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Re-examining Game-based Learning in K-12 Education

By Derek Cowan

Foundations of Educational Technology ETEC 511-CL-64A

Dr. Matiul Alam

University of British Columbia

December 10th, 2016


Abstract

Digital games represent an extremely popular cultural phenomenon. Despite being

commonly associated with negative developmental outcomes, playing digital games can

facilitate a variety of cognitive, motivational, emotional, and social benefits. Digital games are

also commonly used in classrooms around North America. However, they are predominately

being used without a clear pedagogical framework. New forms of digital games have the power

to immerse learners within realistic virtual environments where they are central, important

participants who have a remarkable ability to choose, explore and create. These games provide

educators the opportunity to progress our pedagogical understanding of game-based learning

and move beyond current practices. By developing a clear understanding of desirable learning

principles and mechanism underlying quality digital games, educators can become better

equipped to evaluate and leverage games within a wider constructivist learning framework.

Significant barriers exist that inhibit the adoption of a new pedagogical framework but can be

overcome through necessary investments and increased collaboration between all relevant

stakeholders.
Introduction

Game-based learning is an effective instructional technique that can have positive

emotional, cognitive, motivational, and social benefits for learners. Despite the high frequency

of some forms of game-based learning in classrooms, the pedagogical foundation supporting its

use is typically limited. To fully utilize the potential of digital games, teachers need to provide

students with the compelling and relevant experiences that can prepare them for later

learning (Takeuchi & Vaala, 2014, p. 58). Opportunities for quality, immersive gameplay that

requires collaboration, complex decision-making and creativity are increasing, allowing for the

progression of current pedagogical understanding. There are many barriers preventing the

transformational use of game-based learning in the classroom. They can be overcome through

investments in professional development opportunities and meaningful collaboration between

all relevant stakeholders. In this essay, I will highlight the various benefits associated with

digital games and game-based learning in the classroom. I will then explore how digital games

are being used and re-examine current trends, and argue for a more transformational

understanding of game-based learning. Finally, I will discuss solutions to barriers educators

encounter when including game-based learning in their classrooms.

Overview of Game-based Learning

Digital games are an extremely popular cultural phenomenon, especially for younger

populations. As of 2015, 19 million Canadians regularly played digital games (ESAC, 2015). The

average age of the typical user was only 31. The popularity of digital games has also manifested

in classrooms around North America, as educational systems try to adapt to the rapidly
changing technological and cultural landscape. A 2014 study found that 74% of American

teachers use digital games in the classroom (Takeuchi & Vaala, 2014). Their inclusion in learning

environments to support instruction is known as game-based learning. Game-based learning is

a form of experiential learning in which students engage content as a set of rules and a system

of choices and consequences by learning through trial and error and role-playing (Perrotta,

Featherstone, Aston, Houghton, 2013). Digital games vary greatly in terms of purpose, quality,

and content, but there are several common learning principals and mechanisms that can help

define and conceptualize game-based approaches. There is also a growing recognition of

benefits associated with playing digital games.

Benefits of Digital Gaming and the Effectiveness of Game-based Learning

Legitimate concerns associated with digital gaming regarding the potential of excessive

screen time and violence often dominate media attention and subsequent societal perceptions.

However, more nuanced perspectives, that promote balance, differentiation between specific

games and the consideration of positive elements of gaming are less often discussed. There has

been an increasing availability of research highlighting associated benefits of playing video

games, both outside and inside the classroom. Understanding digital games outside of the

classroom is essential to better understanding how to leverage them within a classroom

context. Data is still somewhat limited, but some emerging themes are becoming apparent in

terms of cognitive, motivational, emotional, and social benefits.

Cognitive Benefits

Playing digital games has been shown to improve attention, focus and reaction time.

Video games are controlled training regimens delivered in highly motivating behavioral
contexts . . . because behavioral changes arise from brain changes, it is also no surprise that

performance improvements are paralleled by enduring physical and functional neurological

remodeling (Bavelier et al., 2011, p. 763).

