ENGINEERING MATERIALS

METALLIC NON-METALLIC
FERROUS NON-FERROUS ORGANIC INORGANIC
Carbon Steel Nickel Plastics Ceramics
Low Alloy Steels Monel Thermo-Plastics Graphite
Stainless Steels Brasses Thermo-Setting Glass

1. TYPES OF PIPES
Different applications or operating conditions need to use different types of pipes for

pipeline projects. An engineer cannot make a wise selection without understanding the
characteristics of the various types of pipes commercially available. Two types of

classifications are used: metallic and nonmetallic pipes.

1.1 METALLIC PIPES

1.1.1 ORDINARY STEEL PIPE

Ordinary steel pipes are made of wrought (carbon) steel. They may be either seamless
or seamed (welded). Steel pipes are structurally strong and ductile; they do not

fracture easily. However, unless they are coated or lined with an inert material, or
protected by other means they can be corroded badly. Steel pipes come in a great
variety of sizes and strengths. They are widely used for transporting natural gas,

petroleum products, air, and water. When steel pipes are used for water, preventive

measures must be taken various types of corrosion and measures to control them.
1.1.2 CORRUGATED STEEL PIPE
Corrugated steel pipes are thin-wall, large-diameter pipes made of galvanized steel
sheets having either helical or annular corrugations. Due to its low cost, the corrugated
steel pipe is used extensively in sewer and drainage systems where both the internal
pressure (water pressure) and the external pressure (soil pressure) are low, and where

leakage will not cause serious problems. Some corrugated steel pipes come with
perforations to allow drainage into the pipe.

1.1.3 CAST-IRON PIPE

There are two types of cast-iron pipe: the ordinary or gray cast-iron pipe, and the
ductile-iron pipe. The ordinary cast-iron pipe is made of iron containing 3 to 4% of

carbon in the form of graphite flakes. There are two strength designations for cast-
iron pipes: 18/40 and 21/45. In the first designation, the number 18 means that the

minimum bursting tensile strength is 18,000 psi, and the number 40 means that the

minimum modules of rupture (i.e., the tensile stress that causes failure due to
bending) is 40,000 psi. The meaning of the 21/45 designation is similar.

The gray cast-iron pipe has relatively strong corrosion-resistance and long life. It is

used in a number of applications, such as for water supply or wastewater. The pipe is
often lined and/or coated with cement or another inert nonmetallic material when a
corrosive fluid and/or corrosive environment are encountered. The main disadvantage

of the cast-iron pipe is that it is not ductile the pipe fractures under excessive loads or

impact.

1.1.4 DUCTILE-IRON PIPE

The ductile-iron pipe is made of iron containing approximately 3.5% of carbon in
spheroidal or nodular form, and a magnesium alloy. It is rather ductile, and does not
rupture easily. It combines the advantages of the gray cast-iron pipe, including

corrosion-resistance and long life, with the advantage of steel pipe ductility. Like the

gray cast-iron pipe, the ductile-iron pipe is often lined and/or coated with cement

mortar. The strength designation of ductile iron pipe is 604210. The number 60
means a minimum tensile strength of 60,000 psi; the number 42 means minimum yield

strength of 42,000 psi; and the number 10 means 10% minimum elongation. It is used

extensively in sanitary engineering works for water supply and wastewater.

1.1.5 STAINLESS STEEL PIPE

The most extensively used stainless steel pipes are those in the 300 series such as SS304

or SS316. They are made of steel that contains chrome-nickel alloys, and they are

corrosion resistant. However, due to its high price, stainless steel pipe is used only in

special applications such as when the fluid or environment is rather corrosive, or when

no rusting of pipe can be tolerated such as in pharmaceutical or food industries.

1.1.6 ALUMINUM PIPE

They are corrosion-resistant and are used in certain food plants and chemical plants.
Different types of aluminum are used for making pipes. For instance, aluminum 1100 is

low in strength but easy to weld. High-number aluminums, such as those in the 3000 or

6000 series, are stronger mechanically and more corrosion-resistant, although they are

harder to weld.

1.1.7 COPPER PIPE

Copper is corrosion-resistant but expensive. It is used only for small pipes such as
those used in plumbing. Note that many of the stainless steel, aluminum and copper
pipes are actually tubing rather pipe.

