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By Derek Cowan
commonly associated with negative developmental outcomes, playing digital games can
facilitate a variety of cognitive, motivational, emotional, and social benefits. Digital games are
also commonly used in classrooms around North America. However, they are predominately
being used without a clear pedagogical framework. New forms of digital games have the power
to immerse learners within realistic virtual environments where they are central, important
participants who have a remarkable ability to choose, explore and create. These games provide
and move beyond current practices. By developing a clear understanding of desirable learning
principles and mechanism underlying quality digital games, educators can become better
equipped to evaluate and leverage games within a wider constructivist learning framework.
Significant barriers exist that inhibit the adoption of a new pedagogical framework but can be
overcome through necessary investments and increased collaboration between all relevant
stakeholders.
Introduction
emotional, cognitive, motivational, and social benefits for learners. Despite the high frequency
of some forms of game-based learning in classrooms, the pedagogical foundation supporting its
use is typically limited. To fully utilize the potential of digital games, teachers need to provide
students with the compelling and relevant experiences that can prepare them for later
learning (Takeuchi & Vaala, 2014, p. 58). Opportunities for quality, immersive gameplay that
requires collaboration, complex decision-making and creativity are increasing, allowing for the
progression of current pedagogical understanding. There are many barriers preventing the
transformational use of game-based learning in the classroom. They can be overcome through
all relevant stakeholders. In this essay, I will highlight the various benefits associated with
digital games and game-based learning in the classroom. I will then explore how digital games
are being used and re-examine current trends, and argue for a more transformational
Digital games are an extremely popular cultural phenomenon, especially for younger
populations. As of 2015, 19 million Canadians regularly played digital games (ESAC, 2015). The
average age of the typical user was only 31. The popularity of digital games has also manifested
in classrooms around North America, as educational systems try to adapt to the rapidly
changing technological and cultural landscape. A 2014 study found that 74% of American
teachers use digital games in the classroom (Takeuchi & Vaala, 2014). Their inclusion in learning
a form of experiential learning in which students engage content as a set of rules and a system
of choices and consequences by learning through trial and error and role-playing (Perrotta,
Featherstone, Aston, Houghton, 2013). Digital games vary greatly in terms of purpose, quality,
and content, but there are several common learning principals and mechanisms that can help
Legitimate concerns associated with digital gaming regarding the potential of excessive
screen time and violence often dominate media attention and subsequent societal perceptions.
However, more nuanced perspectives, that promote balance, differentiation between specific
games and the consideration of positive elements of gaming are less often discussed. There has
games, both outside and inside the classroom. Understanding digital games outside of the
context. Data is still somewhat limited, but some emerging themes are becoming apparent in
Cognitive Benefits
Playing digital games has been shown to improve attention, focus and reaction time.
Video games are controlled training regimens delivered in highly motivating behavioral
contexts . . . because behavioral changes arise from brain changes, it is also no surprise that
Positive effects on spatial reasoning and problem solving skills have also been
demonstrated through certain types of games. Many games include open-ended problems that
solution. Some have argued that this has led to a generation of students who, instead of
learning through explicit linear instruction, learn best by problem solving through trial and error
and collecting evidence which they test through experimentation. Furthermore, there is also
evidence that playing any video game enhances childrens creative capacities (Granic, Lobel,
Engels, 2014). These benefits closely align with current conceptions of 21st century learning and
problem-based instruction.
Motivational Benefits
Video games are largely unique in their ability to motivate learners to persevere through
multiple failures only to be rewarded with even more challenging content. Games encourage an
incremental, rather than an entity theory of intelligence; that ability is not static and can be
developed through effort and time. Through observation of immediate feedback, players
continual effort is rewarded as they gain insight into the effectiveness of their actions. Many
games dynamically adjust to the users ability and effectively balance challenge and frustration
Brain-based research has provided support for the motivational model embedded
within many digital games. Games allow players to function at their individual achievable
level. Though frustrating at times, games provide just enough challenge to engage reward
networks and provide continual feedback with regards to incremental goal progression. The
motivation to persevere is the brain seeking another surge of dopamine -- the fuel of intrinsic
Emotional Benefits
One of the most significant qualities of digital games is simply that users find the
experience very positive. Several studies have shown a causal relation between playing
preferred video games and improved mood or increases in positive emotions. For example,
studies indicate that playing highly accessible short form games, with minimal interfaces and
short-term commitments, can help improve moods, promote relaxation, and reduce anxiety
(Granic, 2014).