Positive effects on spatial reasoning and problem solving skills have also been

demonstrated through certain types of games. Many games include open-ended problems that

require players to independently consider multiple possibilities before generating appropriate

solution. Some have argued that this has led to a generation of students who, instead of

learning through explicit linear instruction, learn best by problem solving through trial and error

and collecting evidence which they test through experimentation. Furthermore, there is also

evidence that playing any video game enhances childrens creative capacities (Granic, Lobel,

Engels, 2014). These benefits closely align with current conceptions of 21st century learning and

problem-based instruction.

Motivational Benefits

Video games are largely unique in their ability to motivate learners to persevere through

multiple failures only to be rewarded with even more challenging content. Games encourage an

incremental, rather than an entity theory of intelligence; that ability is not static and can be

developed through effort and time. Through observation of immediate feedback, players

continual effort is rewarded as they gain insight into the effectiveness of their actions. Many

games dynamically adjust to the users ability and effectively balance challenge and frustration

with success and progression, resulting in highly motivated behavior.

Brain-based research has provided support for the motivational model embedded

within many digital games. Games allow players to function at their individual achievable
level. Though frustrating at times, games provide just enough challenge to engage reward

networks and provide continual feedback with regards to incremental goal progression. The

motivation to persevere is the brain seeking another surge of dopamine -- the fuel of intrinsic

reinforcement (Willis, 2011, p.1).

Emotional Benefits

One of the most significant qualities of digital games is simply that users find the

experience very positive. Several studies have shown a causal relation between playing

preferred video games and improved mood or increases in positive emotions. For example,

studies indicate that playing highly accessible short form games, with minimal interfaces and

short-term commitments, can help improve moods, promote relaxation, and reduce anxiety

(Granic, 2014).

Many players also report a positive emotional experience that has been called flow. It is

described as a loss of self-consciousness when experiencing immersion and a high degree of

control over game playing environments. Flow experiences have been linked to many positive

emotional outcomes including higher self-esteem and reduced anxiety.

Social Benefits

Playing digital games used to be a largely solitary activity. However, current forms of the

technology are highly social. Over 70% of gamers play with a friend (Granic, 2014). Players can

interact, compete, or collaborate simultaneously within games but also participate in highly

developed affinity groups that promote critical thinking and informal forms of mentorship.

There is evidence that gamers can translate the prosocial skills they learn from co-playing or
multi-player gameplay to social relations outside of the gaming environment (Sharpiro,

SalenTekinbas, Schwartz, Darvasi, 2013).

Effectiveness of Game-based Learning

Despite being a relatively new and continually changing instructional technique, there is

quality evidence highlighting the effectiveness of game-based learning in the classroom. For

example, a 2013 study funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation found that when digital

games were compared to other instruction conditions without digital games, there was a

moderate to strong effect in favor of digital games in terms of broad cognitive competencies.

When the games included simulations, the effect doubled from a 12% achievement increase to

25% (Sharpiro et al., 2013, p. 9). Furthermore, a meta-analysis of current research undertaken

by the National Foundation for Educational Research, with regards to game-based learning

observed significant, but undefined, cognitive gains across studies utilizing games versus

traditional teaching methods (Parotta, 2013, p. ii).

Much of the data discussed is correlational, limiting its interpretive value. More research

needs to be conducted to get a clearer understanding regarding specific benefits of game-based

learning. However, as one researcher put it, one can no more say what the effects of video

games are, than one can say what the effects of food are (Bavelier et al., 2011, p. 763). There

are many types of video games on many platforms and the effects will not be monolithic across

all target populations. This increases the need for a highly developed pedagogical

understanding of how best to utilize digital games in the classroom. There are many promising

trends, and a largely untapped learning potential that can be leveraged within the K - 12

classroom.
Progressing the Pedagogical Understanding and Use of Digital Games in the Classroom