2. TYPES OF PIPELINE
2.1 GATHERING PIPLINE
Gathering systems typically fall into one of four categories:

1. Single-trunk systems with lateral lines from each well production facility.

2. Loop systems, in which the main line is in the shape of a loop around the field.
3. The multiple-trunk system, in which there are several main lines extending from a

central point.

4. Combinations of Categories 1 through 3.

Gathering systems typically require small-diameter pipe that runs over relatively short

distances. The branch lateral lines commonly are 2 to 8 in. Gathering systems should be

designed to minimize pressure drop without having to use large-diameter pipe or

require mechanical pressure-elevation equipment (pumps for liquid and compressors

for gas) to move the fluid volume.

2.2 TRANSMISSION PIPELINES

Cross-country transmission pipelines will collect the product from many supply sources
and deliver to one or more end users. There are three general categories of

transmission pipelines:

Natural gas- Carry only natural gas

Product
 Carry a number of processed or refined petroleum products such as:
1. Processed natural gas liquids- butane and propane
2. Gasoline

3. Diesel

4. Refined fuel oils

Convey unrefined crude oil from producing areas to large storage areas or directly to
refineries Transmission pipelines will generally require much larger pipe than gathering

systems. Transmission systems normally are designed for long distances and will require

pressure-boosting equipment along the route.

2.3 DISTRIBUTION PIPELINES

Composed of several interconnected pipelines with small diameters, used to take the

products to the final consumer. Feeder lines to distribute gas to homes and businesses

downstream, also pipelines at terminals for distributing products to tanks and storage

facilities are included in this group.

 3. CONNECTIONS (JOINTS)
Pipes can be joined (connected) in several ways, as follows:
3.1 BONDED (WELDED) JOINTS:
They include welding for steel pipe, brazing or and PE soldering for brass, copper and
lead pipes, and fusing of plastic pipes.
3.2 THREADED JOINTS:
Used for connecting threaded pipe sections together, or connecting a threaded pipe to

a threaded coupling or fitting.

3.3 FLANGES:
Flanges are the most common way to provide a strong joint without permanently

joining the pipe sections together as done in welding. They are used extensively for

steel pipes at both the inlet and the outlet of pumps, valves, flow meters, and other

fittings. Use of flanges allows such devices be easily installed in the pipeline and easily

disconnected from the pipe.

3.4 MECHANICAL JOINTS:
Various mechanical connectors exist for ease in assembly/ disassembly.
3.5 BELL-AND-SPIGOT JOINTS:
For those used in pressure concrete pipes. Other pipes, including glass pipes and plastic

pipes, also use bell-and spigot joints.

3.6 PUSH-ON JOINTS:
Joints that can be connected together simply by pushing two pipe sections (segments)
against each other. Likewise, the sections can be disconnected simply by pulling them

apart.
 4. FITTINGS
SELECTION CRITERIA FOR PIPE FITTINGS:
Pipe fittings are to be chosen considering certain factors. They are as follows:

Connection types: When purchasing pipe fittings, you should be aware of the
fact that a fitting can have two different connector types. One end of the fitting

might be female threaded while the other female threaded. One end might be

male slip while the other end is threaded, in the case of plastic fittings. They can

also have matching ends which can accommodate any requirement.

Materials of construction: As a rule, the pipe fitting should be of the same
material as the material used in the making of the pipe in which it is to be fitted.

However, in some cases, materials conforming to certain codes or standards can

also be used in pipes of another material.

Check for flow: To keep the flow consistent, the ends of pipe fittings should be
slightly larger than the rest of the pipe so that they can accommodate

connections without narrowing the inner diameter (ID) of the pipe.

Type of fitting: Besides pipe materials, pipe fittings are identified by the type of
fitting threaded or slip, male or female.
Size: When measuring the size of pipe fittings, it is to be noted that the male
threaded fittings are measured to the outside edge or OD, while female fittings

are measured to the inside edge of the inlet or ID.

Thickness: Just as pipes are available in a number of different thicknesses or
"schedules", so also the pipe fittings.
 Design: Each pipe or tube is designed to carry certain specific types of fluids,
liquids, gases, chemicals under varying conditions. Accordingly, the pipe fittings
are also available in variety of designs.