Many players also report a positive emotional experience that has been called flow. It is
control over game playing environments. Flow experiences have been linked to many positive
Social Benefits
Playing digital games used to be a largely solitary activity. However, current forms of the
technology are highly social. Over 70% of gamers play with a friend (Granic, 2014). Players can
interact, compete, or collaborate simultaneously within games but also participate in highly
developed affinity groups that promote critical thinking and informal forms of mentorship.
There is evidence that gamers can translate the prosocial skills they learn from co-playing or
multi-player gameplay to social relations outside of the gaming environment (Sharpiro,
Despite being a relatively new and continually changing instructional technique, there is
quality evidence highlighting the effectiveness of game-based learning in the classroom. For
example, a 2013 study funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation found that when digital
games were compared to other instruction conditions without digital games, there was a
moderate to strong effect in favor of digital games in terms of broad cognitive competencies.
When the games included simulations, the effect doubled from a 12% achievement increase to
25% (Sharpiro et al., 2013, p. 9). Furthermore, a meta-analysis of current research undertaken
by the National Foundation for Educational Research, with regards to game-based learning
observed significant, but undefined, cognitive gains across studies utilizing games versus
Much of the data discussed is correlational, limiting its interpretive value. More research
learning. However, as one researcher put it, one can no more say what the effects of video
games are, than one can say what the effects of food are (Bavelier et al., 2011, p. 763). There
are many types of video games on many platforms and the effects will not be monolithic across
all target populations. This increases the need for a highly developed pedagogical
understanding of how best to utilize digital games in the classroom. There are many promising
trends, and a largely untapped learning potential that can be leveraged within the K - 12
classroom.
Progressing the Pedagogical Understanding and Use of Digital Games in the Classroom
Game-based learning has not been actively adopted within a developed pedagogical
framework as an important and effective instructional technique. Despite the high prevalence
in classrooms, teachers are using dedicated game platforms in particular to motivate and
reward students (54%) and for break activities (43%), at about twice the rate theyre using
these devices to engage students with lesson content (Takeuchi & Vaala, 2014, p. 56). The
games that are connected to content, tend to supplement traditional teaching methods by
focusing on the rote memorization of content. Furthermore, games are often assigned as an
individual activity with only about a third of teachers using digital games with small or whole
groups (Shapiro et al., 2013, p. 41). While playing digital games in this manner may benefit
learning in some ways, it does not offer deep transformational learning experiences. Few
teachers are using learning games of the immersive variety, the kind that lend themselves to
deep exploration, complex decision making, and participation in the types of activities that set
digital games apart from more didactic forms of instruction (Takeuchi & Vaala, 2014, p. 56).
However, the increasing number of quality digital game options available for inclusion in
classrooms offers the opportunity to enhance the pedagogical use of digital games and
Todays students have grown up immersed with technology. They learn best from
becoming engaged, from doing and gameplay, from random access to information, from
exploring multiple options, from multitasking, from being given and making lots of choices, and
from seeing what they do directly relate to and affect the world (Hirumi, 2010, p. 81). To meet
these learning needs, many teachers are turning toward constructivist teaching approaches,
looking for contextualized learning and leveraging existing prior knowledge and interests. To
best utilize game-based technology a pedagogy first approach is required. One that focuses on
necessary elements within educational designs that facilitate deep forms of learning. The
technology then acts as a tool, making these designs possible. Educators need to determine the
desirable learning mechanisms and principles underlying quality game-based learning and use
this knowledge to seek out quality games that incorporate these elements. There are several
The learning, including assessment, is contextualized, and is embedded within the game.
The game is structured around clear and progressively challenging goals that lead to
predictable and desirable outcomes. Learners attempt to pass levels, complete tasks, or
problems are ordered so that the earlier ones are designed to support players forming
hypotheses that will work for subsequent, harder problems (Gee, 2006).
Learners have a high degree of control over their actions within the game environment.