Game-based learning has not been actively adopted within a developed pedagogical

framework as an important and effective instructional technique. Despite the high prevalence

in classrooms, teachers are using dedicated game platforms in particular to motivate and

reward students (54%) and for break activities (43%), at about twice the rate theyre using

these devices to engage students with lesson content (Takeuchi & Vaala, 2014, p. 56). The

games that are connected to content, tend to supplement traditional teaching methods by

focusing on the rote memorization of content. Furthermore, games are often assigned as an

individual activity with only about a third of teachers using digital games with small or whole

groups (Shapiro et al., 2013, p. 41). While playing digital games in this manner may benefit

learning in some ways, it does not offer deep transformational learning experiences. Few

teachers are using learning games of the immersive variety, the kind that lend themselves to

deep exploration, complex decision making, and participation in the types of activities that set

digital games apart from more didactic forms of instruction (Takeuchi & Vaala, 2014, p. 56).

However, the increasing number of quality digital game options available for inclusion in

classrooms offers the opportunity to enhance the pedagogical use of digital games and

capitalize on their potential to facilitate transformational learning experiences.

Todays students have grown up immersed with technology. They learn best from

becoming engaged, from doing and gameplay, from random access to information, from

exploring multiple options, from multitasking, from being given and making lots of choices, and

from seeing what they do directly relate to and affect the world (Hirumi, 2010, p. 81). To meet

these learning needs, many teachers are turning toward constructivist teaching approaches,
looking for contextualized learning and leveraging existing prior knowledge and interests. To

best utilize game-based technology a pedagogy first approach is required. One that focuses on

necessary elements within educational designs that facilitate deep forms of learning. The

technology then acts as a tool, making these designs possible. Educators need to determine the

desirable learning mechanisms and principles underlying quality game-based learning and use

this knowledge to seek out quality games that incorporate these elements. There are several

important qualities that good games possess:

The learning, including assessment, is contextualized, and is embedded within the game.

The game is structured around clear and progressively challenging goals that lead to

predictable and desirable outcomes. Learners attempt to pass levels, complete tasks, or

master an area of content to continue participation or advancement in the game. The

problems are ordered so that the earlier ones are designed to support players forming

hypotheses that will work for subsequent, harder problems (Gee, 2006).

Learners have a high degree of control over their actions within the game environment.

Players essentially co-design games through their ability to impact the virtual

environments through their actions and choices. Some games move beyond interactivity

to creation. Players can actively modify and create extensive features of their

experiences.

Learning is active and experiential. Its design relies on learning by doing through

interaction, exploration and the consideration of relationships within multi-modal

simulated environments. Virtual worlds, often based in fantasy and fictional narratives,

provide compelling contexts for role playing to occur.


Intense fun and engagement largely drive participation. The experience is designed with

engagement as a primary concern. While traditional education focuses of content, good

games focus on engaging the learner with achievable challenges which require an

understanding of targeted content to overcome.

Learners receive immediate and constructive feedback which helps shape and inform

their subsequent actions and decision making. Risk-taking is promoted by games by

lowering the consequences of failure and providing a safe space to explore. The low-

stakes failing forward design of most games allows students to learn from their

mistakes and grow. (Crocco, 2011, p. 28).

Learners can assume existing identities or create entirely new ones. Learners become

committed to the new virtual world in which they will live, learn, and act through their

commitment to their new identity (Gee, 2006, p. 5).

Learners can customize their experience by choosing different characters, adjusting the

difficulty, and solving problems with unique solutions.

Information, verbal or text, is provided when it is relevant to the context that learners

are engaged in. Its consideration and understanding is essential to success within the

game. The meaning of the information provided is also situated within multi-modal

gaming experiences. (Gee, 2013)

Games include social elements that allows players to collaborate both inside and

outside the game. Learners can demonstrate their ability and share their knowledge of

the experience with other users. Opportunities for informal forms of mentorship are

available through participation in affinity groups.


New and high quality forms of gaming are becoming increasingly relevant tools that incorporate

many of the principles outlined above. While no one game will feature all the desirable

attributes, there are several genres of games that typically move beyond short-form games,

that typically rely on drill and practice learning and puzzles.

Strategy games require players to engage in strategic and critical thinking by decision-

making and acting within complex situated environments where outcomes are typically

unknown. They require learners to consider and understand complex relationships between

important variables within the game to improve their chances of success. Games like

Civilization and Rise of Nations fall into this category.

