but in interaction with other
factors (traffic flow, length of road, lane width
and junction density).
Elvik et al (2004) performed a meta analysis of a
large number of before and after studies and cross
sectional studies related to effect of speed limit on
accidents and showed that the outcome of speed
limit change on both rural and urban roads could
be described by three power functions suggested
by Nilsson (1982, 2004). According to them,
fatal (F), severe injury (I) and all police reported
(A) accidents could be found by following
relations respectively:
(3)
where subscript 1 and 2 indicate before and
after period respectively. Later Elvik (2013)
concluded that the safety not only is dependent
on the change in speed but it also depends upon
the initial speed and the effect on accidents of a
given relative change of speed would be largest
when the initial speed was highest.
Garbar and Gadiraju (1989) performed a cross
sectional study on interstate roads, arterial
roads and rural major collector roads having
55 mph speed limit in USA. They concluded
that the roads with larger speed variance had
higher accident rate. Average speed was found
negatively related with accidents but large speed
variance was observed at low average speeds.
The accident rate and speed variance was lowest
when the upper speed limit was 8-16 kmph lower
than the design speed.
34 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017
Taylor et al. (2000) suggested following
relationship between accident rate (A), average
speed (mph) and standard deviation of speed
(SDmph) for urban single carriageway roads in
UK:
(4)
where SDmph and mph are in miles per hour,
respectively. They also observed that a lower
average speed coincides with a higher speed
variance. They concluded that a 21% increase in
accidents was a result of 10% increase in mean
speed. The accident frequency rises by 15% if the
coefficient of variation of vehicular speed rises
by 0.025. The higher the proportion of drivers
over-speeding, the more are the accidents. The
higher the average speed of those drivers who are
over speeding, the more accidents the accident
frequency rises by 19% if the average speed of
the speeders increases by 1mph.
Elvik and Vaa (2004) reviewed studies related to
speed limits and concluded that reducing average
speed by 11 kmph through the measures like
speed limits, total accidents could be reduced
by 13%. At high speeds, a reduction in average
speed from 110-115 kmph to 88-97 kmph was
predicted to reduce fatal accidents by 55% and
injury accidents by 6%. For low speeds, the ratio
of accident reduction in fatal and injury accidents
category due to speed reduction was 2:1.
Rosen and Sander (2009) analysed the data of
pedestrian accidents during the years 1999 to
2007 in Germany and suggested the following
fatality risk function:
(5)
where the impact speed, v, is measured in kmph.
They concluded that fatality risk at 50 kmph is
more than twice the risk at 40 kmph and more
than five times higher than the risk at 30 km/h.
Based upon the above studies it can be
summarised that the accident rate increases faster
with an increase in speed for the roads designed
for lower speeds than at roads designed for higher
speeds and larger speed variance is related to
higher accidents at a particular road. The risk of
 TECHNICAL PAPER
pedestrian accidents was also found higher at
higher average speeds.
In India, the reported studies are cross sectional
studies in which speed and its variance are
taken along with other traffic and geometric
design related explanatory variables while
developing predictive models for accidents
on road sections. Landge et al. (2003, 2005a,
2005b, 2006) analysed road safety on two lane
non urban highway sections and identified a
positive relationship between speed and fatality
rate but Robert et al. (2007); Rokade et al.,
(2010) observed a negative correlation between
number of accidents and speed. Landge (2013)
and Sharma et al. (2013, 2014) found speed
variance positively associated with accidents
and significant for safety of motorcyclists and
high speed cars. Vayalamkuzi and Amrithlingam
(2016) found strong positive association of speed
with accidents on multilane divided highways.
Singh et al., (2016) found speed and its variance
both positively associated with accidents. Effect
of speed on accident frequencies was maximum
on sections with large percentage of trucks
and large number of minor accesses. Standard
deviation of speed was found having significant
effect only on low speed roads and not on National
Highways. Some other authors (Rao and Sarkar,
1992; Sarkar and Domun, 1999; Vasudevan
et al., 2011; Pulugurtha et al., 2012) have also
worked in the area of road safety and concluded
that higher speed of vehicles significantly affects
accidents and their severity.
The literature review clearly brings forth that
in India there is lack of work which compares
the effect of various speed related variables
on accident rate. Such a study is required to
understand relative importance of various speed
related variables in road safety management
and also to quantify their effect on accident
rate. Keeping this review in view, present work
is designed to study the effect of various speed
related variables: 98th, 85th, 50th, 15th percentile
speeds, modal speed, average speed, percentages
of vehicles travelling below 15th percentile speed,
above 85th percentile speed and at modal speed,
and standard deviation of speed, on accident rate.
3. DATA DESCRIPTION AND
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Data Collection
The data used for this study was collected
from11 non-urban sections of Roads in Haryana
belonging to NH-1, SH-11, SH-18 and SH-20
and Gurgaon-Faridabad road, MDR-137. Road
accidents data for a period of 3 years on different
sections was collected from police records. The
accident data includes all types of accidents
reported to police i.e. fatal, serious injury, minor
injury and property damage only accidents. A
radar gun was used to collect the speed data on
these sections in the off peak hours.
3.2 Methodology and Model
Development
Speed frequency curves and speed cumulative
frequency curves were plotted for each section.
Data of spot speed was checked for normality
using spread ratio (Day et al., 2006). For all
sites the spread ratio lied in the range 0.75-1.24,
which is within the range 0.69 to 1.346 specified
by Day et al., (2006) for unimodal distribution.
Then using frequency and cumulative frequency
distribution curves various speed related
variables: 98th, 85th, 50th, 15th percentile speeds,
modal speed, percentages of vehicles travelling
below 15th percentile speed, above 85th percentile
speed and at modal speed. Average speed and
standard deviation of speed for each section was
also calculated.
The average of Accidents rate in Accident/km/
year was chosen as dependent variable and effect
of these speed related parameters on accident
rate was studied by plotting graphs and then
fitting regression equations, the results of this
are summerised in the Table 1 and Fig. 3-10.
The relationship of accident rate with most of the
speed related variables was found significant at
95% confidence interval (p<0.05). Explanatory
variables 50th percentile speed and percentage of
speeding vehicles were not found significant. The
low value of R2 can be explained by the fact that
accident occurrence is a complex phenomenon
affected by many factors including driving errors,
road condition, geometric design variables,
road environment related factors and weather
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 35
 TECHNICAL PAPER