Players essentially co-design games through their ability to impact the virtual
environments through their actions and choices. Some games move beyond interactivity
to creation. Players can actively modify and create extensive features of their
experiences.
Learning is active and experiential. Its design relies on learning by doing through
simulated environments. Virtual worlds, often based in fantasy and fictional narratives,
games focus on engaging the learner with achievable challenges which require an
Learners receive immediate and constructive feedback which helps shape and inform
lowering the consequences of failure and providing a safe space to explore. The low-
stakes failing forward design of most games allows students to learn from their
Learners can assume existing identities or create entirely new ones. Learners become
committed to the new virtual world in which they will live, learn, and act through their
Learners can customize their experience by choosing different characters, adjusting the
Information, verbal or text, is provided when it is relevant to the context that learners
are engaged in. Its consideration and understanding is essential to success within the
game. The meaning of the information provided is also situated within multi-modal
Games include social elements that allows players to collaborate both inside and
outside the game. Learners can demonstrate their ability and share their knowledge of
the experience with other users. Opportunities for informal forms of mentorship are
many of the principles outlined above. While no one game will feature all the desirable
attributes, there are several genres of games that typically move beyond short-form games,
Strategy games require players to engage in strategic and critical thinking by decision-
making and acting within complex situated environments where outcomes are typically
unknown. They require learners to consider and understand complex relationships between
important variables within the game to improve their chances of success. Games like
overarching narrative. Players take responsibility for progression through the game which
Sandbox games offer a largely open-ended environment in which players are free to
explore and experiment with minimal constraints. Minecraft Edu is one of the most popular
examples of a sandbox game in which players can create by building and modifying virtual
environments.
Simulations are another form of game-based learning that can provide both accessible
and realistic learning experiences. Within a simulation, a player learns to think critically about
the simulation while at the same time gaining embedded knowledge through interacting with
the environment. By allowing the player to take on new identities, solve problems through trial
own games by learning and applying computational thinking. Tools such as Scratch and
Beyond finding quality games, it is essential that teachers recognize the connections between
other constructivist perspectives such as problem and project-based learning and game-based
learning. This will help teachers design classroom environments that involve more than
debate, collaboration, and mentorship will broaden the cognitive abilities required to
participate within the experience. It is critical that the teacher mediate the experience by
continually directing students towards meaning, both within and beyond the game. If a learner
never realizes how a virtual experience relates to real-life experiences, then the game playing
will have been engaging but not productive (Barab, Gresalfi, Arici, 2009, p. 80). Teachers
should facilitate a type of game-based learning that moves beyond retention, towards building
comprehension and literacy. By helping students engage games as a series of problems, within
a larger interdisciplinary project combining instruction, practice, and assessment, teachers can
Several barriers exist which inhibit transformational game-based learning from being
adopted in the classroom. According to a 2014 national survey on teaching with digital games,
teachers named insufficient time (46%) and cost (44%) most often, followed by lack of
technology resources (computers, devices, Internet connection) (35%) and uncertainty about
where to find quality games (31%), as significant challenges to incorporating digital games into
the classroom (Takeuchi & Vaala, 2014). Investments in research, professional development
and required technology are all essential to overcoming barriers to integration and ultimately
transformational practice.
Before large investments are made into necessary professional development and
on learning. However, measuring the effects, especially establishing causal links, and
continue exploring game-based learning and communicate findings to all relevant stockholders.
For example, cognitive neuroscientists have asked game developers to design new games for
testing hypotheses about the specificity of cognitive advances and the mechanisms on which
they are based (Granic, 2014). More collaboration between industry and researchers is required
learning in the classroom. Significant time commitments need to be allotted if long form games
teacher learning.
to establish an industry-wide framework for describing and evaluating digital games. This will
support educators by clearly communicating the relevant educational content within digital
games. Teachers can then place more focus on creating the necessary educational environment
emotional, and social elements. However, it is also clear that digital games are predominately
being used without a clear pedagogical framework. Compared to previous generations, new
forms of digital games are of higher quality and are also more accessible. By developing a clear
understanding of the desirable learning principles and mechanism underlying quality digital
games educators are better equipped to evaluate and leverage games within a wider
constructivist framework. This allows for the progression of the current pedagogical
learning experience in the classroom. All relevant stakeholders need to increase collaboration
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