Roleplaying games require learners to assume or create new identities within an

overarching narrative. Players take responsibility for progression through the game which

typically requires both collaboration and competition to be successful.

Sandbox games offer a largely open-ended environment in which players are free to

explore and experiment with minimal constraints. Minecraft Edu is one of the most popular

examples of a sandbox game in which players can create by building and modifying virtual

environments.

Simulations are another form of game-based learning that can provide both accessible

and realistic learning experiences. Within a simulation, a player learns to think critically about

the simulation while at the same time gaining embedded knowledge through interacting with

the environment. By allowing the player to take on new identities, solve problems through trial

and error, and gain expertise or literacy (Annetta, 2008, p. 233).


Game design platforms are also another option. Students can design and program their

own games by learning and applying computational thinking. Tools such as Scratch and

Gamestar Mechanic offer these types of experiences.

Beyond finding quality games, it is essential that teachers recognize the connections between

other constructivist perspectives such as problem and project-based learning and game-based

learning. This will help teachers design classroom environments that involve more than

individual students engaging games. Incorporating elements of demonstration, constructive

debate, collaboration, and mentorship will broaden the cognitive abilities required to

participate within the experience. It is critical that the teacher mediate the experience by

continually directing students towards meaning, both within and beyond the game. If a learner

never realizes how a virtual experience relates to real-life experiences, then the game playing

will have been engaging but not productive (Barab, Gresalfi, Arici, 2009, p. 80). Teachers

should facilitate a type of game-based learning that moves beyond retention, towards building

comprehension and literacy. By helping students engage games as a series of problems, within

a larger interdisciplinary project combining instruction, practice, and assessment, teachers can

create truly transformational learning experiences for students.

Overcoming Barriers to Integration

Several barriers exist which inhibit transformational game-based learning from being

adopted in the classroom. According to a 2014 national survey on teaching with digital games,

teachers named insufficient time (46%) and cost (44%) most often, followed by lack of

technology resources (computers, devices, Internet connection) (35%) and uncertainty about
where to find quality games (31%), as significant challenges to incorporating digital games into

the classroom (Takeuchi & Vaala, 2014). Investments in research, professional development

and required technology are all essential to overcoming barriers to integration and ultimately

transformational practice.

Before large investments are made into necessary professional development and

technology, underlying research needs to clearly demonstrate game-based approaches impact

on learning. However, measuring the effects, especially establishing causal links, and

demonstrating the effectiveness of game-based learning can be difficult. Researchers need to

continue exploring game-based learning and communicate findings to all relevant stockholders.

For example, cognitive neuroscientists have asked game developers to design new games for

testing hypotheses about the specificity of cognitive advances and the mechanisms on which

they are based (Granic, 2014). More collaboration between industry and researchers is required

to provide the necessary conditions for testing.

Teachers require the necessary pedagogical freedom to experiment with game-based

learning in the classroom. Significant time commitments need to be allotted if long form games

are to be included. Professional development opportunities are also necessary to support

teacher learning.

Another strategy to facilitate the adoption of game-based learning within classrooms is

to establish an industry-wide framework for describing and evaluating digital games. This will

support educators by clearly communicating the relevant educational content within digital

games. Teachers can then place more focus on creating the necessary educational environment

that best incorporates digital games.


Conclusion

Based on the literature discussed, there is sufficient evidence to indicate significant

benefits of game-based learning. Benefits include a variety of cognitive, motivational,

emotional, and social elements. However, it is also clear that digital games are predominately

being used without a clear pedagogical framework. Compared to previous generations, new

forms of digital games are of higher quality and are also more accessible. By developing a clear

understanding of the desirable learning principles and mechanism underlying quality digital

games educators are better equipped to evaluate and leverage games within a wider

constructivist framework. This allows for the progression of the current pedagogical

understanding supporting game-based learning and ultimately the creation of transformational

learning experience in the classroom. All relevant stakeholders need to increase collaboration

and help facilitate the adoption of game-based approaches in K 12 classrooms.


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