conditions. As the equations 1-8 are significant at in section 4. These results served as guide for
95% confidence level, there results are discussed variable selection into the proposed model.
Table 1: Equations showing Relationship of Accident rate with various speed related variables
Sr. Parameter Equation Variable Model R
No. Significance Significance
1 98th Percentile speed y = 0.00001x2.779 0.000 0.008 0.590
2 85 Percentile speed
th
y = 0.0001x 2.409
0.000 0.011 0.546
3 Vehicle travelling at y = -0.247x + 10.92 0.002 0.008 0.528
modal speed in %
4 Slow moving traffic in y = 0.118x2 - 1.608x + 0.004 0.015 0.522
% 7.201
5 Modal speed y = 0.295e0.037x 0.050 0.019 0.514
6 Average speed y = 0.235e 0.041x
0.044 0.033 0.487
7 Standard Deviation of y = 0.029x2 - 0.771x + 0.031 0.049 0.416
speed 7.257
8 15th Percentile speed y = -0.011x2 + 0.981x - 0.023 0.039 0.392
15.65
9 50 Percentile speed
th
y = 0.272e0.042x 0.282 0.284 0.478
10 Speeding vehicles in % y = 1.832ln(x) + 0.754 0.175 0.193 0.397

3.3 Development of Accident Prediction
Model
Accident prediction models were developed
based upon the model proposed by Taylor et
al. (2000) and selecting variables from Table 1.
The different variables given in Table 1 and their
combinations were tried to create the models and
selection of combination of variables that has
significant influence on accident. The modeling
was done based upon the goodness of fit
characteristics and the significance values (Tables
3, 4 and 5). The developed model based on the
lines of Taylor model is provided in Equation
6 and Tables 4. This model was rejected as the
model does not consider standard deviation of
speed as significant variable. The proposed model
(Equation 7) given in Table 5 was developed
using variables average speed, standard deviation
of speed and percentage of vehicles travelling at
modal speed. The model was finally selected as
all the variables used in the model were found
significant.
(6)
(7)

Table 2: Continuous Variable Information

N Minimum Maximum Mean Standard.