Standards and codes: There are certain standards and codes set by various
organizations by which the different pipe fittings are graded. For example, ASTM,

ASME, BSP etc. are certain standards assigned to pipe fittings and those
standards dictate their use

TYPES OF PIPE FITTINGS:

Depending on the purposes served, pipe fittings can be categorized as under:
Pipe fittings to extend or terminate pipe runs: For example, Couplings,
Adapters, Unions , Caps and Plugs Pipe.
Fittings to change a pipe's direction: For example , Elbows
Pipe fittings to connect two or more pipes: For example: Tees, Cross, Side-
inlet Elbows, Wyes

Pipe fittings to change pipe size: For example, Reducers, Bushings,

Couplings

Pipe fittings to manage or regulate flow: For example, Valves

Pipe fitting tools: For example, Pipe fasteners
Pipe flanges
Pipe Adapters Bulkhead Fittings Compression Fittings

Pipe Cap Pipe Coupling Pipe Elbow

Pipe Ferrule Pipe Nipples Pipe Plug

Pipe Reducer Pipe Union Pipe Tee

Pipe Wyes Pipe Sleeve Pipe Valves

 5. VALVES
Various types of valves are used for various purposes and in different situations. A brief
discussion of each type follows.

5.1 GATE VALVE:

a gate valve is closed and opened by turning the handle connected to it, which raises

or lowers a stem (shaft) connected to the gate. It takes many turns to completely open

or close a gate valve. The head loss of the valve is small when the gate is fully open. The
gate in the valve may be a wedge or a disk (for nonslurry), or a knife (for slurry). The
gate valve used in oil or natural gas pipelines has a conduit with a full round bore for

smooth passage of pigs or scrapers. They are called conduit gate valves or full-bore
gate valves.

5.2 GLOBE VALVE:

Outside is globe shaped. Flow changes direction as it goes through the valve.

Consequently, large head loss is generated even when the valve is fully open. This valve
gives better control of flow than gate valves good for flow throttling.
5.3 ANGLE VALVE:
Same as globe valve except that the flow direction is changed by 90 as the flow leaves
the valve. It is used only in locations of 90 bends and is good for flow throttling.

5.4 BALL VALVE:

The gate is a large bead (i.e., a large sphere having a central piercing). The ball is turned
from a completely closed to a fully open position in 90. When fully open, it causes little

blockage to the flow and hence has little head loss. It is used mainly for on-off
operations.
5.5 PLUG VALVE:
Similar to ball valve except that instead of a pierced ball, a pierced plug is used. Used

mainly in small lines (tubings) where it is usually referred to as a cock valve. The valve

can be either lubricated or nonlubricated. It can have multiple ports, such as a 3-way
valve.

5.6 BUTTERFLY VALVE:

Uses a center-pivoted disk gate .This is the most economical type for use in large pipes

as in penstocks. Must be closed slowly or else the valve can be damaged easily. Not for
pipeline transportation of solids due to wear by solids.
5.7 DIAPHRAGM VALVE:
A diaphragm separates the valve from the fluid. Consequently, the valve can be used
with corrosive fluids or abrasive slurry.
5.8 PINCH VALVE:
Pinches a flexible tube to restrict or control the flow; is suitable for small tubes only.

5.9 CHECK VALVE:

Flow cannot reverse through a check valve; the valve produces unidirectional flow.

Three types of check valves are swing check valves (horizontal or vertical lift types), tilt

disk check valve (does not slam), and ball check valve.
 6. CORROSION
Steel pipe and pipeline facilities must be protected from the effects of external and
internal corrosion. Nonferrous piping materials, such as fiberglass, PVC, and
polypropylene, do not undergo the same corrosive effects and require little attention.
Industry codes and standards and the DOT regulations require that pipelines,

appurtenances, and facilities be protected from the effects of corrosion. NACE has

standards prescribing the corrosion protection required for pipelines.

6.1 INTERNAL CORROSION

Internal corrosion may be caused by the presence of CO 2, water, H2S, chlorides (salt

water), bacteria, completion fluids, or other substances in the produced hydrocarbon.

When CO2 or H2S is mixed with oxygen and/or water, acids are formed that attack and

destroy the steel. When CO2 or H2S is mixed with oxygen and/or saltwater, extreme

corrosion occurs. Certain types of bacteria often found in producing formations can

also attack and destroy the steel. Any of the internal corrosives, separately or in

combination, can cause leaks and severe blowouts.

In most cases, the removal of oxygen and water from the fluid is sufficient to combat
potential corrosion. Where this is not practical, corrosion-inhibition chemicals, internal
coatings, and corrosion-resistant materials are used.