Deviation
Dependent 1n A 11 -.226 1.913 1.076 .713
Variable (A= accident rate in accident/km/year)
Covariates STD/Av. (STD/Av= ratio of standard 11 .2192 .362 .316 .042
deviation of speed and Average speed)
ln Av(Av= Average speed) 11 3.749 4.338 4.087 .213
pMS (percentage of vehicles travelling 11 18.50 37.50 29.682 6.190
on modal speed)

36 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Table 3: Goodness of Fit statistics

Statistics/Model Model based on Taylors Equation Proposed model

Value df Value/df Value df Value/

df
Pearson Chi-Square 2.516 8 0.315 1.403 6 0.234
Log Likelihood -7.495 -4.281
Akaike's Information 22.990 20.561
Criterion (AIC)
Bayesian Information 24.582 22.949
Criterion (BIC)
Dependent Variable: ln A Model: (Intercept), STD/Av, Model: (Intercept), STD/Av,
lnAv lnAv, pMS, STDAv * lnAv

a. Information criteria are in smaller-is-better form.

b. The full log likelihood function is displayed and used in computing information criteria.

Table 4: Coefficient estimates for Model based on Taylors Equation

Parameter Coefficients Std. Error Hypothesis Test

B Wald Chi-Square df Sig.

(Intercept) -10.100 3.4162 8.741 1 0.003
STD/Av. 2.992 4.0590 0.543 1 0.461
lnAv. 2.503 .6686 14.017 1 0.000

Table 5: Coefficient estimates for Proposed Model

Parameter Coefficients B Std. Error Hypothesis Test
Wald Chi-Square df Sig.
(Intercept) -38.736 17.1314 5.113 1 0.024
STD/Av 109.811 53.5316 4.208 1 0.040
lnAv. 10.309 4.1497 6.171 1 0.013
pMS -.062 .0227 7.376 1 0.007
lnAv * STD/Av. -27.302 13.1317 4.322 1 0.038

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Speed distribution on typical location of 6 lane
highway NH-1 has been shown in the Fig. 1
and 2. Lane 1 is the innermost lane adjacent to
median, lane 2 is middle lane and lane 3 is the
outermost lane adjacent to shoulder. Fig. 1 clearly
indicates the presence of some slow moving
vehicles in the innermost lane and presence of
some high speed vehicles in the outermost lane.
This reflects the poor understanding and/or
violation of lane discipline by some of the drivers
of both slow and fast moving vehicles. The
presence of high vehicles in the outermost lane
and near paved shoulders indicates use of this
lane for overtaking by high speed vehicles. Such
practices of overtaking give rise to accidents
involving pedestrians, two-wheeler riders and
parked vehicles. Although modal speed on paved
shoulder was around 15 kmph but around 20%
of traffic near paved shoulder was travelling at a
speed as high as 65 kmph. Similarly, modal speed
in 3rd lane was observed to be 45 kmph but at the
same time nearly 9% of vehicles were found

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 37

 TECHNICAL PAPER

travelling at a higher speed of 65 kmph and 15% of lane 1 was 75 kmph and that of lane 2 was 68
at a much slower speed of 20 kmph. Modal speed kmph.

Fig. 1: Speed distribution on Murthal-Gannaur section of NH-1

Fig. 2: Cumulative frequency distribution curve on Murthal-Gannaur section of NH-1

Analysis of results indicates that 98th percentile
speed was significantly correlated with
accident rate. Accidents were found increasing
with increase in 98th percentile speed (Fig. 3).
An increase of 10% in 98th percentile speed
resulted in an increase of 27.79% in accident
rate. If design speed is increased from 80 to
100 kmph, the rate of increase in accidents also
rises from 7% to 10% approximately.

38 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER

Fig. 5: Accident rate verses modal Speed

Fig. 3: Accident rate verses 98th percentile speed

Fig. 6: Accident rate verses Average speed

Further analysis of results suggests that the
modal speed and average speed are exponentially
Fig. 4: Accident rate verses 85th percentile speed related to accident rate (Table 1). For an increase
of 10 kmph in modal speed and average speed
accident rate was found increasing by 37% and
The 85th percentile speed was also found to
41% respectively (Fig.5 and 6).
be significantly correlated with accident rate
(Fig.4). A 10% increase in 85th percentile speed
results in 24.09% increase in accident rate.
Absolute effect of increasing 85th percentile
speed on accident rate was found higher
than that of 98th percentile speed. Effect of
increasing 85th percentile speed on accident
rate is more as compared to same increase in
98th percentile speed. If the upper speed limit
is increased from 80 kmph to 100 kmph, the
rate of increase in accidents rises from 11.5%
to 15.8%.
Fig. 7: Accident rate verses % Vehicles travelling
at modal speed

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 39

 TECHNICAL PAPER

rate was about 2.5 accident/km/year but it was

doubled at 12% (just an increase of 3 percentage
points in slow moving traffic).

Fig. 8: Accident rate verses standard deviation of

speed

Percentage of Vehicles travelling at modal speed

was found to have a negative correlation with
accident rate (Fig. 7). As the proportion of vehicles Fig. 9: Accident rate verses 15th Percentile speed
travelling on modal speed increases, accident rate
comes down. An increase of 4 percentage points
in proportion of vehicles travelling at modal
speed results in a decrease in accident rate of
about 1 accidents/km/year.

Standard deviation of speed was also found

significantly correlated with accident rate (Fig. 8).
Accident rate increases as the standard deviation
increases and the percentage increase in accident
rate goes up as the value of standard deviation
increases. For an increase in standard deviation
of speed from 15 to 20 kmph the corresponding
increase in accident rate observed was 30% but
it was around 52% when the standard deviation
increased from 20 to 25 kmph. Fig. 10: Accident rate verses slow moving traffic in
percentage
Relation of 15th percentile speed with accident
The model proposed by Taylor et al. (2000) given
rate has been shown in Fig.9. The increase in 15th
in Equation 4 was not found suitable in Indian
percentile speed causes accident rate to increase
condition. In the model based on Taylors equation
but after a certain value (42 kmph in this study)
(Equation 6 and Table 4) standard deviation of
accident rate start declining. This shows that as
speed was not found significant. The final proposed
the gap between upper and lower speeds reduces,
accident prediction model (Equation 7 and Table
or the traffic becomes more uniform this leads to
5) includes average speed, standard deviation of
the reduction in accident rate.
speed and percentage vehicles travelling at modal
Another important observation was regarding speed as significant variables. The comparative
significant effect of proportion of traffic travelling statistics of goodness of fit for the models is
below 15th percentile speed on accident rate given in Table 3. The results in Table 3 clearly
(Fig.10). The study shows that as the proportion indicate that the proposed model has better
increases beyond 7%, accident rate rises. When fitness in terms of Pearsons Chi-square (1.403 as
slow moving traffic was around 9%, accident compared to 2.516 of model based upon Taylors