Internal corrosion also can be caused by erosion or wear. Excessively high velocities in
liquid and multiphase fluid systems can erode or wear the internal pipe wall as well as
fittings and valves. The conditions that cause mechanical erosion can be mitigated

through proper pipe sizing and design.

The corrosive effects of the hydrocarbon fluid may change over time as the chemistry of
the produced fluid changes or as bacteria develop that were not present earlier. Where
unknown corrosives develop after operations have commenced, chemical treatment

may be the best solution.

6.2 EXTERNAL CORROSION

External corrosion affects buried pipe and above-ground pipe. Buried pipe is subjected

to cathodic actions and galvanic actions. Above-ground pipe is subjected to

atmospheric corrosion and galvanic actions.

Cathodic actions occur when steel pipe is buried below ground. Ferric and other
materials, such as soils, have small electrical potentials. In the natural process of

converting metals back to their elemental or native state, electrolytic conduction takes
place. Unprotected, the steel pipe becomes an anode (positively charged) and transfers

material, by means of electrons, to the cathode (negatively charged) material, which is

the soil or surrounding medium. The pipe metal literally flows away by means of the

electric current between the anode and cathode. Water contained in the soils and other
media serves as the electrolyte to help promote the electron transfer.

To counteract cathodic actions, pipe is coated with anticorrosive materials and cathodic

protection systems are placed on the pipeline. The coating must provide an effective
insulation against the environment but must be tough enough to withstand the

operating temperatures, be resistant to the soil, and withstand physical handling.

There are a number of coating systems that are economical and commercially available,
which include:

Extruded systems (polyethylene or polypropylene over asphalt mastic or butyl

adhesives)
 Tape coats (polyethylene, polyvinyl, or coal tar over butyl mastic adhesive)
Fusion bonded epoxy (thin film)
Coal-tar epoxy

Fusion bonded epoxy (FBE) coatings are the most popular coating systems because

they:

Are excellent insulators

Are hydrocarbon, acid, and alkali resistant

Are unaffected by temperature

Do not require a primer

Can be applied over finished welds (field joint)

In addition to the anticorrosion pipe-coating systems, cathodic protection systems are

added to the pipeline to protect the pipe where breaks in the coating system occur. The

cathodic protection system employs either an impressed current or sacrificial anode to

protect the underground pipe. The cathodic protection system reverses the electrolytic

conduction process and uses an impressed electrical current or another metal object

(sacrificial anode) to make the pipe a cathode. In simplified terms, the impressed
current reverses the natural flow of electrons from the pipe to the surrounding medium

to prevent the loss of metal ions. The sacrificial anode made of a higher potential metal,
such as magnesium, is in contact with the pipe and the surrounding medium. The

anode gives up its electrons (metal) in place of the steel pipe.

Sacrificial-anode systems are simpler and less expensive than impressed current

systems. Onshore pipelines generally use magnesium, and offshore pipelines use zinc or
aluminum anodes. Impressed current systems are much more complex and require
external power sources and AC/DC power inverters or rectifiers to provide the current
to the pipe.
6.3 GALVANIC CORROSION
Another important facet of the anticorrosion system is prevention of galvanic corrosion.

Galvanic corrosion is caused by the interface of dissimilar metals with different

electrolytic potentials. The dissimilar metals will gain or lose electrons from or to each
other resulting in one of the metals effectively flowing away and losing material. Steel
pipe that undergoes abrupt changes in the medium will behave somewhat as dissimilar

metals and cause galvanic actions. Pipe transitioning from below ground to above

ground may experience galvanic-like corrosion. Mating materials such as carbon steel

with stainless steel will cause the carbon steel to corrode.

Insulating flanges or joints can be used to counteract the effects of galvanic actions.

Efforts should be made to avoid the interface of the dissimilar materials in the system
design.

6.4 ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION

The effects of atmospheric corrosion are readily apparent. Bare steel will corrode rapidly
when exposed to:

Moisture
Salt

Chemicals (pollution)

Heat

Cold
Air (oxygen)
Piping and equipment exposed daily to the elements must be protected with
anticorrosion coatings. Good paint coating systems, such as epoxies, and regular
maintenance will normally provide adequate protection to the above-ground facilities.

Facilities exposed to severe service, such as offshore, may require more-extensive

protection systems. There are a number of alternative coating systems that are

discussed in the offshore pipeline section.