40 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

 TECHNICAL PAPER
equation), Akaikes information criteria and
Bayesian information criteria. The actual verses
predicted accident rate plot for the two models are
shown in Fig. 11. The R2 value for the proposed
model was 0.529 as compared to 0.465 for the
model based upon Taylors equation. It is evident
from the proposed model equation shown in
Equation 7 that both, average speed and standard
deviation of speed has positive impact on
accident rate but their interaction has negative
effect on accident rate. With increase in the ratio
SDkmph/vkmph the effect of average speed on
accidents reduces. This finding is in accordance
with the findings of Aarts and Schagen (2006)
and Singh et al., (2016) that the higher speed
variance is generally associated with lower
average speed. The model also indicates that
the vehicle travelling at modal speed negatively
affect accident rate. A 10 percentage point
increase in vehicles travelling at modal speed
reduces accident rate by 53.8%.
Fig. 11: Actual verses Predicted Accident rate for
various models
5. CONCLUSIONS
The current study shows that effect of speed
on accident rate is quite complex to quantify.
The exact relationship between speed variables
and accident rate depends on a large number of
influencing factors including traffic and road
environment related variables. The proposed
model clearly indicates that on a particular road
accident rate increases when average speed
increases. The accident rate also increases with
increase in speed variance. But as higher speeds
are associated with lower speed variances and
vice-versa, their interaction reduces accident rate.
The analysis of effects of individual variable
on accident rate shows that the accident rate
increases with increase in 98th and 85th
percentile speed, modal speed and average speed.
Accident rate also increases with increase in 15th
percentile speed but after a certain value it comes
down as speed of vehicles in the traffic stream
becomes more uniform. The accident rate was
also found increasing with increase in percentage
of slow moving vehicles but it is reduced when
percentage of vehicles travelling at modal speed
increases. This clearly suggests that as the mix of
traffic becomes more uniform in terms of speed,
the accident rate is reduced.
These finding may help the safety engineers and
planners in speed management on highways
and also, in designing traffic calming measures.
In accident prone areas, the efforts must be
targeted towards reduction in speed as well as its
dispersion. The results highlight that the accident
rate reduces sharply with increase in percentage
of vehicles travelling at modal speed. Controlling
upper speed limit will prove more helpful than
reducing the design speeds. The findings also
suggest that imposition of lower speed limit on
highways will be quite helpful in bringing down
the accident rate. The models proposed in study
quantify the effect of a certain change in target
variable on accident rate; therefore, they may
be helpful in deciding various speed controls
and restrictions according to the target reduction
in accident rate and also, in finalizing a speed
management strategy on a particular highway
according to its specific conditions. These
findings may also provide basis for developing
codes of practice/framing guidelines for safety
engineers and enforcement agencies involved in
speed management on highways.
6. References
Aarts, l., Schagen I. van, (2006). Driving speed
and Risk of road crashes: A Review., Accident
Analysis and Prevention, 38 (2006), 215-224.
Baruya, B.(1998). Speed accident relationship on
European roads. In: Proceedings of the conference
Road safety in Europe, Bergisch Gladbach,
Germany, Sept. 21-23, 1998, VTI Konferens No.
10A, Part 10, pp. 1-17.
Day P. P., Chandra S., Gangopadhyay S.,
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 41
 TECHNICAL PAPER

(2006) Speed distribution curves under mixed
traffic conditions, Journal of Transportation
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 132, Issue 6, pp. 475-
481.
Elvik R., Christensen P., Amundsen A. (2004).
Speed and road accidents, An evaluation of the
Power Model. TOI report 740/2004.The Institute
of Transport Economics (TOI), Oslo
Elvik R. and Vaa, T. (2004). Handbook of Road
Safety measures, Elsevier Science, Oxford.
Finch, D. J., kompfner, P., Lockwood, C. R.,
Maycock, G. (1994). Speed, speed limits and
Crashes, Project Report PR 58, Transport Research
Laboratory TRL, Crowthorne, Berkshire.
Garbar, N. J., Gadiraju, R.(1989). Factors
affecting speed variance and its influence on
accidents. Transportation Research Record,
1989-01-01; 1213.
Kloeden, C. N., Ponte, G., MacLean, A. J.,
(2001). Travelling speed and the rate of crash
involvement in Adelaide South Australia. Report
No. CR 204. Australian Transport Safety Bureau
ATSB, Civic Square, ACT.
Kloeden, C. N., MacLean, A. J., Glonek, G.,
(2002). Reanalysis of Travelling speed and the
rate of crash involvement in Adelaide South
Australia. Report No. CR 207. Australian
Transport Safety Bureau ATSB, Civic Square,
ACT.
Landge, V.S., Jain, S.S. and Parida, M. (2006),
A Critical Appraisal of Road Traffic Safety
Accident Models for Non Urban Highways,
Highway Research Bulletin No.75, Indian Road
Congress, December, pp.105-129.
Landge, V.S., Parida, M. and Jain, S.S. (2005),
Modeling Traffic Accidents on Rural Two Lane
Highway under Mixed Traffic Conditions,
Annual TRB Meeting, 2006, Washington, D.C.,
USA.
Landge, V.S., Jain, S.S. and Parida, M. (2003),
Development of a Rational Approach for Study
of Road Accidents, IRC Seminar on Integrated
Development of Rural and Arterial Road Network
for Socio-Economic Growth, 5-6 December,
Vigyan Bhawan, New Delhi.
Landge, V.S., Jain, S.S. and Parida, M. (2005),
Identifying Accident Prone Locations on Non-
urban Highways A Case Study of National
Highway No. 58, National Seminar on Road
Safety Management, CIRT Pune, 26-27 May,
pp.5-12.
Maycock, G., Brocklebank, P.J., Hall, R. D.,
(1998). Road layout design standards and drivers
behavior. TRL report, No. 332,Transport Research
Laboratory TRL, Crowthorne, Berkshire.

Grab the Opportunity to avail 10% discount on publishing your Advertisement in

reputed monthly magazine "Indian Highways"
Revised Advertisement Tariff effective from September, 2016
(on first cum first serve basis)
`Size Rate
Full Page Rs. 30,000/-
Half Page Rs. 20,000/-
Central Spread Rs. 45,000/-
2 & 3 Cover Page nd rd
Rs. 35,000/-
Back Cover Rs. 40,000/-
Tender Notice Full Page Rs. 15,000/-
Rates for various sizes are quoted treating as Colour Pages only.
Note: If the Advertisements are released for a year (12 issues) 10% rebate is admissible.
10% rebate is admissible to Advertising Agencies for Tender Notices
For more details please contact on Tel. No. 011 2618 5273

42 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 43
44 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 45
 CSIR-CRRI TRAINING PROGRAMMES FOR THE YEAR 2017-2018
TITLE OF THE COURSE DURATION WITH COURSE FEE COURSE
DATES + 15 % S.T. COORDINATOR
PAVEMENT ENGINEERING & MATERIALS
Design, Construction and Maintenance Sh. Manoj Kr. Shukla
21-25 Aug., 2017 Rs. 12,000/-
of Flexible Pavements
Rigid Pavements: Design, Construc- Sh. Binod Kumar
09-13 Oct., 2017 Rs. 12,000/-
tion & Quality Control Aspects
Pavement Evaluation Techniques and Sh. Pradeep Kumar
their applications for Maintenance and 04-08 Dec., 2017 Rs. 12,000/-
Rehabilitation
ROAD DEVELOPMENT PLANNING & MANAGEMENT
International Course on Dissemination 11-22 Sep., 2017 Rs. 30,000/- Dr. Devesh Tiwari
of HDM-4
Geo-Spatial Technology (GIS, GPS, 05-08 Feb., 2018 Rs. 12,000/- Dr. B.K. Durai
RS etc) for Road and Transportation Dr. A. Mohan Rao
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
 eotechnical and Landslide Investiga-
G 04-08 Sep., 2017 Rs. 12,000/- Sh. P.S. Prasad
tions for Highway Projects
BRIDGES & STRUCTURES
 ridge Diagnostics, Performance
B 10-14, July, 2017 Rs. 12,000/- Sh. S.S. Gaharwar
Evaluation and Rehabilitation
Bridge Design and Construction 30 Oct.-03 Nov., 2017 Rs. 12,000/- Dr. Lakshmy P.
TRAFFIC & TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
 conomics & Financial Analysis of
E 19-23 June, 2017 Rs. 12,000/- Dr. E. Madhu
Highway & Transportation Projects
Traffic Engineering & Road Safety 24-28 July, 2017 Rs. 12,000/- Dr. S. Velmurugan
Audit
Air and Noise Pollution Measurement 13-16 Nov., 2017 Rs. 12,000/- Dr. Nasim Akhtar
and Analysis
Customized Tailor Made Programmes
In addition to the above, CRRI also organises customized tailor made programmes as per the clients requirements.

Course Fee : You are requested to pay in advance through e-transfer details given below.
Name of the Bank : State Bank of India,
Branch Address : Central Road Research Institute, P.O.: CRRI, Mathura Road, New Delhi
Account Number : 30268867237
Bank IFSC Code : SBI N0010442
CRRI TAN No : DELC00127B
CRRI PAN No. (CSIR) : AAATC2716R
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION & SENDING NOMINATION CONTACT:

Head & Course Organiser Phone: 91-11-26921939,

Information, Liaison & Training
CSIR - Central Road Research Institute
P.O.CRRI, Delhi-Mathura Road
New Delhi 110 025
Fax: 91-11-26845943, 26830480
Telefax: 91-11-26921939
E-mail: tkamla.crri@nic.in, tkamla.crri@gmail.com
headilt.crri@nic.in,
Website: http://www.crridom.gov.in

46 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 47
 TENDER NOTICE

48 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

TENDER NOTICE

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 49

 TENDER NOTICE

50 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

TENDER NOTICE

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 51

 TENDER NOTICE

52 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017

TENDER NOTICE

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017 53

54 INDIAN HIGHWAYS, JULY 2017